The Fact List

 Total Species: There are over 15 lakh different kinds of living organisms known on
Earth.
 Core Problem: It is impossible to study all of them individually.
 Solution: Grouping them into categories, a process called Classification.
 Basis of Grouping: Organisms are grouped based on their similarities and differences.
 The Three Steps: Classification broadly involves 1. Identification, 2. Naming, and 3.
Grouping.
Advantages of Classification:
 Makes studying organisms simpler and easier.
 Helps in the easy identification of different organisms.
 Shows the relationships between different groups.
 Helps trace the origin of complex forms from simpler ones (evolution).
Two Kingdom Classification:
 Proposed by: Linnaeus (in 1758).
 The Two Kingdoms were: Kingdom Plantae (plants) and Kingdom Animalia
(animals).
 Main Problem: This system was inadequate because many organisms didn't fit
perfectly.
Problems with the Two Kingdom System (Anomalies):
 Euglena: Has features of both plants (has chlorophyll) and animals (can eat food,
lacks a cell wall). It was placed in Animalia.
 Fungi: Placed under Plantae, but they are not green (no chlorophyll) and get nutrition
from dead matter.
 Slime Moulds: Placed under Plantae, but they have characteristics of both plants and
animals.
 Bacteria: Placed under Plantae, but they are very different from plants.
 Viruses: Not placed in any kingdom. They are on the borderline of living and non-
living.
The Big Change:
 Who proposed the Five Kingdom Classification? R.H. Whittaker (in 1969).
SCI-BITS (Extra Facts):
 Species: The basic unit of classification. Organisms within a species can breed among
themselves.
 Three Kingdom Classification: Proposed by Haeckel. Added Protista.
 Four Kingdom Classification: Proposed by Copeland. Added Monera.
General Characteristics:
  Size & Type: Very small (microscopic), unicellular, prokaryotic organisms.
 Key Absence: They lack chlorophyll (except for some types like blue-green algae).
 Classification: Considered the simplest and most primitive organisms.
 Nutrition: Can be either:
o Autotrophic: (e.g., blue-green algae)
o Heterotrophic: (e.g., mycoplasma and most bacteria)

Structure of a Bacterium:
 Outer Layers:
o The cell is bounded by a cell wall.
o Outside the cell wall is a protective, proteinaceous capsule.
 Genetic Material:
o The genetic material is called the nucleoid.
o It is not bounded by a nuclear membrane (a key prokaryotic feature).
 Internal Components:
o Lacks membrane-bound organelles like mitochondria and plastids.
o Stores food material in the form of glycogen.
 Discovery: First discovered by Dutch scientist Antonie von Leeuwenhoek in 1676.
Shapes of Bacteria:
 Rod-shaped: Bacillus (plural: Bacilli)
 Spherical: Coccus (plural: Cocci)
 Spiral: Spirillum (plural: Spirilla)
 Comma-shaped: Vibrio
Harmful Bacteria:
 Human Diseases:
o Typhoid: Caused by Salmonella typhi.
o Cholera: Caused by Vibrio cholerae.
o Pneumonia: Caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae.
o Tuberculosis: Caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis.
 Plant Diseases:
o Black rot in cabbage.
o Fire blight in pear.
 Food Spoilage:
o Botulism: A dangerous poisonous disease from bacteria in improperly canned
food.
o Salmonella: Causes severe digestive diseases from contaminated meat and
eggs.
Useful Bacteria:
 As Decomposers:
o Bacteria cause the decay of dead plants and animals.
 o They break down complex animal and plant tissues into simple chemical
substances.
o This prevents a shortage of carbon and nitrogen compounds.
 Helps in Digestion:
o Bacteria in the human intestine help break down food and produce certain
vitamins like B and K.
o In herbivores (grass-eating animals), bacteria help in the breakdown and
digestion of cellulose.
 In Industry:
o Curing of Cheese, Tobacco and Tea: The flavour and fermentation is
brought about by different species of bacteria.
o Production of Vinegar: Ethyl alcohol is converted into acetic acid (vinegar)
by the action of Acetobacter.
o Formation of Curd (Idahli): Milk sugar (lactose) is converted into lactic acid
by the action of Lactobacillus.

More Uses of Bacteria:

 Production of Fuel: Bacteria break down manure (solid wastes) to produce methane,
which is an inflammable gas and a valuable fuel.

 Tanning of Leather: Bacteria are used in the tanning process to prevent leather from
decaying, decomposition, and putrefaction.

 Retting of Fibres: Some bacteria are used to separate fibres from the woody tissues
of the stem (e.g., in jute plants).

 For Making Antibiotics: Life-saving drugs like streptomycin and tetracycline are
manufactured using bacteria.

 Role in Nitrogen Fixation:

o What: Certain bacteria convert nitrogen from the air into nitrates.

o Where: They live in root nodules of leguminous plants (e.g., pea, bean).

o Why: Plants use these nitrates for their growth.

Investigation 2.1:

 Finding: Bacterial growth occurs best in a warm environment.

 Observation: Curd forms in warm milk but not in very hot or very cold milk.

Kingdom Protista:
  Includes: Algae, diatoms, and protozoans.

 Cell Type: Unicellular and eukaryotic (have a well-defined nucleus and other
membrane-bound organelles).

 Mode of Nutrition: Can be either:

o Autotrophic (like algae and diatoms).

o Heterotrophic (like protozoans).

 Movement:

o Some use small, hair-like cilia.

o Some use a large, whip-like flagellum.

o Some (like Amoeba) use pseudopodia (false feet).

Amoeba - Structure and Life Processes:

 Type: Single-celled, eukaryotic organism.

 Key Feature: Can only be seen with a microscope.

 Structure: Has a well-defined nucleus.

General Characteristics:

 Shape: Irregular and does not have a definite shape.

 Covering: Bounded by a cell membrane.

 Movement: Uses pseudopodia (singular: pseudopodium), which are "false feet," for
movement and capturing prey.

Nutrition:

 Diet: Consists of bacteria, small algae, and other small organisms.

 Process:

1. Ingestion: Engulfs food particles with its pseudopodia.

2. Formation of Food Vacuole: The pseudopodia fuse together, trapping the

4. Absorption: The digested, simple, soluble food is absorbed into the

Excretion:

 Undigested Food: Excreted directly out from the body through the cell membrane.

 Excess Water & Wastes:

o Collected in the contractile vacuole.

o The contractile vacuole fuses with the cell membrane and expels the waste.

 Gaseous Waste (CO₂): Expelled by diffusion through the general body surface.

Respiration:

 Mechanism: Exchange of gases occurs through the cell membrane by the process of
diffusion.

 Process: Oxygen is taken in, and carbon dioxide is released.

Locomotion:

 Structure: Uses pseudopodia.

 Mechanism: The direction of movement depends on the flow of cytoplasm inside the
pseudopodium.

 Name of Movement: This type of movement is called amoeboid movement.

Reproduction:

 Type: Asexual reproduction.

 Methods: Binary fission and multiple fission.

 Binary Fission (Most Common Method):

1. The process begins with the division of the single nucleus into two nuclei.

2. This is followed by the division of the cytoplasm.

4. Result: Two daughter amoebae are produced from one parent.

Amoeba - Multiple Fission:

 Trigger: Occurs when environmental conditions are unfavourable.

 Process:

1. Amoeba withdraws its pseudopodia and becomes round.

2. It secretes a thick wall around itself, forming a cyst.

3. Inside the cyst, the nucleus divides a number of times (multiple fission).

4. The cytoplasm surrounds each new nucleus, forming daughter amoebae.

5. When conditions become favourable again, the thick wall breaks.

6. The daughter amoebae are released and develop into young amoebae.

Kingdom Fungi:

 General Characteristics:

o Type: Non-green (lack chlorophyll) eukaryotic organisms.

o Body Form: Can be unicellular (e.g., yeast) or multicellular (e.g.,

 Structure (Multicellular Fungi):

o Made up of slender, tube-like structures called hyphae (singular: hypha).

o The mass of hyphae that forms the individual's body is called the mycelium
(plural: mycelia).

 Nutrition:

o Mode: Heterotrophic.

o Methods:
  Saprophytically: Obtaining food from dead organic matter (most
fungi are saprophytes).

 Parasitically: Obtaining food from living tissues of other organisms.

 Cell Wall: Made of a tough, complex sugar called chitin.

 Reserve Food: Food material is stored as glycogen.

 Symbiotic Relationship: Some fungi live in a symbiotic relationship with blue-green

 Examples: Yeast, Rhizopus (bread mould), mushrooms, common moulds

Specific Fungi:

 Yeast:

o Type: Single-celled organisms.

o Scientific Name: Saccharomyces.

o Function: Used to ferment sugars.

o Applications: Making beer (from barley), wine (from grapes), and making
dough fluffy (produces carbon dioxide).

 Penicillium notatum:

o Function: Produces a substance that can destroy bacteria.

o Product: This substance is called penicillin, an important antibiotic.

Observing Fungi (Investigations):

 Bread Mould (Rhizopus):

o This fungus can be observed by placing a moist piece of bread in a petri dish
for a few days.

o Under a microscope, the growth of Rhizopus will be visible.

 Common Fungi in Surroundings:

o On rotting oranges: Blue-green patches.

o On old/damp shoes (rainy season): Greenish patches.

Lichen:

 Definition: A close relationship between an alga and a fungus.

 Term for Relationship: This is called a symbiotic association.

 Symbiotic Association: A relationship between two different individuals where both

 Structure: The algal cells grow within the fungal mycelium.

 How it Works (Mutual Benefit):

o The Alga's Role: It contains chlorophyll and makes food through

o The Fungus's Role: It provides shelter and protection for the alga.

Fungi as a Source of Food:

 Yeasts: Are rich in amino acids and proteins.

 Use: Serve as an important source of food for both humans and farm animals.

Fungi for Antibiotics:

 Function: Some fungi produce antibiotics, which are used to treat infections and
diseases.

 Key Example: The antibiotic penicillin is obtained from the fungus Penicillium.

Fungi in Industry:

 Citric Acid Production: The fungus Aspergillus is used to produce large quantities
of citric acid, which is used in the soft drink industry.

 Bread-making:

o Yeast is added to uncooked dough.

o It ferments the sugar, producing carbon dioxide gas, which makes the bread
porous and fluffy.
  Wines and Beers:

o Yeast brings about the fermentation of sugars.

o It converts sugars from fruit juices (for wine) or barley (for beer) into alcohol
and carbon dioxide.

 Idli and Dosa:

o Yeast is added to the batter and allowed to stand for a few hours.

o The mixture rises and becomes sour due to the growth of yeast cells.

 Cheese Flavouring:

o Fungi like Aspergillus and Penicillium are added to cheese to give it a special,
distinct flavour.

Fungi as Decomposers (Saprophytic Fungi):

 Role: Saprophytic fungi break down dead material for their own food.

 Ecological Importance: They return chemicals and nutrients to the soil, which helps
in the recycling of nutrients for plant growth.
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