Important Questions with answers (BME654B)

MODULE 01

1. Discuss the overview of global energy demand and the need for
renewable energy.

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Overview of Global Energy Demand:

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1. Definition:​
Global energy demand means the total energy required to support industrial,

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transport, residential, and technological activities globally.

2. Key Factors Affecting Demand:

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●​ Population growth increases energy needs.
●​ Economic development and industrialization in developing nations.
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●​ Technology (e.g., data centers, EVs) raises or reduces demand.
●​ Government policies and energy prices shape consumption patterns.​
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3. Energy Sources & Trends:

●​ Fossil fuels dominate but are polluting and limited.
●​ Renewables like solar and wind are sustainable and eco-friendly.
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●​ Current trend: Shift to clean energy, electrification, and smart grids.​

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Need for Renewable Energy:

1. Fossil Fuel Depletion:​
Fossil fuels are limited; renewables offer long-term solutions.
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2. Environmental Benefits:​
Renewables reduce CO₂, SO₂, and NOₓ emissions — fighting climate change.
3. Energy Security:​
Reduces dependence on fuel imports by using local resources.
4. Economic & Job Growth:​
Creates employment in green energy sector and lowers long-term costs.
5. Support from Governments:​
Incentives, policies, and global agreements promote renewable adoption.

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2. Distinguish between Renewable and Non-Renewable Energy
Sources.

Feature Renewable Energy Sources Non-Renewable Energy

Sources

1. Definition Energy sources that are Sources that exist in finite

naturally replenished in a amounts and take millions of

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short time (e.g., solar, years to form.
wind).

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2. Availability Abundant and Limited and depleting over
inexhaustible in nature. time.

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3. Sustainability Highly sustainable for Unsustainable, will

4. Carbon
long-term use.

Emit low or zero

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Emit high amounts of

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Emissions greenhouse gases (CO₂, greenhouse gases, causing
SO₂, NOₓ). pollution and global
warming.
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5. Efficiency Generally lower efficiency High efficiency (e.g., thermal

(e.g., solar PV ~15–20%). power ~35–45%).
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6. Operating Cost Low, since sun, wind, water High, includes fuel
are free after installation. extraction, transportation,
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and refining.

7. Examples Solar, Wind, Hydropower, Coal, Oil, Natural Gas,

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Biomass, Geothermal. Nuclear Energy.

8. Pollution and Minimal pollution, Major environmental issues,

Environment environment friendly and like air, water, and soil
Impact supports sustainable pollution, plus habitat loss.
development.

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3. Explain the challenges and benefits of using renewable energy.

Benefits of Renewable Energy:

1.​ Environment Friendly: Produces minimal or zero harmful gases like CO₂,
SO₂ — reduces pollution and climate change.

2.​ Sustainable Source: Sun, wind, water, etc. are naturally available and will
never run out.​

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3.​ Energy Security: Reduces dependency on imported fossil fuels by using

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local resources.​

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4.​ Low Operating Cost: Once installed, the energy from solar, wind, etc. is free
— maintenance cost is low.​

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5.​ Job Creation & Rural Development: Creates employment in installation,
maintenance; helps in rural electrification.​
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Challenges of Renewable Energy:

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1.​ Intermittent Nature: Power generation depends on weather — no sun at

night, wind is not always available.​
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2.​ High Initial Cost: Installation of solar panels, wind turbines, etc. requires
high upfront investment.​
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3.​ Storage Requirement: Needs battery systems to store energy for use during
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non-productive hours.​

4.​ Large Land Requirement: Solar farms and wind parks need large open
areas, especially in urban regions.​

5.​ Technology & Infrastructure Need:Requires smart grids, modern power

management systems, and skilled manpower.​

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4. Explain the need of non-conventional energy sources"

1. Depletion of Fossil Fuels:

●​ Conventional sources like coal, oil, and natural gas are limited and depleting
fast.
●​ Non-conventional sources (solar, wind, etc.) are renewable and
inexhaustible.

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2. Environmental Pollution:
●​ Fossil fuel usage leads to CO₂ emissions, air and water pollution.

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●​ Non-conventional sources are clean, eco-friendly, and reduce climate
change impacts.

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3. Energy Security:

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●​ Heavy dependence on oil imports affects national energy security.
●​ Using local renewable sources ensures energy independence.​
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4. Growing Energy Demand:

●​ Increasing population and industrialization have caused high energy
demand.
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●​ Non-conventional sources help meet this demand sustainably.​

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5. Rural and Remote Area Access:

●​ Non-conventional sources like solar and wind can provide energy in areas
where grid connection is not feasible.​
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6. Sustainable Development:
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●​ These sources support long-term development without harming the

environment or exhausting resources.​

7. Government Support:
●​ Encouraged by policies, subsidies, and international agreements for clean
energy transition.

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5. List the advantages and disadvantages of renewable and
non-renewable energy resources.

A. Renewable Energy Resources:

Advantages:
1.​ Environment friendly – Produces little or no pollution.
2.​ Sustainable – Never-ending sources like sun, wind, water.

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3.​ Reduces import dependency – Uses locally available resources.
4.​ Low operating cost – Once installed, running cost is low.

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5.​ Job creation – Boosts green employment in new sectors.​

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Disadvantages:

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1.​ High initial cost – Expensive setup for solar, wind systems.
2.​ Intermittent supply – Depends on weather (sun, wind).
3.​ Storage needed – Requires battery systems for reliability.
4.​ Large land requirement – Big wind/solar farms need more space.
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5.​ Technological dependency – Needs smart grids and modern infra.​

B. Non-Renewable Energy Resources:

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Advantages:
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1.​ High energy output – Very efficient for continuous power supply.
2.​ Easily available infrastructure – Well-developed systems already exist.
3.​ Low setup cost – Initial investment is less compared to renewables.
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4.​ Reliable supply – Works regardless of weather conditions.

5.​ Supports heavy industries – Suitable for large-scale energy needs.​
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Disadvantages:
1.​ Pollution – Releases CO₂, SO₂, and other harmful gases.
2.​ Global warming – Major contributor to climate change.
3.​ Finite resources – Will exhaust in the future (coal, oil).
4.​ Health hazards – Causes respiratory and environmental problems.
5.​ Waste disposal issues – Especially in nuclear energy (radioactive waste).​

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Conclusion:
●​ Renewables are clean and sustainable but need better technology and
investment.
●​ Non-renewables are efficient and established but harmful to the
environment and limited in supply.

6. Describe solar constant.

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Solar Constant:

●​ The solar constant is the amount of solar radiation received per unit area

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per unit time on a surface perpendicular to the Sun’s rays at the outer edge

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of Earth’s atmosphere, when the Earth is at its mean distance from the Sun.​

●​ It represents the intensity of extraterrestrial radiation.​

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●​ Standard Value:
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●​ It includes radiation in all wavelengths: ultraviolet, visible, and infrared.​

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●​ The value is not truly constant due to:​

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○​ Earth’s elliptical orbit (distance from Sun changes slightly)​

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○​ Solar activity (sunspots, flares)​

●​ However, for engineering and solar calculations, it is treated as constant.

Conclusion:

The solar constant defines the maximum solar power available at the top of the
atmosphere and is a critical parameter in solar energy system design.

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7. Explain spectral distribution of extra-terrestrial radiation.

●​ Spectral distribution refers to the variation of solar irradiance with

wavelength of solar radiation as it is received at the top of Earth’s
atmosphere.
●​ The solar spectrum ranges from 0.1 μm to about 3 μm, and is divided into
five key regions:​

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1. Ultraviolet C (UVC) Range:
●​ Wavelength: 0.1 μm to 0.28 μm

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●​ High-frequency radiation, invisible to human eyes
●​ Absorbed by atmosphere, only tiny amount reaches Earth​

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2. Ultraviolet B (UVB) Range:
●​ Wavelength: 0.28 μm to 0.315 μm
●​ Also absorbed by atmosphere
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●​ Along with UVC, responsible for ozone layer production​
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3. Ultraviolet A (UVA) Range:

●​ Wavelength: 0.315 μm to 0.4 μm
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●​ Less damaging to DNA

●​ Used in tanning and PUVA therapy (for skin conditions like psoriasis)​
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4. Visible Range (Light):

●​ Wavelength: 0.38 μm to 0.78 μm
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●​ This is the only part visible to human eye

●​ Important for photosynthesis and solar power conversion​
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5. Infrared (IR) Range:

●​ Wavelength: 0.7 μm to 100 μm
●​ Major contributor to heat energy on Earth
●​ Divided into:
○​ Infrared-A: 0.7 – 1.4 μm
○​ Infrared-B: 1.4 – 3.0 μm
○​ Infrared-C: 3.0 – 100 μm

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8. What is extraterrestrial radiation, and how does it differ from
terrestrial radiation?

Definition of Extraterrestrial Radiation:

●​ Extraterrestrial radiation refers to the solar radiation received at the outer
edge of Earth’s atmosphere, before it gets affected by atmospheric layers.
●​ It mainly includes direct beam solar radiation coming from the sun.
●​ Its value depends on the Earth–Sun distance and the solar constant

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(approx. 1367 W/m²).​

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Definition of Terrestrial Radiation:
●​ Terrestrial radiation refers to the radiation emitted by Earth’s surface and

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atmosphere after absorbing solar energy.

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●​ It occurs in the infrared (longwave) region of the spectrum.
●​ It helps in maintaining the Earth’s energy balance through the greenhouse
effect.​
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Difference Between Extraterrestrial and Terrestrial Radiation:

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Aspect Extraterrestrial Radiation Terrestrial Radiation

Source Comes directly from the Sun Emitted by the Earth’s

(outside Earth’s atmosphere) surface and atmosphere
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Type of Radiation Shortwave radiation (mainly Longwave radiation

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visible and ultraviolet) (mainly infrared)

Interaction with Received before entering Emitted after solar energy

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Atmosphere Earth’s atmosphere is absorbed on Earth

Wavelength 0.3 to 3 μm 4 to 100 μm

Range

Affecting Factors Affected by Earth-Sun distance Affected by surface

and solar angle temperature and
atmospheric gases

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9. With schematic representation explain mechanism of absorption,
scattering beam and diffused radiation received at Earth’s surface

1. Absorption:
●​ Some portion of solar radiation is absorbed by atmospheric gases like ozone
(O₃), CO₂, H₂O vapor, and dust.
●​ This absorbed energy heats the atmosphere.
●​ Radiation in UV range is mostly absorbed before reaching the Earth's

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surface.​

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2. Scattering:
●​ When solar radiation hits air molecules, water droplets, or dust particles, it

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gets scattered in various directions.

Two main types:

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○​ Rayleigh Scattering: Due to molecules (affects shorter wavelengths
like blue → blue sky)
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○​ Mie Scattering: Due to larger particles (affects all wavelengths →

white clouds)​
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3. Beam (Direct) Radiation:

●​ The portion of solar radiation that reaches the Earth without any deviation.
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●​ Travels in a straight line from the Sun to the surface.

●​ Useful for solar concentrators and PV panels with sun-tracking systems.​
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4. Diffused Radiation:
●​ Radiation that has been scattered by the atmosphere but still reaches the
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Earth.
●​ Non-directional – comes from all over the sky.
●​ Important in cloudy conditions and for fixed flat-plate solar collectors.​

5. Global Solar Radiation:

●​ The total solar radiation received on a horizontal surface.
●​ It is the sum of beam and diffused radiation.

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Conclusion:
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Solar radiation reaching Earth undergoes absorption and scattering, and reaches
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the surface as beam (direct) and diffused components. Understanding this
mechanism helps in designing efficient solar energy systems.
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10. Discuss beam, diffuse and global radiation with a neat sketch.
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1. Beam Radiation (Direct Radiation):

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●​ Solar radiation that reaches the Earth’s surface without being scattered or
diffused.
●​ It travels in a straight line from the sun to the surface.
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●​ Available only when the sky is clear and the sun is visible.
●​ High intensity and useful for concentrating solar collectors (like parabolic
dishes).​

2. Diffuse Radiation:
●​ Solar radiation that gets scattered by molecules, dust, and clouds in the
atmosphere before reaching the surface.
●​ It is non-directional — arrives from all directions in the sky.

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 ●​ Even when the sun is not directly visible (like on cloudy days), diffuse
radiation is present.
●​ Important for flat-plate collectors and PV panels without sun-tracking.​

3. Global Radiation:
●​ The total solar radiation received on a horizontal surface.
●​ It is the sum of beam and diffuse radiation.
●​ Represented as:​

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●​ Global radiation varies with location, time, season, and atmospheric
conditions.​

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BY
ED
AR
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 MODULE 02

1. Explain with a neat sketch working of pyranometer.

1. Purpose:
●​ Pyranometer is used to measure global solar radiation (i.e., sum of beam
and diffuse radiation) falling on a horizontal surface.

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2. Principle of Operation:
●​ It works on the thermopile principle, where temperature difference

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between hot and cold junctions produces a voltage.
●​ This voltage is proportional to the solar radiation intensity.

3. Construction: SU
●​ Black surface (sensor): Absorbs all solar radiation.
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●​ White surface (reference): Reflects radiation and stays cooler.
●​ Thermocouples: Measure temperature difference between black and white
surfaces.
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●​ Glass dome: Protects sensor and allows solar radiation to enter.

●​ Level base: Ensures proper horizontal positioning for accuracy.​
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4. Working:
●​ Sunlight enters through the glass dome and strikes the black coated
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surface.
●​ The black surface absorbs radiation and becomes hotter than the white
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surface.
●​ This causes a temperature difference, which generates a small voltage in
the thermocouples.
●​ This voltage is calibrated and displayed as radiation intensity (W/m²).​

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Fig : Pyranometer

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2. Explain the working principle of shading ring Pyrheliometer with
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neat sketch.

1. Purpose:
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●​ It is used to measure diffuse solar radiation by blocking the direct (beam)

radiation from the sun using a shading ring.
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2. Principle:
It works on the difference method:
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●​ A pyranometer is used with and without the shading ring.

●​ The shading ring blocks beam radiation, so only diffused radiation is
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measured.
●​ By comparing readings with and without the ring, direct radiation can also
be calculated.
3. Construction:
●​ A pyranometer mounted on a horizontal surface.
●​ A shading ring is placed concentrically above the pyranometer.
●​ The ring is adjusted to continuously block the sun’s rays throughout the day
(usually mounted on a tilt-adjustable base).​

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Fig : Shading ring Pyrheliometer

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4. Working:
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●​ When the shading ring is in place, it prevents direct sunlight from falling on
the pyranometer.
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●​ The pyranometer then receives only the diffuse part of solar radiation.
●​ When the shading ring is removed, the pyranometer measures total global
radiation.
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3. Explain the working principle of sunshine recorder with neat

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sketch?
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1. Purpose:
●​ A sunshine recorder is used to measure the duration of bright sunshine
hours during the day.

2. Principle:
●​ It works on the principle that direct solar radiation can burn or char a
specially prepared recording card when focused through a glass sphere.

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3. Construction:
●​ A solid glass sphere (usually crystal) acts as a lens.
●​ A metal bowl holds the glass sphere and supports the recording card.
●​ Cards are placed in seasonal slots (summer, equinox, winter) to adjust for
sun’s position.​
The card is calibrated with hourly marks.

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BY

4. Working:
●​ As sunlight passes through the glass sphere, it gets concentrated on the
card placed behind it.
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●​ When the sun shines brightly, the focused rays burn a trace on the card.
●​ The length of the burn mark corresponds to the duration of bright
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sunshine.
●​ By measuring this burn trace against the time markings, sunshine hours are
determined.​
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PR

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4. With a neat sketch explain working of liquid flat plate collector.

1. Purpose:
●​ Used to collect solar energy and convert it into heat, which is then
transferred to a liquid (like water or antifreeze) flowing through tubes.

2. Principle:

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●​ It works on the principle of absorbing solar radiation on a black surface,
converting it to heat energy, and then transferring the heat to a liquid

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medium through conduction.

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3. Construction:
●​ Absorber Plate: A black-coated metal sheet (usually copper or aluminum)
to absorb solar radiation.
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●​ Transparent Cover (Glazing): A glass sheet that allows sunlight in but
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reduces heat loss by convection and radiation.

●​ Insulation: Provided at the bottom and sides to minimize heat losses.

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●​ Tubes or Fins: Carry the liquid (water/antifreeze) in contact with the

absorber to collect heat.
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●​ Casing/Box:​
Encloses all components and protects from environmental damage.
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PR

Fig : flat plate collector

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4. Working:
●​ Sunlight passes through the glass cover and is absorbed by the black
absorber plate.
●​ The absorber heats up and transfers heat to the liquid flowing in the tubes.
●​ The heated liquid is carried to a storage tank for use.
●​ The system is either open loop (direct heating) or closed loop (with heat
exchanger).

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5. Explain how a liquid flat plate collector can be used to heat water

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in a solar thermal system.

Purpose of Flat Plate Collector: SU

●​ A liquid flat plate collector is designed to absorb solar radiation and convert
BY
it into thermal energy to heat water or other fluids in solar thermal
systems.
ED

1. Solar Radiation Collection:

●​ Sunlight falls on the transparent glass cover, which allows radiation to pass
and reduces convective and radiative heat loss.
AR

2. Absorption by Black Surface:

●​ A black-coated absorber plate beneath the glass absorbs the incoming solar
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radiation.
●​ This surface is black to maximize absorption and minimize reflection.
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3. Heat Transfer to Liquid:

●​ Metallic tubes or pipes (usually copper or aluminum) are attached to the
absorber plate.
●​ Water (or heat transfer fluid) flowing through these pipes absorbs heat via
conduction from the hot absorber.

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4. Circulation of Heated Water:
●​ In natural circulation systems, hot water rises naturally to the storage tank
(thermosiphon effect).
●​ In forced circulation systems, a pump is used to circulate the water.​

This movement allows for continuous heating as sunlight is available.

5. Storage and Usage:

●​ The heated water is collected in an insulated storage tank for domestic,

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industrial, or commercial use.

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●​ If antifreeze is used, a heat exchanger is provided to transfer heat to the
water safely.

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SU
6. Describe the construction and working of a parabolic dish
collector.
BY

1. Purpose:
A parabolic dish collector is used to focus solar radiation onto a single
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point to achieve high temperatures, ideal for power generation or

high-temperature thermal processes.
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A. Construction of Parabolic Dish Collector

1.​ Reflector (Parabolic Dish):
EP

○​ A dish-shaped structure made with highly reflective surface (like

silvered glass or polished aluminum).
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○​ Its shape is paraboloid, which reflects all incoming solar rays to a

single focal point.​

2.​ Receiver/Absorber at Focus:

○​ Positioned at the focal point of the paraboloid.
○​ It absorbs the concentrated solar radiation and transfers heat to a
working fluid (e.g., air, water, oil).​

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 3.​ Support Structure:
○​ A strong frame supports the dish and allows sun-tracking (either
manual or automatic).
○​ Two-axis tracking ensures the dish always faces the sun for maximum
efficiency.​

4.​ Thermal System (Optional):

○​ Includes pipes, heat exchangers, or turbines depending on
application (e.g., hot water, steam generation, or electricity

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production).

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SU
BY
ED

B. Working of Parabolic Dish Collector

1.​ Sunlight Collection:​
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Solar rays hit the reflective surface of the dish.​

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2.​ Concentration:
○​ The parabolic shape focuses all rays to a single focal point.​
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3.​ Heat Absorption:

○​ The absorber at the focus receives concentrated energy and heats
up rapidly.
○​ Heat is transferred to the fluid circulating through the absorber.​

4.​ Energy Utilization:

○​ Heated fluid is used to generate steam, drive turbines, or heat
water, depending on system design.

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7. Explain with neat sketch photovoltaic conversion system.

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SU
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ED
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PR

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8. Discuss the various parameters to be considered for the design of
solar power plants
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1. Solar Radiation Availability:
●​ The amount of solar insolation (sunlight) available at the site.
●​ Determines the energy output potential of the system.​
ED

2. Site Location and Orientation:

●​ Selection of a site with unobstructed sunlight throughout the day.
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●​ Tilt angle and direction of panels must be optimized to maximize solar gain.​
EP

3. Type of Solar Technology:

●​ Choosing between PV systems (for electricity) and solar thermal collectors
(for heat).
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●​ Depends on application, cost, and efficiency requirements.​

4. Energy Demand Assessment:

●​ Estimating the daily/seasonal energy consumption of the facility.
●​ Helps in sizing the system appropriately.​

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5. System Sizing:
●​ Calculating the required capacity (in kW) based on load and solar
availability.
●​ Includes sizing of PV modules, inverters, batteries (if any), and backup
systems.​

6. Shading Analysis:
●​ Ensuring no major shading from trees, buildings, or obstacles, especially
during peak sun hours.

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●​ Even partial shading can reduce system efficiency.​

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7. Grid Availability and Type of System:

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●​ Deciding between grid-tied, off-grid, or hybrid systems.
●​ Grid-connected systems need synchronization; off-grid systems need
storage.​

8. Economic Feasibility:
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BY
●​ Includes analysis of initial cost, return on investment (ROI), payback period,
and maintenance cost.
●​ Helps in financial planning and subsidy eligibility.​
ED

9. Environmental Conditions:
●​ Consideration of temperature, humidity, dust, wind loads, and snowfall for
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structural and performance design.​

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10. Regulations and Approvals:

●​ Must follow local government rules, building codes, and obtain necessary
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permissions and utility approvals.​

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9. Discuss how regular operation, maintenance, and performance
monitoring contribute to the long-term reliability of a solar power
plant.

1. Regular Operation Ensures System Stability

●​ Proper day-to-day operation ensures that all components function as
intended.
●​ Avoids unexpected shutdowns and keeps power generation stable.​

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2. Scheduled Maintenance Prevents Failures
●​ Routine maintenance includes cleaning panels, checking connections,
inverter servicing, etc.

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●​ It helps in identifying and fixing minor issues before they become major
faults.

3. Panel Cleaning Increases Efficiency

SU
BY
●​ Dust, dirt, and bird droppings reduce sunlight absorption.
●​ Regular cleaning ensures maximum energy capture and improves efficiency.​
ED

4. Monitoring System Performance Helps Optimization

●​ Real-time monitoring of output (voltage, current, power) helps detect
underperformance.
AR

●​ Deviations from expected performance can indicate shading, equipment

failure, or wiring issues.​
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5. Fault Detection and Quick Repair

●​ Automated alerts help in early detection of faults like inverter trip, grid
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disconnect, etc.
●​ Faster response reduces downtime and loss in energy production.​

6. Data Logging Supports Long-Term Planning

●​ Storing performance data helps analyze trends, degradation, and predict
maintenance needs.
●​ Useful for system upgrades, expansions, and financial planning.

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10. What is meant by solar shade analysis? Explain the steps
involved in reducing effect of shading analysis.

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SU
BY
ED
AR
EP
PR

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 MODULE 03

1. List types of wind mills. Explain Horizontal Axis Wind Machine.

Types of Wind Mills: Wind machines are broadly classified into two types based
on the axis of rotation:

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1. Horizontal Axis Wind Machines (HAWM):

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●​ Rotor shaft is horizontal to the ground and aligned parallel to wind
direction.

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●​ Most commonly used for electricity generation.

2. Vertical Axis Wind Machines (VAWM):

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●​ Rotor shaft is perpendicular to the ground.
●​ Can accept wind from any direction, but generally less efficient.​
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Horizontal Axis Wind Machine

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1. Orientation and Design:

●​ The rotor axis is horizontal, and blades rotate in a vertical plane.
AR

●​ The machine must be oriented to face the wind using a yaw mechanism.​
EP

2. Main Components:
●​ Rotor Blades: Capture wind energy through aerodynamic lift.
PR

●​ Nacelle: Houses the gearbox and generator.

●​ Gearbox: Converts low-speed rotation from rotor to high-speed rotation
for the generator.
●​ Generator: Converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
●​ Yaw System: Keeps the rotor facing the wind.
●​ Tower: Elevates the turbine to reach stronger, steadier wind at higher
altitudes.
​

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3. Working Principle:
●​ Wind hits the rotor blades → creates lift force → blades rotate.
●​ This rotation drives the low-speed shaft, which connects to the gearbox.
●​ The gearbox increases the speed and turns the high-speed shaft, which
drives the generator.
●​ Generated electricity is then either used locally or fed to the grid.

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SU
BY

4. Advantages:
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●​ Higher efficiency due to precise alignment with wind direction.

●​ Well-suited for utility-scale applications and wind farms.
●​ Advanced control systems provide better performance in varying wind
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conditions.​
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5. Limitations:
●​ Requires yaw mechanism to track wind direction.
●​ Installation and maintenance at higher altitudes can be challenging.​
PR

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2. Describe the main consideration in selecting the site for wind
generator.

Main Considerations for Selecting the Site for Wind Generator:

1. Wind Speed and Consistency

●​ Site should have sufficient and steady wind speed, ideally above 5 m/s.
●​ More wind speed = more power generation.​

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2. Wind Direction

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●​ Dominant wind direction should be known and stable.
●​ Helps in optimizing turbine orientation for maximum efficiency.​

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3. Topography and Terrain

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●​ Elevated and open landscapes (like hills, coastal areas) are preferred.
●​ Avoid valleys, forests, or obstacle-rich areas that cause turbulence or
shadowing.​
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4. Land Availability and Accessibility

●​ Enough flat land required for installation and maintenance.
ED

●​ Site should be easily accessible for transport of components and servicing.​

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5. Distance from Grid Connection Point

●​ The site should be reasonably close to the power grid to reduce
transmission losses and cost.​
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6. Environmental and Social Impact

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●​ Should not disturb wildlife, local habitats, or human settlements.

●​ Noise and visual impact should be within acceptable limits.​

7. Soil and Foundation Conditions

●​ The soil must support the foundation and tower weight.
●​ Poor soil may need special engineering → increases cost.​

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3. List the advantages and disadvantages of wind turbine.

Advantages of Wind Turbines:

1. Renewable and Inexhaustible Source

●​ Wind energy is naturally available, free, and will never run out.​

2. Eco-Friendly
●​ Produces no air or water pollution.

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●​ No emission of greenhouse gases like CO₂.​

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3. Low Operating Cost

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●​ Once installed, the operation and maintenance cost is minimal compared to
other power sources.​

4. Land Use Efficiency SU

●​ Land under turbines can be used for farming or grazing, allowing dual use
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of land.​

5. Job Creation and Local Development

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●​ Installation and maintenance create employment opportunities, especially

in rural areas.​
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6. Scalable from Small to Large Applications

●​ Wind turbines can be used for individual homes or large-scale wind farms.
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Disadvantages of Wind Turbines:

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1. Intermittent Power Supply

●​ Wind is not constant, so power generation is unpredictable and may
require backup systems.​

2. High Initial Cost

●​ The installation and setup cost (including foundation, tower, transmission)
is relatively high.​

28
3. Noise and Aesthetic Impact
●​ Turbines produce noise during operation and may affect landscape beauty.​

4. Threat to Wildlife
●​ Moving blades can be dangerous to birds and bats in the area.​

5. Requires Large Open Space

●​ Wind farms need large land areas in high-wind zones for effective
generation.

P
EE
4. Explain with a neat sketch the working principle of a flash steam

D
cycle plant.

Flash Steam Cycle Plant – Working Principle

SU
BY
1. Purpose:
●​ A flash steam cycle plant is used to generate electricity from high-pressure
geothermal water by flashing it into steam and using it to drive a turbine.
ED

2. Basic Concept:
●​ When high-pressure hot water (usually above 180°C) from underground
AR

geothermal reservoirs is brought to the surface, the pressure drops

suddenly.
●​ Due to this pressure drop, a part of the water “flashes” (vaporizes) into
EP

steam.
●​ This steam is used to rotate a turbine connected to a generator.​
PR

3. Main Components:
●​ Production Well: Extracts high-temperature geothermal water from deep
underground.
●​ Flash Tank (Separator): At surface level, sudden pressure drop causes part
of water to flash into steam. Remaining water (brine) is re-injected into the
earth.​

29
 ●​ Steam Turbine and Generator: The steam drives a turbine, which is
connected to a generator to produce electricity.​

●​ Condenser: After doing work, steam is condensed back into water for
reuse or disposal.​

●​ Cooling System: Removes heat from the condenser water using air or
water cooling methods.

P
EE
D
SU
BY
ED
AR

4. Working Process (Step-by-Step):

1.​ Hot water is pumped from geothermal reservoir to the surface through the
EP

production well.
2.​ Enters the flash tank, where pressure drop causes partial vaporization
PR

(flashing).
3.​ The generated steam is separated from the liquid and directed to the steam
turbine.
4.​ Turbine rotates and drives the generator, producing electricity.
5.​ Used steam is passed to the condenser and turned back to liquid.
6.​ Remaining brine and condensed water are injected back into the reservoir
to maintain pressure and sustainability.

30
5. Describe with a neat sketch the working principle of a dry steam
cycle plant.

Dry Steam Cycle Plant – Working Principle

1. Purpose:
A dry steam cycle plant is used to generate electricity directly from natural dry
steam extracted from underground geothermal reservoirs.

P
EE
2. Basic Concept:
●​ In dry steam plants, steam comes out directly from the geothermal
reservoir without any liquid water.

D
●​ The steam is used to directly rotate a turbine, which drives a generator to
produce electricity.​

3. Main Components:
SU
BY
●​ Production Well: Brings dry saturated steam from the geothermal source
to the surface.​
ED

●​ Steam Turbine: High-pressure steam is used to rotate the turbine blades.​

●​ Generator: Turbine shaft is connected to a generator to convert

AR

mechanical energy into electrical energy.​

EP

●​ Condenser: After passing through the turbine, exhaust steam is condensed

into water.​
PR

●​ Cooling System: Helps in condensing steam and improving overall

efficiency.​

●​ Reinjection Well (Optional): Condensed water may be injected back into

the reservoir to maintain pressure and sustainability.​

31
 P
EE
D
4. Working Process (Step-by-Step): SU
BY
1.​ Dry steam is directly tapped from geothermal reservoir using production
wells.
2.​ Steam is sent through insulated pipes to a steam turbine.
ED

3.​ The turbine rotates, driving a generator to produce electricity.

4.​ Exhaust steam from the turbine is passed to a condenser, turning it back
AR

into water.
5.​ Water may be recycled or reinjected into the earth to sustain the
geothermal source.
EP
PR

32
6. Describe construction and working principle of geothermal
energy with schematic diagram.

Geothermal Energy – Construction and Working Principle

1. Purpose:
●​ Geothermal energy is the heat energy stored beneath the Earth’s surface,
which can be used for electricity generation and heating applications.

P
EE
2. Construction of a Basic Geothermal Power Plant:

●​ Production Well: A deep well is drilled into geothermal reservoirs to

D
extract hot water or steam.

SU
●​ Steam Separator / Flash Chamber (if needed): If hot water is extracted, it
is partially flashed into steam using a pressure-reducing chamber.​
BY

●​ Steam Turbine: The steam is sent to a turbine, where it rotates the blades.​

●​ Generator: The turbine is connected to a generator, which converts the

ED

mechanical energy into electricity.​

AR

●​ Condenser: After doing work, the used steam is condensed into water for
reuse or reinjection.​
EP

●​ Cooling Tower (Optional): Removes excess heat from the condensed

water.​
PR

●​ Reinjection Well: The cooled water is pumped back into the Earth to
maintain reservoir pressure and sustainability.​

33
3. Working Principle:

P
EE
D
SU
BY

1.​ Heat energy from the Earth’s core heats underground water and forms hot
water or steam in natural reservoirs.
ED

2.​ Through production wells, this heat in the form of steam or hot water is
brought to the surface.
AR

3.​ If steam is available directly (dry steam system), it goes straight to the
turbine.
EP

4.​ If hot water is extracted (flash steam system), it is flashed into steam using
a flash tank, then sent to the turbine.​
PR

The steam rotates the turbine, which is coupled to a generator, producing

electricity.

5.​ Used steam is cooled, condensed, and reinjected into the reservoir,
completing the closed-loop cycle.

34
7. List and explain the problems associated with Geothermal
System operations.

1. Depletion of Geothermal Reservoirs

●​ Continuous extraction of heat and fluid can lead to pressure drop and
reduced steam production over time.

2. Land Subsidence

P
●​ Withdrawal of underground fluids may cause the land above to sink or

EE
collapse, especially if reinjection is not done properly.​

3. Corrosion and Scaling

D
●​ Geothermal fluids often contain dissolved minerals and gases which cause

SU
corrosion of pipes and scaling on turbine blades and heat exchangers.

4. Environmental Pollution
●​ Although cleaner than fossil fuels, geothermal systems may release toxic
BY

gases like hydrogen sulfide (H₂S), arsenic, and boron, which can be harmful
if not controlled.
ED

5. Noise Pollution
●​ Drilling operations and turbine machinery may produce significant noise,
especially during the initial stages of plant setup.​
AR

6. High Initial Cost

●​ Exploration, drilling, and setup require high investment, and site risk is
EP

involved (steam may not be found in expected quantity).​

PR

7. Earthquakes (Seismic Risk)

●​ Reinjection of water into geothermal wells can cause minor seismic
activities due to pressure changes underground.​

8. Limited Site Availability

●​ Suitable geothermal sites are limited to areas with natural geothermal
activity, like volcanic zones or tectonic plate boundaries.

35
 MODULE 04

1. What are the fundamental characteristics of tidal power plant.

Fundamental Characteristics of Tidal Power Plant

1. Predictable and Periodic Energy Source

P
●​ Tidal power is highly predictable, as it depends on gravitational pull of the

EE
moon and sun.
●​ Tides occur in a fixed time cycle (typically two high and two low tides per

D
day).​

2. Renewable and Non-Polluting

SU
●​ Tidal energy is a renewable resource with zero emissions.
●​ It does not involve burning fuel or releasing greenhouse gases.​
BY

3. Low Operating and Maintenance Cost

●​ Once constructed, tidal power plants have very low running costs due to
ED

simple and stable operation.​

AR

4. Site Specific
●​ Suitable only in coastal areas with high tidal range (typically above 5
meters).
EP

●​ Very few sites globally meet these natural conditions.​

PR

5. High Capital Cost

●​ Initial construction (like building barrages, turbines, sluice gates) is
expensive and complex.​

6. Intermittent but Predictable Generation

●​ Power is not produced continuously — only during tidal inflow and outflow.
●​ But the timing and amount of energy generation are reliably forecastable.​

36
7. Environmental Impact on Marine Life
●​ May affect local aquatic ecosystems, sediment flow, and fish movement
due to alteration of tidal patterns.​

8. Long Life Span

●​ Tidal power plants are known for durability and can operate for 50–100
years with proper maintenance.

P
EE
2. What are the advantages and limitations of tidal energy?

D
Advantages of Tidal Energy:

SU
1. Renewable and Inexhaustible: Tidal energy is derived from gravitational
forces, making it naturally replenishable and endless.​
BY

2. Predictable Energy Source: Tides follow a fixed and cyclic pattern, making tidal
energy highly predictable and reliable.​
ED

3. Eco-Friendly: No emission of greenhouse gases or pollutants, making it

environmentally clean.​
AR

4. Long Lifespan: Tidal power plants can function effectively for 50–100 years
with minimal wear and tear.​
EP

5. Low Operating Costs: After installation, maintenance and operational costs are
PR

low, ensuring cost-effectiveness in the long run.​

Limitations of Tidal Energy:

1. High Initial Investment: Construction of tidal barrages, turbines, and civil

works involves very high capital costs.
2. Limited Suitable Sites: Effective tidal generation requires minimum tidal range
of 5 meters, which is available only in a few coastal regions.​

37
3. Environmental and Ecological Impact: Alteration in tidal flow may affect
marine life, fish migration, and local ecosystems.​

4. Intermittent Generation: Power generation happens only during tidal inflow

and outflow periods, not continuously.​

5. Navigation and Sediment Issues: Tidal structures may hinder boat movement
and cause sediment accumulation.​

P
EE
3. Explain with a neat sketch the working of a single ebb tide basin

D
cycle?

Working of a Single Ebb Tide Basin Cycle SU

BY
1. What is Ebb Tide Cycle?
●​ In an ebb tide system, power is generated when the tide goes out (i.e.,
water flows from basin to sea).
ED

●​ The basin is filled during high tide, and generation occurs during low tide.​

2. Construction Overview:
AR

●​ A tidal barrage (dam) is built across a river estuary or bay.

●​ Contains sluice gates to control water flow and turbines to generate
EP

electricity.
●​ One side is connected to the sea, and the other to the tidal basin.​
PR

3. Working Steps of Ebb Tide Cycle:

38
Step 1: High Tide – Basin Filling
●​ During rising tide, sluice gates are opened, allowing seawater to enter the
tidal basin.
●​ No power is generated at this stage.​

Step 2: Sluice Gate Closure: Once the tide reaches maximum level (high tide),
sluice gates are closed to trap water in the basin.​

Step 3: Low Tide Begins – Head Creation: As the sea level drops, a height

P
difference (head) is created between the basin and sea.​

EE
Step 4: Turbine Operation – Power Generation

D
●​ When sufficient head is achieved, sluice gates near turbines are opened.
●​ Water flows from the basin back to the sea, passing through turbines.

SU
●​ The flowing water rotates the turbines, which are connected to a generator
→ electricity is produced.​
BY
Step 5: Repeat Cycle: Once the basin is emptied and sea level starts rising again,
the cycle repeats with the next high tide.
ED
AR

4. Describe with a neat sketch double basin system in tidal power.

1. What is a Double Basin System?

EP

●​ A double basin tidal power system uses two basins at different levels to
enable continuous or near-continuous power generation.
PR

●​ One basin stores water during high tide, and the other discharges it during
low tide, allowing controlled flow through turbines.​

2. Construction Overview:

●​ Consists of:

○​ Upper basin (closer to the sea)

○​ Lower basin (closer to land)

39
 ○​ Barrages/dams to separate basins
○​ Turbines installed between the two basins
○​ Sluice gates for controlled water flow​

3. Working Principle:

P
EE
D
SU
BY
ED

Step 1: Basin Charging (High Tide)

AR

●​ During rising tide, seawater enters the upper basin.

●​ Water is stored until tide reaches maximum level.​
EP

Step 2: Power Generation (Controlled Discharge)

●​ Water is released from the upper basin to lower basin through turbines.
PR

●​ The head difference between basins allows steady flow and turbine
rotation, producing electricity.​

Step 3: Low Tide Drainage

●​ As tide recedes, the lower basin discharges its water back to the sea.
●​ The upper basin is ready to be refilled during the next high tide.

40
5. Explain with a neat sketch the working of an open cycle OTEC.

1. What is Open Cycle OTEC?

●​ In an open cycle OTEC, warm surface seawater is used directly as the
working fluid.
●​ It is flash evaporated in vacuum, and the resulting steam is used to
generate electricity.​

P
2. Basic Construction:
Includes the following components:

EE
●​ Warm water intake pipe (from ocean surface)
●​ Flash evaporator chamber

D
●​ Low-pressure steam turbine
●​ Condenser (with cold deep seawater)
●​ Vacuum pumps and outflow pipe​
SU
3. Working Process (Step-by-Step):
BY
ED
AR
EP
PR

1. Warm Seawater Collection

●​ Warm surface seawater (typically 25–30°C) is pumped into the evaporator
chamber maintained under low pressure (vacuum).

41
2. Flash Evaporation
●​ Due to vacuum, the warm seawater boils at low temperature, producing
low-pressure steam.
●​ Only pure water vapor is formed — salts and impurities remain behind.​

3. Steam Drives the Turbine

●​ The low-pressure steam is passed through a turbine, which rotates and
drives a generator → electricity is produced.​

P
4. Steam Condensation

EE
●​ Cold seawater from deep ocean layers (~5°C) is pumped to the condenser.
●​ It condenses the steam back into desalinated water, which can be collected.​

D
5: Discharge

SU
●​ The leftover brine and cold water are discharged back to the ocean.
BY

6. Describe with a neat sketch the working of a closed cycle OTEC.

ED

1. What is Closed Cycle OTEC?

●​ In a closed cycle Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) system, a low
AR

boiling point working fluid (like ammonia or propane) is used to drive the
turbine.
●​ Ocean water is used only as a heat source and cooling medium, not as the
EP

working fluid.​
PR

2. Main Components:
●​ Warm surface seawater intake pipe
●​ Evaporator (heat exchanger)
●​ Turbine and generator
●​ Condenser (using cold deep seawater)
●​ Working fluid in a closed loop​

42
3. Working Process (Step-by-Step):

P
EE
D
1. Warm Water Heats Working Fluid
SU
●​ Warm seawater (25–30°C) is pumped into a heat exchanger (evaporator).
●​ The heat is transferred to the working fluid (like ammonia), which boils due
BY
to its low boiling point.​

2. Vapor Drives Turbine

ED

●​ The vaporized working fluid expands and flows through a turbine, causing it
to rotate.
●​ This turbine is connected to a generator, which produces electricity.​
AR

3. Condensation Using Cold Water

EP

●​ After passing through the turbine, the vapor enters a condenser, where
cold deep seawater (~5°C) is circulated.
●​ This cools and condenses the vapor back to liquid form.​
PR

4. Recirculation
●​ The liquid working fluid is pumped back to the evaporator, completing the
closed loop cycle.​

43
7. What are the problems associated with OTEC.
1. High Initial Cost

●​ Construction of large underwater pipelines, platforms, and heat exchangers

requires heavy investment.
●​ Not economically feasible for many countries without government support.

2. Low Thermal Efficiency

P
●​ Since the temperature difference between surface and deep water is small
(about 20°C), the overall efficiency is very low (≈ 2–3%).​

EE
3. Technological Challenges

D
●​ Handling corrosion, biofouling, and scaling in the marine environment is

SU
technically complex and requires advanced materials and coatings.​

4. Environmental Concerns
●​ Discharge of cold deep water back into the ocean can disturb marine
BY

ecosystems, especially in sensitive regions.​

5. Limited Suitable Locations

ED

●​ OTEC plants can be set up only in tropical regions where surface water is
warm and deep water is cold — so site selection is limited.​
AR

6. Transmission of Power
●​ If OTEC plant is offshore (floating), transmitting power to the land-based
EP

grid becomes difficult and expensive.​

PR

7. Large Size Requirements

●​ To make power generation meaningful, OTEC systems must be built on a
large scale, requiring huge installations and sea space.

44
 MODULE 05

1. Explain the biomass sources for biogas generation.

Biomass Sources for Biogas Generation

●​ Biogas is generated by anaerobic digestion of biomass materials.

●​ The following are the main sources used for biogas production:

P
EE
1. Animal Waste: Animal dung such as cow dung, poultry litter, and piggery waste
are the most commonly used biomass sources. These are easily available in rural
areas and rich in organic matter.

D
2. Agricultural Residues: This includes crop waste like wheat straw, rice husk, corn

SU
stalks, and groundnut shells. Though dry, they can be mixed with dung or
pre-treated to improve gas yield.
BY
3. Kitchen and Food Waste: Vegetable peels, leftover food, and fruit waste from
households, hotels, and restaurants are rich in moisture and nutrients, making
them excellent for biogas generation.
ED

4. Sewage and Sludge: Human waste from toilets and sewage treatment plants is
already semi-liquid and easy to digest by bacteria in biogas systems.
AR

5. Industrial Organic Waste: Waste from food processing, dairy industries,

breweries, and sugar factories has a high gas production potential due to its
organic content.
EP

6. Aquatic Plants and Algae: Water hyacinth, duckweed, and algae grow rapidly
and are suitable for use in regions where land-based biomass is limited.
PR

7. Forestry Waste: Materials like sawdust, wood chips, bark, and dry leaves can be
used after processing, though their digestion is slower.

Conclusion: Biomass for biogas can come from various sources like animal dung,
crop residues, kitchen waste, and industrial sludge. Utilizing these materials helps
generate renewable energy while managing organic waste effectively.

45
2. List the various factors that affects the biogas generation in a
biogas plant.

Factors Affecting Biogas Generation in a Biogas Plant

Biogas production depends on several factors that influence the efficiency of the
anaerobic digestion process. The key factors are as follows:

1. Temperature: The bacterial activity responsible for biogas generation is highly

P
sensitive to temperature. The ideal temperature range is 30–40°C (mesophilic
range). Low temperature reduces bacterial activity, while high temperature can kill

EE
bacteria.

2. pH Level: The optimum pH range for biogas production is between 6.5 and 7.5.

D
If the slurry becomes too acidic or too alkaline, it negatively affects microbial
activity and gas production.
SU
3. Retention Time: This refers to the time the biomass remains in the digester.
BY
Longer retention time allows more complete digestion and higher gas yield.
Typically, 30–40 days is considered ideal.

4. C:N Ratio (Carbon to Nitrogen Ratio): The ratio of carbon to nitrogen in the
ED

feedstock affects microbial activity. The ideal C:N ratio is around 25:1 to 30:1. Too
much nitrogen leads to ammonia formation, which inhibits bacterial growth.
AR

5. Type and Quality of Feedstock: The nature of biomass used (cow dung, kitchen
waste, crop residues, etc.) influences gas yield. Easily degradable organic matter
EP

produces more biogas.

6. Mixing of Slurry: Regular mixing of the slurry ensures uniform distribution of

PR

microorganisms and prevents scum or sedimentation inside the digester.

7. Loading Rate: Overloading the digester with too much feedstock can upset the
bacterial balance and reduce gas production. Proper daily loading is essential for
steady performance.

8. Presence of Toxic Substances: Chemicals like detergents, antibiotics, or

pesticides in the feedstock can be toxic to anaerobic bacteria and must be
avoided.

46
3. Describe with a neat sketch the working of floating dome type
biogas plant.

1. Introduction: The floating dome biogas plant, also called the KVIC model, is
commonly used in India to convert organic waste like cow dung into useful biogas
for cooking and lighting.

2. Main Components:

P
●​ Digester Tank: Underground sealed tank where anaerobic digestion of

EE
biomass occurs.
●​ Inlet Chamber: Used to feed the slurry (cow dung + water).
●​ Outlet Chamber: Removes digested slurry, which is used as organic

D
fertilizer.

and stores biogas. SU

●​ Floating Gas Holder (Drum): Steel or plastic drum that floats on the slurry

●​ Gas Outlet Pipe: Carries the gas to homes for use.

BY
ED
AR
EP
PR

3. Working:
1.​ A mixture of cow dung and water (called slurry) is prepared and poured
into the inlet chamber.
2.​ The slurry flows into the digester tank where it remains for several days.
3.​ Anaerobic bacteria decompose the organic matter and generate biogas.

47
 4.​ The biogas gets collected in the floating drum, which rises as gas
accumulates.
5.​ The drum maintains a constant gas pressure due to its weight.
6.​ The gas is delivered to homes through the gas outlet pipe for cooking or
lighting.
7.​ The spent slurry flows into the outlet chamber and is periodically removed
for use as organic manure.

P
EE
4. Describe the main sources from which hydrogen can be obtained
for energy use.

D
SU
1.​ Electrolysis of Water: Electricity is used to split water into hydrogen and
oxygen. If renewable energy is used, it's a clean method.

2.​ Steam Methane Reforming (Natural Gas): Hydrogen is extracted from

BY

methane using steam. It is widely used but emits CO₂.

3.​ Coal Gasification: Coal is reacted with steam and oxygen to produce a gas
ED

mix from which hydrogen is separated.​

AR

4.​ Biomass Gasification: Organic waste or crop residues are heated to

produce hydrogen-rich gases. It is renewable and eco-friendly.​
EP

5.​ Photobiological Processes: Algae or bacteria release hydrogen under

sunlight through biological reactions. It is still experimental.​
PR

6.​ Photoelectrochemical Water Splitting: Sunlight is directly used with special

materials to split water. It is a developing green technology.​

7.​ Thermochemical Water Splitting: High-temperature heat from solar or

nuclear sources splits water into hydrogen and oxygen.​

48
5. Explain with a neat sketch the production of hydrogen by using
electrolysis of water method .

Production of Hydrogen by Electrolysis of Water:

Electrolysis is a simple and clean method to produce hydrogen gas using
electricity to split water (H₂O) into hydrogen and oxygen. If renewable energy is
used for the electricity, this method becomes completely green and sustainable.

P
Working Principle (Step-by-step):

EE
1.​ Electrolysis is carried out in a container called an electrolytic cell, which
contains water mixed with an electrolyte like dilute sulfuric acid or sodium
hydroxide to improve conductivity.

D
2.​ Two electrodes — anode (positive) and cathode (negative) — are inserted

SU
into the solution and connected to a DC power supply.
3.​ When electric current passes through the water, it splits into hydrogen (H₂)
and oxygen (O₂) gases.
BY
4.​ Hydrogen gas is liberated at the cathode, and oxygen gas at the anode.
5.​ The collected hydrogen is then stored or supplied for use as a clean energy
fuel in fuel cells, industries, or vehicles.
ED
AR
EP
PR

Chemical Reaction:
●​ Overall Reaction:​
2H₂O → 2H₂ + O₂

49
6. Explain the basic principle behind biochemical production of
hydrogen.

Biochemical Production of Hydrogen – Basic Principle

Hydrogen can be produced biologically using microorganisms under
specific conditions. This is a clean, sustainable, and eco-friendly method.

Basic Principals:

P
1. Microorganism-based Process: Hydrogen is produced using bacteria or algae,

EE
which break down organic matter.

2. Enzymatic Reaction: Enzymes like hydrogenase and nitrogenase present in

D
microbes help in releasing hydrogen during their metabolism.

SU
3. Organic Substrates Used: Feedstock like agricultural waste, sewage, or sugars
are used as raw materials.
BY

4. Anaerobic Conditions: The process usually occurs in oxygen-free (anaerobic)

conditions which are ideal for hydrogen production.
ED

5. Types of Fermentation:​
Hydrogen is produced through:​
AR

– Photo fermentation (in presence of sunlight)​

– Dark fermentation (without light)
EP

6. Low Energy Input: The process operates at low temperature and pressure,
making it energy-efficient.
PR

7. Eco-Friendly Method: No greenhouse gases are emitted; it is considered

environmentally safe and renewable.

50