5.

Introduction to Groups Theory

5.1 Properties of groups

Groups:
Let G be a non-empty set and * be a binary operation on G.
G is called a group under the operation * if
(i) Closed: 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺, ∀𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺
(ii) Associative: 𝑎 ∗ (𝑏 ∗ 𝑐) = (𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) ∗ 𝑐, ∀𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝐺
(iii) Identity: There exists 𝑒 ∈ 𝐺 such that 𝑎 ∗ 𝑒 = 𝑒 ∗ 𝑎 = 𝑎, ∀𝑎 ∈ 𝐺
(iv) Inverse: For every 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺, there exists 𝑎 −1 ∈ 𝐺 such that 𝑎−1 ∗ 𝑎 = 𝑎 ∗ 𝑎−1 = 𝑒.
It is denoted by (𝐺,∗).

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Abelian group:

A group (𝐺,∗) is said to be an abelian group if it satisfies commutative property

C
𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑏 ∗ 𝑎, ∀𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺.
N
Finite and infinite groups:
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A group (𝐺,∗) is said to be a finite group if 𝐺 has a finite number of elements. Otherwise, it is
called as an infinite group. If G has 𝑛 elements, then 𝑂(𝐺) = 𝑛.

1. Check whether the set of integers under addition is an abelian group.

U

(i) 𝑎 + 𝑏 ∈ 𝑍, ∀𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑍
VT

(ii) 𝑎 + (𝑏 + 𝑐) = (𝑎 + 𝑏) + 𝑐, ∀𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝑍
(iii) There exists 0 ∈ 𝑍 such that 𝑎 + 0 = 0 + 𝑎 = 𝑎, ∀𝑎 ∈ 𝑍
(iv) For every 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺, there exists −𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 such that (−𝑎) + 𝑎 = 𝑎 + (−𝑎) = 0.
(v) 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 𝑏 + 𝑎, ∀𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺.
Therefore, (𝑍, +) is closed, associative, identity, inverse and commutative.
Hence, (𝑍,∗) is an abelian group.

2. Check whether the set of integers under subtraction is a group.

(i) 𝑎 − 𝑏 ∈ 𝑍, ∀𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑍
(ii) 𝑎 − (𝑏 − 𝑐) ≠ (𝑎 − 𝑏) − 𝑐, ∀𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝑍
Therefore, (𝑍, −) is closed but not associative.
Hence, (𝑍, −) is not a group.

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3. Check whether the set of integers under multiplication is a group.
(i) 𝑎 × 𝑏 ∈ 𝑍, ∀𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑍
(ii) 𝑎 × (𝑏 × 𝑐) = (𝑎 × 𝑏) × 𝑐, ∀𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝑍
(iii) There exists 1 ∈ 𝑍 such that 𝑎 × 1 = 1 × 𝑎 = 𝑎, ∀𝑎 ∈ 𝑍
1 1 1
(iv) For every 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺, × 𝑎 = 𝑎 × 𝑎 = 1. But 𝑎 ∉ 𝑍
𝑎

Therefore, (𝑍,×) is closed, associative, identity, but not inverse.

Hence, (𝑍,×) is not a group.

4. Check whether the set of all non-zero rational numbers under multiplication is a
group.
(i) 𝑎 × 𝑏 ∈ 𝑄 − {0}, ∀𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑄 − {0},

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(ii) 𝑎 × (𝑏 × 𝑐) = (𝑎 × 𝑏) × 𝑐, ∀𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝑄 − {0},
(iii) There exists 1 ∈ 𝑄 − {0}, such that 𝑎 × 1 = 1 × 𝑎 = 𝑎, ∀𝑎 ∈ 𝑄 − {0},
C 1 1 1
(iv) For every 𝑎 ∈ 𝑄 − {0} , there exists 𝑎 ∈ 𝑄 − {0} such that × 𝑎 = 𝑎 × 𝑎 = 1.
𝑎
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Therefore, (𝑄 − {0},×) is closed, associative, identity and inverse.
Hence, (𝑄 − {0},×) is a group.
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5. Prove that the set of all 𝒏 × 𝒏 non-singular matrices under matrix multiplication
U

is a group but not abelian.

Let M be the set of all 𝑛 × 𝑛 non-singular matrices.
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(i) 𝐴𝐵 ∈ 𝑀, ∀𝐴, 𝐵 ∈ 𝑀
(ii) 𝐴(𝐵𝐶) = (𝐴𝐵)𝐶, ∀𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 ∈ 𝑀
(iii) There exists 𝐼 ∈ 𝑀 such that 𝐴𝐼 = 𝐼𝐴 = 𝐴, ∀𝐴 ∈ 𝑀
(iv) For every 𝐴 ∈ 𝑀 , there exists 𝐴−1 ∈ 𝑀 such that 𝐴𝐴−1 = 𝐴−1 𝐴 = 𝐼.
Therefore, (𝑀, ×) is closed, associative, identity and inverse.
Hence, (𝑀, ×) is a group.
Since 𝐴𝐵 ≠ 𝐵𝐴, (𝑀, ×) is not an abelian group.

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6. Check whether the set of all fourth roots of unity under multiplication is a group.
Let 𝑊 = {1, −1, 𝑖, −𝑖}
(i) 𝑎 × 𝑏 ∈ 𝑊, ∀𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑊
(ii) 𝑎 × (𝑏 × 𝑐) = (𝑎 × 𝑏) × 𝑐, ∀𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝑊
(iii) There exists 1 ∈ 𝑊 such that 𝑎 × 1 = 1 × 𝑎 = 𝑎, ∀𝑎 ∈ 𝑊
(iv) For every 𝑎 ∈ 𝑊, there exists 𝑏 ∈ 𝑊 such that 𝑏 × 𝑎 = 𝑎 × 𝑏 = 1.
Therefore, (𝑊,×) is closed, associative, identity and inverse.
Hence, (𝑊,×) is a group.

𝟏
7. Let G be a set of all non-zero real numbers and let 𝒂 ∗ 𝒃 = 𝟐 (𝒂𝒃).

Show that (𝑮,∗) is an abelian group.

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1
(i) 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 2 (𝑎𝑏) ∈ 𝐺, ∀𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺
1 1 1 1 1
(ii) 𝑎 ∗ (𝑏 ∗ 𝑐) = 𝑎 ∗ 2 (𝑏𝑐) = 2 {𝑎 2 (𝑏𝑐)} = 4 {𝑎(𝑏𝑐)} = 4 {(𝑎𝑏)𝑐}
C
1 1 1 1
(𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) ∗ 𝑐 = (𝑎𝑏 ) ∗ 𝑐 = { (𝑎𝑏)𝑐} = {(𝑎𝑏)𝑐}
N
2 2 2 4

Therefore, 𝑎 ∗ (𝑏 ∗ 𝑐) = (𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) ∗ 𝑐, ∀ 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝐺
SY

(iii) There exists 2 ∈ 𝐺 such that

1
𝑎 ∗ 2 = 2 (𝑎 × 2) = 𝑎, ∀𝑎 ∈ 𝐺
1
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2 ∗ 𝑎 = 2 (2 × 𝑎) = 𝑎, ∀𝑎 ∈ 𝐺
4
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(iv) For every 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺, there exists 𝑏 = 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 such that

1 1 4
𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 2 (𝑎𝑏) = 2 (𝑎 × 𝑎) = 2
1 1 4
𝑏 ∗ 𝑎 = 2 (𝑏𝑎) = 2 (𝑎 × 𝑎) = 2
1 1
(v) 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 2 (𝑎𝑏) = 2 (𝑏𝑎) = 𝑏 ∗ 𝑎, ∀𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺

Therefore, (𝐺,∗) is closed, associative, identity, inverse and commutative.

Hence, (𝐺,∗) is an abelian group.

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8. Let ∘ be an operation on Z defined by 𝒙 ∘ 𝒚 = 𝒙 + 𝒚 + 𝟏, prove that (𝒁,∘) is an
abelian group.
(i) 𝑥 ∘ 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 1 ∈ 𝑍, ∀𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑍
(ii) 𝑥 ∘ (𝑦 ∘ 𝑧) = 𝑥 ∘ (𝑦 + 𝑧 + 1) = 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 + 1 + 1
(𝑥 ∘ 𝑦) ∘ 𝑧 = (𝑥 + 𝑦 + 1) ∘ 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 1 + 𝑧 + 1
Therefore, 𝑥 ∘ (𝑦 ∘ 𝑧) = (𝑥 ∘ 𝑦) ∘ 𝑧, ∀𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ 𝑍.
(iii) There exists −1 ∈ 𝑍 such that
𝑥 ∘ (−1) = 𝑥 − 1 + 1 = 𝑥, ∀𝑥 ∈ 𝑍
(−1) ∘ 𝑥 = −1 + 𝑥 + 1 = 𝑥, ∀𝑥 ∈ 𝑍
(iv) For every 𝑥 ∈ 𝑍, there exists −𝑥 − 2 ∈ 𝑍 such that

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𝑥 ∘ (−𝑥 − 2) = 𝑥 − 𝑥 − 2 + 1 = −1
(−𝑥 − 2) ∘ 𝑥 = −𝑥 − 2 + 𝑥 + 1 = −1
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(v) 𝑥 ∘ 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 1 = 𝑦 + 𝑥 + 1 = 𝑦 ∘ 𝑥, ∀𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑍
Therefore, (𝑍,∘) is closed, associative, identity, inverse and commutative.
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Hence, (𝑍,∘) is an abelian group.
SY
U
VT

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9. Let 𝑮 be the set of all real numbers not equal to −𝟏 and ∗ be defined by
𝒂 ∗ 𝒃 = 𝒂 + 𝒃 + 𝒂𝒃 then prove that (𝑮, ∗) is an abelian group.
(i) 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑎𝑏 ∈ 𝐺, ∀𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺
(ii) 𝑎 ∗ (𝑏 ∗ 𝑐) = 𝑎 ∗ (𝑏 + 𝑐 + 𝑏𝑐)
= 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 + 𝑏𝑐 + 𝑎(𝑏 + 𝑐 + 𝑏𝑐)
= 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 + 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏𝑐 + 𝑐𝑎 + 𝑎𝑏𝑐
(𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) ∗ 𝑐 = (𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑎𝑏) ∗ 𝑐
= 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑐 + (𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑎𝑏)𝑐
= 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 + 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏𝑐 + 𝑐𝑎 + 𝑎𝑏𝑐
Therefore, 𝑎 ∗ (𝑏 ∗ 𝑐) = (𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) ∗ 𝑐, ∀𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝐺
(iii) There exists 0 ∈ 𝐺 such that

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𝑎 ∗ 0 = 𝑎 + 0 + 𝑎(0) = 𝑎, ∀ 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺
0 ∗ 𝑎 = 0 + 𝑎 + (0)𝑎 = 𝑎, ∀ 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺
𝑎
(iv)
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For every 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺, there exists − 1+𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 such that
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎+𝑎2 −𝑎−𝑎2
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𝑎 ∗ (− 1+𝑎) = 𝑎 − 1+𝑎 + 𝑎 (− 1+𝑎) = =0
1+𝑎
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 −𝑎+𝑎+𝑎2 −𝑎2
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(− 1+𝑎) ∗ 𝑎 = − 1+𝑎 + 𝑎 + (− 1+𝑎) 𝑎 = =0

1+𝑎

(v) 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑏 + 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑎 = 𝑏 ∗ 𝑎, ∀𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺
Therefore, (𝐺,∗) is closed, associative, identity, inverse and commutative.
U

Hence, (𝐺,∗) is an abelian group.

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10. Theorem 1: In a group, prove that there exists only one identity element.

Suppose there are two identity elements 𝑒1 , 𝑒2 ∈ 𝐺.

Since 𝑒1 is an identity element, 𝑒1 𝑎 = 𝑎𝑒1 = 𝑎, ∀𝑎 ∈ 𝐺.
Since 𝑒2 is an identity element, 𝑒2 𝑎 = 𝑎𝑒2 = 𝑎, ∀𝑎 ∈ 𝐺.
This shows that 𝑎𝑒1 = 𝑎 = 𝑎𝑒2 and hence 𝑒1 = 𝑒2 .
This means that 𝑒1 and 𝑒2 are not different.
Therefore, there exists only one element.

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11. Theorem 2: In a group G, prove that every element has only one inverse.
Suppose 𝑎′ and 𝑎′′ are two inverse elements of 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺.
Since 𝑎′ is an inverse of 𝑎, 𝑎𝑎′ = 𝑎′ 𝑎 = 𝑒, where 𝑒 is an identity element of 𝐺.
Since 𝑎′′ is an inverse of 𝑎, 𝑎𝑎′′ = 𝑎′′ 𝑎 = 𝑒, where 𝑒 is an identity element of 𝐺.
Therefore, 𝑎′ = 𝑎′ 𝑒 = 𝑎′ (𝑎𝑎′′ ) = (𝑎′ 𝑎)𝑎′′ = 𝑒𝑎′′ = 𝑎′′.
This means that 𝑎′ and 𝑎′′ are not different.
Therefore, every element has only one inverse.
12. Theorem 3: For any elements 𝒂, 𝒃 in a group G,
Prove that (𝒂−𝟏 )−𝟏 = 𝒂 and (𝒂𝒃)−𝟏 = 𝒃−𝟏 𝒂−𝟏 .
(i) Let 𝑎−1 = 𝑐. Then 𝑐𝑎 = 𝑎 −1 𝑎 = 𝑒 and 𝑎𝑐 = 𝑎𝑎−1 = 𝑒.
Therefore, 𝑐𝑎 = 𝑎𝑐 = 𝑒.

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Hence, 𝑎 = 𝑐 −1 = (𝑎−1 )−1
(ii) (𝑎𝑏)(𝑏 −1 𝑎−1 ) = 𝑎(𝑏𝑏 −1 )𝑎−1 = 𝑎𝑒𝑎−1 = (𝑎𝑒)𝑎−1 = 𝑎𝑎−1 = 𝑒.
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(𝑏 −1 𝑎−1 )(𝑎𝑏) = 𝑏 −1 (𝑎−1 𝑎)𝑏 = 𝑏 −1 𝑒𝑏 = 𝑏 −1 (𝑒𝑏) = 𝑏 −1 𝑏 = 𝑒.
Therefore, 𝑏 −1 𝑎−1 is the inverse of 𝑎𝑏.
N
Hence, (𝑎𝑏)−1 = 𝑏 −1 𝑎−1 .
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13. Theorem 4: Let G be a group and 𝒂, 𝒃, 𝒙 ∈ 𝑮. Prove that left cancellation law and
right cancellation law hold.
U

(i) To prove: 𝑥𝑎 = 𝑥𝑏 ⟹ 𝑎 = 𝑏 (Left cancellation law)

𝑥𝑎 = 𝑥𝑏 ⟹ 𝑥 −1 (𝑥𝑎) = 𝑥 −1 (𝑥𝑏)
VT

⟹ (𝑥 −1 𝑥)𝑎 = (𝑥 −1 𝑥)𝑏
⟹ 𝑒𝑎 = 𝑒𝑏
⟹𝑎=𝑏
Therefore, left cancellation law holds.
(ii) To prove: 𝑎𝑥 = 𝑏𝑥 ⟹ 𝑎 = 𝑏 (Right cancellation law)
𝑎𝑥 = 𝑏𝑥 ⟹ (𝑎𝑥)𝑥 −1 = (𝑏𝑥)𝑥 −1
⟹ 𝑎(𝑥𝑥 −1 ) = 𝑏(𝑥𝑥 −1 )
⟹ 𝑎𝑒 = 𝑏𝑒
⟹𝑎=𝑏
Therefore, left cancellation law holds.

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14. Theorem 5: Let G be a graph and 𝒂, 𝒃 ∈ 𝑮. Then (i) The equation 𝒂𝒙 = 𝒃 has a
unique solution in G. (ii) The equation 𝒚𝒂 = 𝒃 has a unique solution in G.

(i) 𝑎𝑥 = 𝑎(𝑎−1 𝑏) = (𝑎𝑎−1 )𝑏 = 𝑒𝑏 = 𝑏

Therefore, 𝑥 = 𝑎−1 𝑏 is the solution of 𝑎𝑥 = 𝑏.
Suppose 𝑥1 and 𝑥2 are the two solutions of 𝑎𝑥 = 𝑏.
Then 𝑎𝑥1 = 𝑏 and 𝑎𝑥2 = 𝑏.
This implies that 𝑎𝑥1 = 𝑎𝑥2
By left cancellation law, 𝑥1 = 𝑥2 .
Therefore, the two solutions of 𝑎𝑥 = 𝑏 are not different.
Hence, the equation 𝑎𝑥 = 𝑏 has a unique solution in G.

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(ii) 𝑦𝑎 = (𝑏𝑎 −1 )𝑎 = 𝑏(𝑎−1 𝑎) = 𝑏𝑒 = 𝑏
Therefore, 𝑦 = 𝑏𝑎−1 is the solution of 𝑦𝑎 = 𝑏.
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Suppose 𝑦1 and 𝑦2 are the two solutions of 𝑦𝑎 = 𝑏.
N
Then 𝑦1 𝑎 = 𝑏 and 𝑦2 𝑎 = 𝑏.
SY

This implies that 𝑦1 𝑎 = 𝑦2 𝑎

By right cancellation law, 𝑦1 = 𝑦2 .
Therefore, the two solutions of 𝑦𝑎 = 𝑏 are not different.
U

Hence, the equation 𝑦𝑎 = 𝑏 has a unique solution in G.

VT

15. Prove that a group G in which every element is its own inverse is abelian.
Let 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺. By data, 𝑎 = 𝑎−1 , 𝑏 = 𝑏 −1 and 𝑎𝑏 = (𝑎𝑏)−1
𝑎𝑏 = (𝑎𝑏)−1 = 𝑏 −1 𝑎−1 = 𝑏𝑎
Therefore, 𝐺 is an abelian group.

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16. Prove that a group G is abelian if and only if (𝒂𝒃)−𝟏 = 𝒂−𝟏 𝒃−𝟏 , ∀𝒂, 𝒃 ∈ 𝑮
If part: Suppose G is abelian.
(𝑎𝑏)−1 = (𝑏𝑎)−1 = 𝑎−1 𝑏 −1 , ∀𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺
Only if part: Suppose (𝑎𝑏)−1 = 𝑎−1 𝑏 −1
𝑎𝑏 = (𝑎−1 )−1 (𝑏 −1 )−1 [Since 𝑎 = (𝑎−1 )−1 , 𝑏 = (𝑏 −1 )−1 ]

= (𝑎−1 𝑏 −1 )−1 [ Since 𝑎−1 𝑏 −1 = (𝑎𝑏)−1]

= (𝑏 −1 )−1 (𝑎−1 )−1 [Since (𝑎𝑏)−1 = 𝑏 −1 𝑎−1 in 𝐺]

= 𝑏𝑎 [Since (𝑎−1 )−1 = 𝑎]

Therefore, 𝐺 is abelian.

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17. In a group G having more than one element if 𝒙𝟐 = 𝒙 for every 𝒙 ∈ 𝑮.
Prove that G is abelian.
C
Let 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺. By data, 𝑎2 = 𝑎, 𝑏 2 = 𝑏 and (𝑎𝑏)2 = 𝑎𝑏
N
𝑎(𝑎𝑏)𝑏 = (𝑎𝑎)(𝑏𝑏) = 𝑎2 𝑏 2 = 𝑎𝑏 = (𝑎𝑏)2 = (𝑎𝑏)(𝑎𝑏) = 𝑎(𝑏𝑎)𝑏
SY

By left cancellation law, (𝑎𝑏)𝑏 = (𝑏𝑎)𝑏

By right cancellation law, 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑏𝑎
Therefore, 𝐺 is an abelian group.
U
VT

18. Prove that a group G is an abelian if and only if (𝒂𝒃)𝟐 = 𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟐 , ∀𝒂, 𝒃 ∈ 𝑮

If part: Suppose G is an abelian.
(𝑎𝑏)2 = (𝑎𝑏)(𝑎𝑏) = 𝑎(𝑏𝑎)𝑏 = 𝑎(𝑎𝑏)𝑏 = (𝑎𝑎)(𝑏𝑏) = 𝑎2 𝑏 2
Only if part: Suppose (𝑎𝑏)2 = 𝑎2 𝑏 2
(𝑎𝑏)(𝑎𝑏) = (𝑎𝑎)(𝑏𝑏)
𝑎(𝑏𝑎)𝑏 = 𝑎(𝑎𝑏)𝑏
By left cancellation law, (𝑏𝑎)𝑏 = (𝑎𝑏)𝑏
By right cancellation law, 𝑏𝑎 = 𝑎𝑏
Therefore, 𝐺 is abelian.

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 5.2 Particular groups
1. The Klein 4-group

Consider a set 𝐴 = {𝑒, 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐} on this set, suppose we define a binary operation

described by the following table:
It is easy to verify that A is an abelian group under the binary operation defined.
𝑒 is the identity element of G and every element is its own inverse.
This group is of order 4.
It is called as the Klein 4-group or Quadratic group.
It is denoted by 𝐾4 or 𝑉4 .

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Additive group of Integers modulo n

Let 𝑛 be a specified positive integer ≥ 2. It is known that Congruent to modulo 𝑛 is an

C
equivalence relation on 𝑍. This relation induces a partition of Z with the congruence
classes. For any 𝑎 ∈ 𝑍, Additive group of Integers modulo the congruence class
N
determined by the expression [𝑎] = {𝑥 ∈ 𝑍|𝑥 ≡ 𝑎 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑛)} = {𝑎 + 𝑛𝑥|𝑥 ∈ 𝑍}.
SY

Now [0] = {0 + 𝑛𝑥|𝑥 ∈ 𝑍}, [1] = {1 + 𝑛𝑥|𝑥 ∈ 𝑍}, … , [𝑛 − 1] = {𝑛 − 1 + 𝑛𝑥|𝑥 ∈ 𝑍}

Let 𝑍 be the set of these equivalence classes. That is, 𝑍 = {[0], [1], [2], … , [𝑛 − 1]}.
Consider 𝑍 under the binary operation 𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑜 𝑛, denoted by ⨁𝑛 .
U

This group is called additive group of integers modulo n and is denoted by (𝑍𝑛 , ⨁𝑛).
VT

The order of this group is 𝑛.

Example: Operation table for (𝑍6 , +) is given by + 0 1 2 3 4 5

0 0 1 2 3 4 5
1 1 2 3 4 5 0
2 2 3 4 5 0 1
3 3 4 5 0 1 2
4 4 5 0 1 2 3
5 5 6 1 2 3 4

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2. Multiplicative group of integers mod p

Let 𝑛 be a given integer > 1 and 𝑍𝑛 denote the set of all congruence classes modulo n.
That is, 𝑍𝑛 = {[0], [1], [2], …, [𝑛 − 1]} .
Multiplication modulo n denoted by ⨂𝑛 𝑖𝑠 defined as
[𝑥] ⨂𝑛[𝑦] = [𝑥 × 𝑦], ∀[𝑥], [𝑦] ∈ 𝑍𝑛 .
Consider 𝑍𝑛 under the binary operation multiplication modulo n denoted by ⨂𝑛 .
(i) [𝑥] ⨂𝑛[𝑦] ∈ 𝑍𝑛 , ∀[𝑥], [𝑦] ∈ 𝑍𝑛
(ii) [𝑥] ⨂𝑛{[𝑦] ⨂𝑛[𝑧]} = {[𝑥] ⨂𝑛[𝑦]} ⨂𝑛[𝑧], ∀[𝑥], [𝑦], [𝑧] ∈ 𝑍𝑛
(iii) There exists [1] ∈ 𝑍𝑛 , such that [𝑥] ⨂𝑛[1] = [1] ⨂𝑛[𝑥] = [𝑥].
(iv) For any [𝑥] ∈ 𝑍𝑛 , there exists [𝑦] ∈ 𝑍𝑛 such that [𝑥] ⨂𝑛[𝑦] = [𝑦] ⨂𝑛[𝑥] = [1],

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if 𝑛 is a prime number.
(v) [𝑥] ⨂𝑛[𝑦] = [𝑦] ⨂𝑛[𝑥] , ∀[𝑥], [𝑦] ∈ 𝑍𝑛
C
Therefore, (𝑍𝑛 , ⨂𝑛) is an abelian group only if 𝑛 is a prime number.
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Note:
SY

(𝑍𝑝+ , ⨂𝑝) is the multiplicative group of integers modulo 𝑝.

It is also denoted by (𝑍𝑝+ , ×).
𝑍𝑝+ = {[0], [1], [2], … , [𝑝 − 1]}. Order of the group 𝑂(𝑍𝑝+ ) = 𝑝 − 1.
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Operation table for (𝑍7+ , ×) is

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Example 1: Find the operation table for (𝒁+

𝟕 , ×).

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Example 2: Find all 𝒙 in (𝒁+ −𝟏
𝟏𝟏 , ×) such that 𝒙 = 𝒙 .

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From the above table 𝑥. 𝑥 = 1 is true only if 𝑥 = 1 𝑜𝑟 10.
+
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1 and 10 are only elements of (𝑍11 , ×) which are their own inverses.
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That is, 1 and 10 are only solutions of 𝑥 2 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 11)
SY

Example 3: If 𝒑 is a prime, prove that (𝒑 − 𝟏)! ≡ −𝟏(𝒎𝒐𝒅 𝒑)

[Wilson’s theorem]
+
Consider the group (𝑍𝑝 ,×).
U

𝑍𝑃+ = {[1], [2], [3], … , [𝑝 − 1]}

In 𝑍𝑃+ , only [1] and [𝑝 − 1] have their own inverses. ([𝑥] = [𝑥]−1)
VT

𝑝−3
Remaining (𝑝 − 3) elements have pairs of the form [𝑥], [𝑥]−1with [𝑥] ≠ [𝑥]−1 .
2

Multiplying all these elements,

𝑝−3
2 × 3 × … × (𝑝 − 2) ≡ 1 2 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑝)
2 × 3 × … × (𝑝 − 2) ≡ 1 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑝)
2 × 3 × … × (𝑝 − 2) × (𝑝 − 1) ≡ 1 × (𝑝 − 1) (𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑝)
(𝑝 − 1)! ≡ (𝑝 − 1) (𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑝)
(𝑝 − 1)! ≡ −1 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑝)
This proves the result.

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4. Permutation groups
Example : Permutation group of degree 3
Consider that set 𝐴 = {1, 2, 3}. These 3 elements can be permuted in 3! = 6 ways.
These permutations are 123, 132, 213, 231, 312, 321. That is,
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
𝑃0 = ( ) , 𝑃1 = ( ) , 𝑃2 = ( ),
1 2 3 2 3 1 3 1 2
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
𝑃3 = ( ) , 𝑃4 = ( ) , 𝑃5 = ( ).
1 3 2 3 2 1 2 1 3
Since these six permutations are 1-1 and onto functions from A to A, the
composition of any two of these permutations is also a permutation.
If 𝑆3 = {𝑃0 , 𝑃1 , 𝑃2 , 𝑃3 , 𝑃4 , 𝑃5 }, composition table for 𝑆3 is as below.

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× 𝑃0 𝑃1 𝑃2 𝑃3 𝑃4 𝑃5
𝑃0 𝑃0 𝑃1 𝑃2 𝑃3 𝑃4 𝑃5
𝑃1 𝑃1 𝑃2 𝑃0 𝑃5 𝑃3 𝑃4
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𝑃2 𝑃2 𝑃0 𝑃1 𝑃4 𝑃5 𝑃3
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𝑃3 𝑃3 𝑃4 𝑃5 𝑃0 𝑃1 𝑃2
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𝑃4 𝑃4 𝑃5 𝑃3 𝑃2 𝑃0 𝑃1
𝑃5 𝑃5 𝑃3 𝑃4 𝑃1 𝑃2 𝑃0
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𝑆3 is closed and associative under composition of permutations.

𝑆3 contains identity element 𝑃0 . 𝑆3 contains inverse of each element.
VT

By table, 𝑃0−1 = 𝑃0 , 𝑃1−1 = 𝑃2 , 𝑃2−1 = 𝑃1 , 𝑃3−1 = 𝑃3 , 𝑃4−1 = 𝑃4 , 𝑃5−1 = 𝑃5 .

Therefore, 𝑆3 is a group under composition of permutations.
𝑆3 is a symmetric group of order 3. 𝑆3 is not commutative.

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Problem : Consider the symmetric group 𝑺𝟒 consists of all the permutations of
the set 𝑨 = {𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟒}.
What is the order of 𝑺𝟒 ? What is the identity element of 𝑺𝟒 ?
𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝟒 𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝟒
If 𝜶 = [ ] and 𝜷 = [ ] verify that (𝜶𝜷)−𝟏 = 𝜷−𝟏 𝜶−𝟏 .
𝟐 𝟒 𝟑 𝟏 𝟒 𝟐 𝟏 𝟑

(i) The order of 𝑆4 = 4! = 24.

1 2 3 4
(ii) Identity element of 𝑆4 = 𝑃0 = [ ]
1 2 3 4
3 4 −1
(𝛼𝛽)−1 = ([1 2 3 4 1 2
(iii) ][ ])
2 4 3 1 4 2 1 3
1 2 3 4 −1 1 2 3 4
=[ ] =[ ]
2 3 1 4 3 1 2 4

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1 2 3 4 −1 1 2 3 4 −1
𝛽 −1 𝛼 −1 = [ ] [ ]
4 2 1 3 2 4 3 1
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
=[ ][ ]=[ ]
3 2 4 1 4 1 3 2 3 1 2 4
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Therefore,(𝛼𝛽)−1 = 𝛽 −1 𝛼 −1.
N
SY
U
VT

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 5.3 Subgroups
Definition: A non-empty subset H of a group G is called a subgroup of G whenever H itself
is a group under the binary operation in G.
Examples:
1. Under the usual addition, the set of all even integers is a subgroup of the group of
integers.
2. Under the usual multiplication, the set of all even integers is the subgroup of the
group of all non-zero real numbers.
3. Under the composition of permutations, {𝑃0 , 𝑃1 , 𝑃2 }, {𝑃0 , 𝑃3 }, {𝑃0 , 𝑃4 }are the subgroups
of the symmetric group 𝑆3 = {𝑃0 , 𝑃1 , 𝑃2 , 𝑃3 , 𝑃4 , 𝑃5 }.
4. Let 𝐻 = {0, 2, 4} ⊆ 𝑍0 , (𝐻, +) is a subgroup of (𝑍6 , +).

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Remarks:
1. For any group G, 𝑒 ∈ 𝐺 and {𝑒} ⊆ 𝐺. C
Since {𝑒} is a group under the operation in G, {𝑒} is a subgroup of G.
2. For any group G, 𝐺 ⊆ 𝐺. Thus every group is a subgroup to itself.
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3. {𝑒} and 𝐺 are called trivial subgroups of a group 𝐺 .
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All the other subgroups are called proper subgroups of 𝐺.

U
VT

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1. Theorem 1: Prove that 𝑯 is a subgroup of 𝑮 if and only if
𝒂𝒃 ∈ 𝑯 and 𝒂−𝟏 ∈ 𝑯, ∀𝒂, 𝒃 ∈ 𝑯.
If part:
Suppose 𝐻 is a subgroup of 𝐺.
⟹ 𝐻 is a group under the same operation of 𝐺.
⟹ 𝐻 is closed and 𝐻 has inverse for each element of 𝐻.
⟹ 𝑎𝑏 ∈ 𝐻 and 𝑎−1 ∈ 𝐻, ∀𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻.
Only if part:
Suppose 𝑎𝑏 ∈ 𝐻 and 𝑎−1 ∈ 𝐻, ∀𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻.
Since 𝑎𝑏 ∈ 𝐻, 𝐻 is closed.
Since 𝐻 ⊆ 𝐺, 𝑎(𝑏𝑐) = (𝑎𝑏)𝑐, ∀𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝐻. 𝐻 is associative.

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Since 𝑎, 𝑎 −1 ∈ 𝐻, 𝑎𝑎−1 = 𝑒 ∈ 𝐻 by given conditions. Hence 𝐻 has identity element.
Since 𝑎−1 ∈ 𝐻, for any 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻, 𝐻 has inverse.
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Therefore, 𝐻 is a group.
Since 𝐻 is a group and 𝐻 ⊆ 𝐺, 𝐻 is a subgroup of G.
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2. Theorem 2: Prove that H is a subgroup of G if and only if 𝒂𝒃−𝟏 ∈ 𝑯, ∀𝒂, 𝒃 ∈ 𝑯.
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If part:
Suppose 𝐻 is a subgroup of 𝐺.
Then clearly, 𝐻 is a group under the same operation of 𝐺.
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Hence, for any 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻, 𝑏 −1 ∈ 𝐻 and 𝑎𝑏 −1 ∈ 𝐻.

VT

Only if part:
Suppose 𝑎𝑏 −1 ∈ 𝐻, ∀𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻.
By taking 𝑏 = 𝑎, 𝑎𝑎 −1 ∈ 𝐻. Thus 𝑒 ∈ 𝐻. Identity property holds.
By taking 𝑎 = 𝑒 and 𝑏 = 𝑎, 𝑒𝑎−1 = 𝑎−1 ∈ 𝐻. Inverse property holds.
Since 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻, 𝑏 −1 ∈ 𝐻, 𝑎(𝑏 −1 )−1 ∈ 𝐻, by given condition.
Therefore, 𝑎𝑏 ∈ 𝐻. Closed property holds under the binary operation of G.
Since associative property holds for all the elements of 𝐺, this holds for 𝐻 ⊆ 𝐺.
Therefore, 𝐻 is a subgroup of 𝐺.

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3. Theorem 3: When H is finite, P.T. H is a subgroup of G if and only
if 𝒂𝒃 ∈ 𝑯, ∀𝒂, 𝒃 ∈ 𝑯.
If part:
H is a subgroup of G.
⟹ H is a group.
⟹ H is closed.
⟹ 𝑎𝑏 ∈ 𝐻, ∀𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻.
Only if part:
𝑎𝑏 ∈ 𝐻, ∀𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻.
That is, H is closed.

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Since 𝐻 ⊆ 𝐺 and G is associative, H is also associative.
Consider a set 𝑎𝐻 = {𝑎ℎ|ℎ ∈ 𝐻}, for any 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻.
Since 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻, 𝑎ℎ ∈ 𝐻, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑦 ℎ ∈ 𝐻.
C
Therefore, 𝑎𝐻 ⊆ 𝐻. Since 𝐻 is finite, 𝑎𝐻 is also finite.
N
Define a function 𝑓: 𝐻 → 𝑎𝐻 by 𝑓(ℎ) = 𝑎ℎ, ∀ℎ ∈ 𝐻.
SY

Then 𝑓(ℎ1 ) = 𝑓(ℎ2 ) ⟹ 𝑎ℎ1 = 𝑎ℎ2 ⟹ ℎ1 = ℎ2 , by left cancellation law.

Therefore, 𝑓 is 1-1 from 𝐻 to 𝑎𝐻. Since 𝑓 s finite, |𝐻| = |𝑎𝐻|.
𝑎𝐻 ⊆ 𝐻, |𝐻| = |𝑎𝐻| ⟹ 𝐻 = 𝑎𝐻.
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Since 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻, 𝑎 = 𝑎ℎ1 , for some ℎ1 ∈ 𝐻.

Since 𝑎 = 𝑎𝑒, 𝑎𝑒 = 𝑎ℎ1 , for some ℎ1 ∈ 𝐻.
VT

By left cancellation law, 𝑒 = ℎ ∈ 𝐻. Identity law holds.

𝑒 ∈ 𝐻 ⟹ 𝑒 ∈ 𝑎𝐻 ⟹ 𝑒 = 𝑎ℎ2 , for some ℎ2 ∈ 𝐻. ℎ2 = 𝑎−1 . Inverse property holds.
Therefore, H is a group. Since 𝐻 ⊆ 𝐺, H is a subgroup of G.
This completes the proof of the theorem.
4. Prove that the intersection of two groups of a group is a subgroup of the group.
Let G be a group and H and K be two subgroups of G.
𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻 ∩ 𝐾 ⟹ 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐾
⟹ 𝑎𝑏 −1 ∈ 𝐻 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑏 −1 ∈ 𝐾
⟹ 𝑎𝑏 −1 ∈ 𝐻 ∩ 𝐾
Therefore, 𝐻 ∩ 𝐾 is a subgroup of 𝐺.

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5. Check whether the union of two subgroups of a group a subgroup?
Consider two subgroups of a symmetric group 𝑆3 as 𝑇1 = {𝑃0 , 𝑃3 }, 𝑇2 = {𝑃2 , 𝑃4 }.
But 𝑇1 ∪ 𝑇2 = {𝑃0 , 𝑃2 , 𝑃3 , 𝑃4 } is not closed. Because 𝑃3 𝑃4 = 𝑃1 ∉ 𝑇1 ∪ 𝑇2 .
Therefore, 𝑇1 ∪ 𝑇2 is not a group.
6. Let G be a group and 𝑱 = {𝒙 ∈ 𝑮|𝒙𝒚 = 𝒚𝒙, ∀𝒚 ∈ 𝑮}. P.T. 𝑱 is a subgroup of 𝑮.
𝑒 ∈ 𝐺 ⟹ 𝑒𝑦 = 𝑦𝑒, ∀𝑦 ∈ 𝐺
⟹𝑒∈𝐽
⟹ 𝐽 is non-empty.
For any 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐽 and any 𝑦 ∈ 𝐺,
(𝑎𝑏)𝑦 = 𝑎(𝑏𝑦) = 𝑎(𝑦𝑏) = (𝑎𝑦)𝑏 = (𝑦𝑎)𝑏 = 𝑦(𝑎𝑏)
Therefore, 𝒂𝒃 ∈ 𝑱.

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𝑦𝑎 = 𝑎𝑦
⟹ 𝑎−1 (𝑦𝑎)𝑎−1 = 𝑎−1 (𝑎𝑦)𝑎−1
⟹ (𝑎−1 𝑦)(𝑎𝑎−1 ) = (𝑎−1 𝑎)(𝑦𝑎−1 )
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⟹ (𝑎−1 𝑦)𝑒 = 𝑒(𝑦𝑎−1 )
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⟹ 𝑎−1 𝑦 = 𝑦𝑎−1
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Therefore, 𝒂−𝟏 ∈ 𝑱
Thus, 𝑎𝑏 ∈ 𝐽, 𝑎 −1 ∈ 𝐽, ∀𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐽
Therefore, J is a subgroup of G.
U

7. Consider the subset H of the symmetric group 𝑺𝟒 consisting of the following

𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝟒 𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝟒 𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝟒
VT

elements of 𝑺𝟒 . 𝑷𝟎 = [ ] , 𝑷𝟏 = [ ] , 𝑷𝟐 = [ ],
𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝟒 𝟐 𝟏 𝟒 𝟑 𝟑 𝟒 𝟏 𝟐
𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝟒
𝑷𝟑 = [ ]. Construct a table to show that H is an abelian group of 𝑺𝟒 .
𝟒 𝟑 𝟐 𝟏

This table shows that 𝐻 is closed under permutation.

Therefore, by theorem 3, H is a subgroup of 𝑆4 .
The table also shows that the commutative law holds in H.
Therefore, H is an abelian group.
8. For the group 𝒁𝟑𝟔 , find subgroups of orders 6, 12 and 36.
Consider the group 𝑍6 of order 6.
𝑍63 = 𝑍6 × 𝑍6 × 𝑍6 is a group of order 63 = 216.
Every element of 𝑍63 is of the form (𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐) , where 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝑍6 .
𝐻1 = {(𝑎, 0, 0)|𝑎 ∈ 𝑍6 } is a subgroup of order 6.

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𝐻2 = {(𝑎, 𝑏, 0)|𝑎 ∈ 𝑍6 , 𝑏 = 0, 3} is a subgroup of order 12.
𝐻3 = {(𝑎, 𝑏, 0)|𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑍6 } is a subgroup of order 36.

5.4 Cyclic group

Definition:
A group is said to be the cyclic group if for some 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺, every element 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺 is of the
form 𝑎𝑛 , for some 𝑛 ∈ 𝑍. The element 𝑎 is called the generator of the cyclic group G.
It is denoted by 𝐺 =< 𝑎 >.
Example:
𝐺 = {𝑖, −𝑖, −1, 1} is the cyclic group generated by 𝑖.
Every element of 𝐺 is of the form 𝑖 𝑛 , for some 𝑛 ∈ 𝑍.

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Hence, 𝑖 is the generator of the cyclic group G.
Theorem 1:
If 𝒂 is a generator of a cyclic group G, show that inverse of 𝒂 is also a generator.
C
Proof:
N
𝑎 is a generator of the cyclic group 𝐺.
⟹ If 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺 then 𝑔 = 𝑎𝑛 , for some 𝑛 ∈ 𝑍.
SY

⟹ 𝑔 = 𝑎𝑛 = {(𝑎−1 )−1 }𝑛 = (𝑎−1 )−𝑛 , for some 𝑛 ∈ 𝑍.

⟹ 𝑎−1 is also a generator of the cyclic group 𝐺.
U

Examples:
1. Show that the group (𝑮,∗) is a cyclic group whose multiplication table is
VT

𝑎 is an identity element of G.
𝑏2 = 𝑏 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑐
𝑏3 = 𝑏2 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑐 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑑
𝑏4 = 𝑏3 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑑 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑒
𝑏5 = 𝑏4 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑒 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑓
𝑏6 = 𝑏5 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑓 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑎
Every element of 𝐺 is an integral power of 𝑏.
Therefore, (𝐺,∗) is a cyclic group.

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2. Prove that the Klein-4 group is not cyclic.
In the Klein-4 group, every element is its own inverse.
𝑥 2 = 𝑥. 𝑥 = 𝑒
𝑥 3 = 𝑥 2 . 𝑥 = 𝑒𝑥 = 𝑥
If 𝑛 is even, 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑥 2𝑟 = (𝑥 2 )𝑟 = 𝑒 𝑟 = 𝑒
If 𝑛 is odd, 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑛−1 . 𝑥 = 𝑒𝑥 = 𝑥
Therefore, every integral power of 𝑥 is equal to either 𝑒 or 𝑥.
⟹ No element in this group can be a generator.
⟹ Klein-4 group is not cyclic.
3. Prove that the multiplicative group of non-zero rational numbers are not
cyclic.

.IN
Consider (𝑄 ∗ ,×).
𝑄 ∗ is the set of all non-zero rational numbers and × is the usual multiplication.
Suppose (𝑄 ∗ ,×) is cyclic.
C
𝑝
⟹ There is a non-zero rational number 𝑞 ≠ 1 as a generator.
N
𝑝 𝑚 𝑝 𝑛
⟹ Since 2, 3 ∈ 𝑄 ∗ , we have 2 = (𝑞 ) and 3 = (𝑞 ) for some 𝑚, 𝑛 ∈ 𝑍.
SY

⟹ This gives 2𝑛 = 3𝑛 , which is impossible.

Therefore, (𝑄 ∗ ,×) is not cyclic.
U

4. Prove that the group (𝒁𝟒 , +) is cyclic. Find all its generators.
The elements of 𝑍 are the congruent classes [0], [1], [2], [3].
VT

The operator + is ′𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑜 4′ .

[1] = [1]1
[2] = [1] + [1] = [1]2
[3] = [1] + [1] + [1] = [1]3
[4] = [1] + [1] + [1] + [1] = [1]4
Therefore, every element of 𝑍 is an integral power of [1].
Therefore, (𝑍4 , +) is a cyclic group.
[1] is the generator of 𝑍4 .
[1]−1 = [−1] = [4 − 1] = [3] is also a generator of 𝑍4 .
[0]𝑛 ≠ [1], for any 𝑛 ∈ 𝑍.
[2]𝑛 ≠ [1], for any 𝑛 ∈ 𝑍.
Therefore, [1] and [3] are the only generators of 𝑍4 .

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 5.5 Lagrange’s theorem
If G is a finite group and H is a subgroup of G, then 𝑶(𝑮)|𝑶(𝑯).
Proof:
H is a subgroup of a finite group G.
⟹ H is also finite.
⟹ 𝐻 = {ℎ1 , ℎ2 , ℎ3 , … , ℎ𝑛 }, where each ℎ𝑖 is distinct.
⟹ 𝐻𝑎 = {ℎ1 𝑎, ℎ2 𝑎, ℎ3 𝑎, … , ℎ𝑛 𝑎}, where each ℎ𝑖 𝑎 is distinct.
⟹ The right coset 𝐻𝑎 has 𝑛 distinct elements.
Since G is finite, there are a finite number of distinct right cosets.
Let 𝐺 = 𝐻𝑎1 ∪ 𝐻𝑎2 ∪ … ∪ 𝐻𝑎𝑘
⟹ 𝑂(𝐺) = |𝐻𝑎1 | + |𝐻𝑎2 | + ⋯ + |𝐻𝑎𝑘 | = 𝑛 + 𝑛 + ⋯ 𝑘 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠 = 𝑛𝑘

.IN
⟹ 𝑛|𝑂(𝐺)
⟹ 𝑂(𝐻)|𝑂(𝐺)
C
N
SY
U
VT

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