EE ELECTRICAL
ENGINEERING
ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS:
DEVICES AND ANALYSIS
INTRODUCTION
ENGR. LYCA ORQUIZA, RME
ATOM is the smallest particle
of an element that retains
the characteristics of that
element. Each of the known
118 elements has atoms that
are different from the atoms
of all other elements. This
gives each element a unique
atomic structure. According
to the classical Bohr model,
atoms have a planetary type
of structure that consists of a
central nucleus surrounded
by orbiting electrons.
The nucleus consists of
positively charged
particles called protons
and uncharged particles
called neutrons. The
basic particles of
negative charge are
called electrons.
Atomic Number
All elements are arranged
in the periodic table of the
elements in order
according to their atomic
number. The atomic
number equals the number
of protons in the nucleus,
which is the same as the
number of electrons in an
electrically balanced
(neutral) atom.
The Maximum Number of Electrons in
Each Shell
The maximum number of electrons (Ne)
that can exist in each shell of an atom is
a fact of nature and can be calculated by
the formula,
where nis the number of the shell. The
maximum number of electrons that can exist in
the innermost shell (shell 1) is
Valence Electrons
Electrons that are in orbits farther from the nucleus have higher energy and
are less tightly bound to the atom than those closer to the nucleus. This is
because the force of attraction between the positively charged nucleus and
the negatively charged electron decreases with increasing distance from the
nucleus. Electrons with the highest energy exist in the outer most shell of
an atom and are relatively loosely bound to the atom. This outermost shell
is known as the valence shell and electrons in this shell are called valence
electrons.
Insulators, Conductors,
and Semiconductors
For purposes of
discussing electrical
properties, an atom can
be represented by the
valence shell and a core
that consists of all the
inner shells and the
nucleus.
Ionization
If a valence electron acquires a sufficient amount of energy, called
ionization energy, it can actually escape from the outer shell and the
atom’s influence. The departure of a valence electron leaves a
previously neutral atom with an excess of positive charge (more
protons than electrons). The process of losing a valence electron is
known as ionization, and the resulting positively charged atom is
called a positive ion.
Insulators
An insulator is a material that does not conduct electrical current
under normal conditions. Most good insulators are compounds
rather than single-element materials and have very high
resistivities. Valence electrons are tightly bound to the atoms;
there fore, there are very few free electrons in an insulator.
Examples of insulators are rubber, plastics, glass, mica, and
quartz.
Conductors
A conductor is a material that easily conducts electrical current.
Most metals are good conductors. The best conductors are single-
element materials, such as copper (Cu), silver (Ag), gold (Au), and
aluminum (Al), which are characterized by atoms with only one
valence electron very loosely bound to the atom. These loosely
bound valence electrons become free electrons. Therefore, in a
conductive material the free electrons are valence electrons.
Semiconductors
A semiconductor is a material that is between conductors and
insula tors in its ability to conduct electrical current. A
semiconductor in its pure (intrinsic) state is neither a good
conductor nor a good insulator. Single-element semiconductors are
antimony (Sb), arsenic (As), astatine (At), boron (B), polonium (Po),
tellurium (Te), silicon (Si), and germanium (Ge). Compound
semiconductors such as gallium arsenide, indium phosphide,
gallium nitride, silicon carbide, and silicon germanium are also com
monly used. The single-element semiconductors are characterized
by atoms with four va lence electrons. Silicon is the most commonly
used semiconductor.
Band Gap
When an electron acquires enough additional energy, it can
leave the valence shell, become a free electron, and exist in
what is known as the conduction band.
The difference in energy between the valence band and the
conduction band is called an energy gap or band gap. This is
the amount of energy that a valence electron must have in
order to jump from the valence band to the conduction
band.
Comparison of a Semiconductor Atom to a
Conductor Atom
Semiconductor Material Types
1. INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR
Semiconductor that is free from
the impurities. Also, this sharing
of valence electrons produces
the covalent bonds that hold the
atoms together; each valence
electron is attracted equally by
the two adjacent atoms which
share it.
Semiconductor Material Types
1. EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR
Semiconductor with some impurities added to change its electrical
properties.
DOPING
-Process of adding impurities
2 Types of Extrinsic Semiconductor
1. N-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR
Formed by adding DONOR impurities having five valence
electrons called Pentavalent Atoms.
Pentavalent Atoms
Phosphorus (P), Antimony (Sb), Arsenic (As), Bismuth (Bi)
Majority and Minority Carriers
The electrons are called the
majority carriers in n-type
material. Holes in an n-type
material are called minority
carriers.
2 Types of Extrinsic Semiconductor
2. P-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR
Formed by adding ACCEPTOR impurities having three valence
electrons called Trivalent Atoms.
Trivalent Atoms
BORON (B), Indium (In), Gallium (Ga), Aluminum (Al)
Majority and Minority Carriers
The holes are the majority
carriers in p-type material
Conduction-band electrons in
p-type material are the
minority carriers.
THEPN JUNCTION
THEPN JUNCTION
Barrier Potential
The potential difference of the electric field across the depletion
region is the amount of voltage required to move electrons through
the electric field. This potential difference is called the barrier
potential and is expressed in volts.
The typical barrier potential is approximately 0.7 V for silicon and
0.3 V for germanium at 25°C.