Building Drawing N3

Module 1

Brickwork

Learning Outcomes

After completing this module, a student must be able to:

 Showcase his/her understanding of bonding in walls up to two bricks thick and
differentiate between the English and Flemish bonds
 Explain the building works involved when constructing a cavity wall, including methods
of finishes applied at openings
 Describe the construction and uses of vertical damp proof courses

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1.1. Introduction

The aim and objective of this module is to help students understand the different types of
bonds used when carrying out construction work where building material is brick or masonry.
In addition, the module will cover bonding in the brickwork at the corners, tees and cross
junctions.

1.2. Bonding

Bonding is the pattern the builder uses to lay bricks to give the finished wall a pleasant look.
There are different types of bonds and rules which apply to how bonds are used. This module
will cover six rules to be followed when solving bonding questions.

 Reinforced brickwork
Reinforced brickwork is brickwork built with rods and wires to strengthen the wall. Figure 1
below shows brick force used as brick reinforcement and the application of brick reinforcement
on the wall.

Figure 1 Reinforced brickwork and brick force reinforcement.

1.2.1. Rules of bonding

To understand bonding in brickwork, it is recommended to think of bricks on the wall

as one unit fixed together.

 Brickwork bonding will depend on the type of bonds the builder uses
 Examples of bond types are stretcher bond, English bond, etc.
 Another important point to note is how the brickwork overlaps

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  In English bond, the bricklayer or builder alternates the rows of bricks or courses
between the stretcher and header. Figure 1.1 below shows the English bond and parts
of the brick.

Figure 1.1 English bond and parts of the brick.

 Overlapping brickwork can either form a quarter bond or sectional bond. A quarter
bond is formed when the quarter bat overlaps the closer. The quarter bat is the size of
a brick obtained when a quarter size is cut from a full brick. A closer is the brick cut
along its length
 With a sectional bonding, a three-quarter bat is used instead of a quarter bat

When using bricks as building materials, there are terms students need to know to
understand the topic well. Those terms are described below.

Header – the face of the brick on the width side (refer to Figure 1.1)

Stretcher - the face of the brick on the longest side.

Joint – the space between the bricks which is 10-15mm thick and it is filled with mortar.

Mortar – is a paste formed by mixing water and sand (lime) and used when building to
ensure that the bricks are bonded well together.

Broken bond – a bonding pattern formed by cutting bricks when dimensions do not allow for
a full brick to be used.

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 Figure 1.2 Shaded bricks show broken bond.

To avoid straight joints, vertical joints ought to run across the entire thickness of the wall unless
interrupted by a stretcher. This is called sectional bonding.

Figure 1.3 Examples of different types of bonds.

Two bricks can be bonded to a pier to avoid straight joints. Straight joints affect the way the
load is transferred from one brick to another, which also affects damage to the wall due to the
straight joint.

Bonding the bricks to the pier to avoid straight joints may give the wall an unpleasant look. As
can be seen from the figure below, where the wall meets the pier, a straight bond is formed
and the builder, in this case, used half bats and quarter bats.

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 Figure 1.4 Showing bricks bonded to a pier to avoid straight joint.

It is always advisable to use a full brick for a good appearance and to avoid broken bonds.
One of many tactics to promote aesthetics is setting out the walls properly, especially the first
two courses. When the walls are set out properly, the vertical joints become perpendicular.
Perpendicular joints are said to be plump, and they are called perpents. The bricklayer or
builder must check the plumpness at every 3 courses or when necessary.

1.2.2 Stretcher bond

Stretcher bond - It is the type of bond whereby most bricks visible on the face of the wall show
a stretcher face.

[Link] Half-brick wall in a stretcher bond

Figure 1.5 Plan and elevation views of a half-brick wall in a stretcher bond.

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[Link] T-junction and cross junction in a half-brick wall

Figure 1.6 T-junction and cross junction in a half-brick wall.

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[Link] One brick wall

Figure 1.6 One brick wall with a stopped end and toothing on the other end.

[Link] Piers

Figure 1.7 A half-brick wall attached to a pier.

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 Figure 1.8 Plan view and an elevation of how a pier and a wall bond.

[Link] T-junction

Figure 1.9 T-junction plan view and elevation in block work.

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1.3. English bond

1.3.1 Two brick walling in English bond

This section deals with the English bond of a two-brick wall as illustrated in Figure 1.6.

Figure 1.10 Plan view of a two-brick wall in English bond.

Figure 1.10 shows an example of a wall built using English bond. As explained in the previous
sections, English bond is the type of bond which alternates courses between the stretcher and
header bond.

The shape or layout of the building differs, and this is determined by the external angle. This
angle is called quoin and the brick laid at the corner is called the quoin header. An example is
shown below, and the big blocks/bricks form the quoin.

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 Figure 1.11 A wall showing a quoin header.

1.3.2. Stopped T-junction between a two-and-a-half brick wall and a two-brick-

wall

Internal walls divide a building into a series of rooms and, depending on positioning, internal
walls can follow either a stopped T-junction or a crossed junction. A stopped T-junction can
occur where the internal wall forms an intersection with an external wall, and it forms a T-
shape. An example of a stopped T-junction is shown on Figure 1.12 below.

Figure 1.12 Stopped T-junction.

There can also be an alternative bonding when the stop end makes a T-junction as can be
seen on the figure below. The difference here is the minimal use of quarter bats as can be
seen in figure 1.13, there are more bats.

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 Figure 1.13 Alternative stopped T-junction.

1.3.3 Two-and-a-half brick walling in English bond

Brick wall thickness depends on the number of bricks used; however, the type of bond stays
the same regardless of the size of the wall.

The size of a brick used in South Africa is shown below.

Figure 1.14 Dimensions of a brick.

Different wall sizes built with the brick in the above picture can be as follows:

 Half-brick wall – is 115mm thick and it is built with one

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  One brick wall – minimum thickness is 230mm
 Two brick wall – minimum thickness is 460mm
 Two and a half brick wall – minimum thickness is 575mm

Therefore, this means that a two and a half-brick wall built using English bond has a
minimum thickness of 575mm but follows similar rules to English bond.

The figure below shows two alternatives for bonding the two and a half brickwork in English
bond.

Figure 1.15 An example of English bond in a two and a half brick wall.

Figure 1.16 An example of English bond on a two and half a brick wall.

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1.3.4 Stopped intersection between the two-and-a-half brick wall in English bond
and a three-brick wall in Flemish bond

The figure below shows a stopped end intersection between a one-and-a-half brick wall and
a two-brick wall in English bond. Depending on the layout of the wall, queen closer, half bats
and three-quarter bats can be used where the walls intersect, as can be seen on the left in the
picture below.

Figure 1.17 Stopped intersection in English bond.

1.3.5 Three-brick walling in English bond

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 Figure 1.18 Isometric view of a three-brick wall in English bond.

1.3.6 Crossed intersection between a three and a two-brick wall

Figure 1.19 Example of a crossed

intersection between a one and a
half wall built in English bond.

Figure 1.20 An example of a crossed intersection between a two-brick wall built in English
bond.

1.3.7 Isolated piers in English bond

Pier – is a load-bearing support which is vertical and used in different parts of construction
and building. Piers can be of various shapes such as rectangular, circular etc.

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 Figure 1.21 Brick pier.

When building a pier, the same types of bonds discussed previously still apply. For example,
in the above figure, the stretcher bond is used when building this pier.

Figure 1.22 An isolated brick pier plan view in English bond.

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 Figure 1.23 An isolated brick pier elevation view in English bond.

1.4 Flemish bond

1.4.1 Two brick walling in Flemish bond

Flemish bond – it is a type of bond which is formed by laying both headers and stretchers
alternatively in the same course.

Figure 1.24 A plan view of a one brick wall in Flemish bond.

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 Figure 1.25 An elevation view of a one brick wall in Flemish bond.

1.4.1 Two brick walling in Flemish bond

In a two-brick wall Flemish bond, as in one brick wall, the builder still alternates headers and
stretchers in one course. Also, the similar brick arrangement of using closers and quarter
bats as seen in Figure 1.24 still applies in a two-brick wall Flemish bond.

Figure 1.26 A plan view of two-brick wall in Flemish bond.

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Figure 1.27 A plan and elevation views of a one brick wall crossed intersection and stopped
intersection.

Figure 1.28 A plan view of a two-brick wall stopped intersection.

1.4.2 Two-and-a-half brick walling in double Flemish bond

There are two types of bonds which can be formed from Flemish bond: single Flemish bond
and double Flemish bond.

 Single Flemish bond – in this type of Flemish bond, the wall visible to people shows a
Flemish bond finish. However, the internal wall has an English bond finish. The
assumption here is that the wall is a one brick wall.

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  Double Flemish bond – in this instance, both the exterior and interior parts of the wall
have a Flemish bond finished look. This means on both side of the wall, the viewer will
see alternating headers and stretchers.

Figure 1.29 A plan view of a two-brick wall double Flemish bond.

Rules of double Flemish bond

Below are a few rules which should be followed when building a double Flemish bond
 At every course, there ought to be a quoin header
 At every course, a quoin closer should be adjacent or next to a quoin header which is
broken at one brick intervals through the whole thickness
 To make it a Flemish bond, every course should contain alternative headers and
stretchers
 The headers and stretchers on the internal and external wall built in Flemish bond
should be opposite to each other except in a three and a half-wall

1.4.3 Three-brick walling in double Flemish bond

A three-brick wall in the double Flemish bond has more closers and half-bats compared to a
two-brick and half brick wall.

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 Figure 1.30Three-brick walling in double Flemish bond.

1.4.4 Three-brick thick wall in single Flemish

A three-brick wall in the double Flemish bond has more closers and half-bats as compared
to a two-brick and half brick wall.

Figure 1.31Three-brick walling in double Flemish bond.

1.4.5 Isolated piers in Flemish bond

Depending on the size, piers in English bond still follows similar rules as when building a
wall.

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 Figure 1.32 Isolated piers in Flemish bond.

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Figure 1.33 shows the arrangement of course 1 and course 2 when using Flemish bond.

1.5 Bonding acute and obtuse angles

In the previous sections, it was said that quoin is an external angle of the building, and it is
formed by a quoin brick or stone or any other building material. External angles can be of any
choice depending on the chosen building layout. If the angle is not 90o or perpendicular, the
builder can form an acute angle which is less than 90o or an obtuse angle, greater than 90o.
Quoins that are either acute or obtuse are called Squint quoins.

There are a few important points to be aware of when it comes to squint quoins:

 Both acute and obtuse squint quoins are found in non-rectangular buildings
 The acute quoin is not as popular as the obtuse quoin
 Where windows are polygonal, or the building shape is also polygonal, obtuse quoins
are used

 Squint quoins are said to be weaker than perpendicular quoins because they involve
a substantial amount of cutting bricks
 When used in building, quoin bricks should be large pieces and not small pieces or be
sharply jointed. In some cases, bricks are purposely designed to be used as quoin
bricks are used for better jointing

 Builders should cater to both aesthetics and strength when building. This means that
they should build the internal and external wall properly and not fill the interior with
broken brick pieces and mortar

Definition
Concrete – It is a building material made by mixing crushed stones, sand, cement and water
and gains strength after it hardens. One area where concrete is used is in the foundations,
before laying bricks.

Figure 1.34 An acute squint with an angle of 50o .

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 Figure 1.35 An obtuse squint.

1.6. Bonding acute squint quoins in English bond

 The angle of the squints affects the shape of the brick immediately next to the quoin
brick called closer. The closer forms a right angle with the quoin brick.

Figure 1.36 A squint quoin and closer on the right.

 As the angle gets smaller and smaller than 90o, the squint becomes too sharp and the
closer takes an awkward shape and becomes too small. From the figure below it can be
seen that a squint of the right wall has a bigger closer compared to the closer on the left
wall.

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 Figure 1.37 Comparing two acute squints.

 Appearance or aesthetics must be always observed when building acute squints.

Obtaining good appearance of the squint depends on cutting the quoin from the closer
to get a quoin header. It can be seen from the picture below that the closers and squint
are cut from the full brick or the closer.

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 Figure 1.38 Different brick sizes with much emphasis on squint quoin and closers.

 Since quoins are cut from bricks, using ordinary bricks with frogs, gives a problem of
creating an irregular shape which then gives the building or joints an unsightly look.
Joints that are not aesthetically appealing can be ignored if the building is to be
plastered; otherwise, they should be avoided. A frog is shown in the above picture

 Where the building layout requires the use of quoins, or when there is a need to cut
the brick, a wood mould or template is used to mark the area on the brick to be cut.
Cutting can be done using a hammer and bolster and to smooth out rough edges, a
brick hammer is used

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  After cutting bricks, closers have a triangular shape as can be seen in the figure below,
by triangular closers at the corners.

Figure 1.39 Acute squints showing the place of headers in dashed lines.

It should be noted that all the rules of bonding still apply in this instance, however, better
bonding at the corner wall ties, shown in figure 1.40, may be used to ensure the junction
becomes strong and the wall stays together.

Figure 1.40 Wall ties in different shapes.

1.6.1 Purpose-made bricks

A simpler and aesthetically appealing method of constructing an acute squint is to use quoins
made by the manufacturer to fit the desired angle. It is a time-saving method because it
eliminates the process of marking and cutting the brick to get a quoin.

The quoin bricks are manufactured specifically and are called purpose-made bricks because
they are only manufactured under special orders and are not part of the manufacturer’s readily
available stock.

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This method of using factory-supplied quoins is called birds mouth and it can be applied in
English and Flemish bond.

1.7. Obtuse squint quoins

When building an obtuse squint, the following rules apply:

 The rules discussed in bonding brickwork still apply in a similar manner when building
obtuse squint. However, since in an obtuse squint the angle between the two walls is
greater than the 90o, the quoin brick is always smaller than the normal header and
stretcher in size

Figure 1.41 Obtuse squints on the internal and external walls showing a smaller closer.

 Quoins used in obtuse squints are smaller in size because jointing on the external wall
is strictly prohibited. Moreover, it is also impossible to use the full brick of 230mm or
longer specifically for quoins unless the brick is purposely manufactured to be used
when building an obtuse squint

 Obtuse squints are mostly used where window shapes are splay-sided bay windows
such as the one showed in Figure 1.38. During construction or building work, where
there is a need for a splay-sided window, aesthetics or appearance is more important
on the external wall because the internal wall will be plastered to cover any
irregularities

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 Figure 1.42 Splay-sided bay windows.

 Similar with the acute squints, manufacturers can produce obtuse squints for most
bay windows, however, if the quoins aren’t available, the builder can choose to build
quoins in wire cut or pressed bricks shown in the figure below.

Figure 1.43Example of a pressed brick.

 Pressed bricks are bricks manufactured separately in each of the mould boxes. These
bricks have a frog which is specifically needed for bonding, eliminating the use of
mortar
 Regardless of the angle which forms the obtuse squint, the quoin brick should be cut
or shaped in such a manner that even in the absence of a closer, the heading side
squint will show 37mm less than the stretching face to allow the wall bonding to the
squint to start properly

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 Figure 1.44 The circled part shows boding of the wall to the quoin brick.

 The circled part in Figure 1.44 explains the above point further. The wall is at an angle
(the wall on the left) which is also the heading face and is a bonding wall because it
bonds to the one on the right (horizontal wall), also the stretching face. The squint in
the heading face is less than the one in the stretching face

 Obtuse squint quoins are either cut to fit the required shape or are purposely
manufactured in the appropriate shape or angle. The dimensions on the sides of the
bricks are 57mm on one side and 172mm on the other side

 The side with 57mm dimensions is considered the header, and the closer of a boding
wall is placed on this side to obtain a 57mm lap

 The 172mm may be reduced to a length of 115mm to make broken bonds or to promote
strong bonds in a pier

 If the length of the quoin is reduced, then using a closer is eliminated, and the quoin is
placed in a manner that is suitable to form the bond between two walls

1.7.1 Bonding obtuse squint quoins in English bond

A one-brick wall, where the dimension of the wall is 230mm English bond, does not present
any difficulties during construction. Bonding of the obtuse squints is also simpler if all the
rules are adhered to.

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 Figure 1.45 An obtuse squint in English bond.

[Link] Drawing the obtuse squint

Below is the procedure to be followed when drawing the obtuse squint:

1. Check the required obtuse angle of the wall and firstly, draw the squint brick. When
drawing, the student must remember that 57mm is the header side and 172mm is the
stretcher side. For example, if the requirement is to draw the wall below, the angle of the
squint would be 135o .

2. Place a 57mm closer to obtain a required 57mm lap next to the corner header and
continue drawing headers one after the other.

3. Obtain a sectional bond immediately. Remember, with sectional bonding; the three-
quarter bat is used instead of a quarter bat.

4. Ensure that headers are tied in as far as possible.

5. Check the internal straight joints.

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1.8 Cavity walls

 Cavity walls are the type of walls which have a hollow space of about 50mm wide in-
between the external and internal walls. To ensure the walls are connected well, wall
ties are used. There are many advantages of using cavity walls and reasons they are
sometimes preferred to ordinary walls

 Similar building materials such as bricks and mortar are still used when building a
cavity wall

 One of the many advantages of cavity walls is minimal to no absorption of water during
heavy storms because of the hollow section, which is the part labelled, insulation, in
the figure below. On the left, and on the right, there is a space left hollow.

Figure 1.46 Cavity wall.

 Water absorption is the amount of water which a material can absorb at a specified
rate and time. It is expressed in percentage as the ratio of the weight of the wet
unit to the weight of the dry unit.

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1.8.1 Purpose of cavity walls

Cavity walls are built to perform some, or all the functions stated below:
 To ensure the internal side of the external wall is dry and free of any moisture
 To keep the temperature of the internal building constant without any additional use of
building material or cooling equipment
 To increase the width of the thin wall without using more building material. If, for
example, the ordinary wall is a one brick wall, building a cavity wall of the same size
does not affect the material; it just increases the width
 To use bricks of different thickness with the aim of reducing costs

1.8.2. Resistance to damp

The interior surface of the external walls becomes damp or shows signs of wetness in two
ways:

 By absorbing rain during wet or rainy seasons through the pores of the bricks
 When moisture travels through walls of the building vertically during the humid
atmosphere after penetrating through the walls

Absorption of rain is a leading cause of wet walls which occurs when the walls are exposed to
the atmosphere. This means the walls are also exposed to direct rain which also means the
absorption rate is high.

 Building cavity walls prevents any water or moisture from penetrating the interior
surface. In addition, if absorption occurs because of faulty joints, the water will be
drained in the cavity

 Moisture build-up due to humid temperatures cannot be avoided if mortar and bricks
exhibit high porous properties, regardless of the wall type. The change or effect of
moisture build-up can only be seen if the temperature is reduced

 The effect of dampness due to humid temperature is prevented by a well-ventilated

cavity which allows circulation of the moisture

1.8.3 Equability of temperature

 Cavity walls have the advantage of controlling temperature changes within a short
space of time if they are not over-ventilated. This is another benefit other than the one
specified in the above section, which states that cavity walls allow damp circulation
reducing moisture build-up on walls

 The ability of cavity walls to reduce heat is due to the hollow section, which acts as a
barrier that reduces the transfer of heat from one place to another. Or, we can say the
hollow section does not transfer heat at a rapid rate

 The slow transfer of heat provided by the hollow section means that in the winter, the
transfer of heat from the interior is very slow or doesn’t occur at all. While the flow of
heat from the exterior to the interior is also prevented in summer. This analogy applies
if the brick thickness is the same

 For the cavity wall to be effective in terms of reducing the transfer of heat, ventilation
must not be too free. This means insulation should be provided or the ability to provide
ventilation will be destroyed in winter

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1.8.4 Hollow or cavity wall plans

In weather prone to snow, rain and hail, but more specifically rain, it has been discovered that
one-brick walls (230mm and 345 mm) are only suitable for smaller buildings meant for
domestic purposes and not for big buildings meant for commercial purposes. This is because
the rate of absorption in walls of such thickness is very high in wet climatic conditions.

On a plan or drawing, an ordinary wall and a cavity wall differ greatly in thickness. The
thickness between the internal and external wall of a cavity wall is 50mm (minimum) while that
of an ordinary wall varies between 10-15mm.

A plan or drawing shows the layout of the house in a horizontal plane or when looking from
above the house downwards. It shows floor area and any objects inside the building in a
horizontal plane.

Figure 1.47 An example of a building plan or drawing where walls are cavity walls.

 Cavity walls are used in such a position

 As explained earlier, a cavity wall has a hollow space between the internal and external
wall and the recommended dimensions should range between 50mm-76mm When
building a cavity wall, building regulations which are the laws set by the government or
other agencies, should be adhered to. The minimum cavity wall dimension should be
280mm

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  When bricks are used as building materials, the recommended thickness for external
walls will be 115mm. The inner thickness of the external wall can have any thickness,
which is sufficient to support the floor and roofs. However, it should be noted that the
dimensions of the cavity walls should adhere to regulations or model by-laws

 When the front part of the building is constructed with a stone, making it hard to have
thin outer walls, a half-wall is built on the interior. The wall built with stone will carry
girders and beams

Figure 1.48 A pictorial representation of beams and girders.

Beams are horizontal building members that help to carry and resist load applied vertically, in
a downward direction.
Girders are beams and have the functionality of beams but are much bigger in size compared
to beams.

1.8.5 Bonding

 When building a cavity wall, there is a choice to use different types of bonds on one
wall. For example, in the inner wall of the one-brick wall, English bond can be used.
For a pleasant look, a Flemish bond can be used on the outer wall of the Flemish
garden bond

 Flemish garden bond is the type of bond which is built by laying three to four stretchers
between one header

 If the different types of bonds are used, then headers on the outer wall of Flemish bond
or Flemish garden bond, will be half bats or snap-headers. English bond can be on the
inner wall if the thickness is greater than 115mm

 For a wall to be a cavity wall, the inner and outer wall should not be in contact, however,
they ought to be one entity, and the use of ties serves this purpose. Metal ties or special
bonding bricks ensure walls remain intact and are tied together

 Special bonding bricks are stoneware of various patterns. Some of the patterns are
splayed, curved or perforated and are roughly glazed to make sure they have a surface
that prohibits the absorption of water

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  Metal ties are made from various materials like cast iron, wrought iron, zinc or steel
wire in different shapes. Refer to Figure 1.36 for different shapes of wall ties

 It is important to prevent rusting of metal strips because the build-up of rust may cause
expansion of ties which lead to breakage. If metal ties break, it means walls are not
connected anymore. Rust is prevented by painting, galvanising or dipping ties in a hot
bituminous compound

 Dipping in a bituminous compound offers more protection than other methods.

However, galvanising increases adhesion of the ties with mortar. Metal ties should be
built 76mm in the face of each wall

 Jointing occurs during the initial set of mortar. The initial set means the time when
mortar starts to dry out or set, but has not hardened

 Special bonding brick and metal ties are placed in mortar which is poured along the
longer side of the brick. The space from one tie to another should be kept at 900mm
and should be placed at every four to six courses. They should be arranged in a
diagonal pattern, alternatively, over one another

 It is believed that the hollow space does not only prevent dampness from reaching the
interior walls but also keeps the building warm by trapping the air in the cavity and
preventing heat transfer

 Another advantage is that bricks of different sizes can be used to build a cavity wall,
and due to the increased width provided by the hollow space, it increases the stability
of thin walls

 Moisture from air or rain is absorbed due to the ability of bricks to absorb water.
Increased absorption of moisture builds up on walls causing damp, which does not
provide a healthy environment to live in

 The hollow space in cavity walls prevents any water or moisture from penetrating the
interior surface. In addition, if absorption occurs because of faulty joints, the water will
be drained in the cavity

 Due to the porosity properties of bricks, moisture will always be absorbed, however, if
ventilation is sufficient, absorption of moisture and build-up can be prevented

 Sometimes alternative bricks are used on the outer wall for architectural purposes or
the preference of texture. Sometimes these bricks are chosen because they are
durable, less costly and absorb less water; that is, they are impervious

 These special bricks or alternative bricks vary in size with the standard brick
demanding care to be exercised when using them to avoid any bonding problems. An
example is glazed brickwork which requires thinner joints

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 Figure 1.49 A glazed brick.

 When using special bricks, joints in the internal wall do not coincide every time. Also,
certain heights can be reached at different times since the walls do not rise at the same
time

 The advantage of the cavity wall is that it easily allows the use of bricks with different
thicknesses. Care should, however, be exercised by ensuring the two walls stay
together by using ties. Ties, in this case, should be used where the out and the inner
wall coincide

 The building standards or by-laws do not prohibit using 230mm walls in the
construction of two-storey buildings in many districts. However, the height may be
restricted to 7,600mm (7.6m) above the foundation footing

 The disadvantage of constructing a two-storey building using 230mm walls is that they
do not provide good stability for tall buildings. This problem worsens when bricks and
mortar are of poor quality

 If the wall is a two-and-a-half cavity wall, and both the inner and outer walls are properly
held together with metal ties, this increases the large area of the wall and increases
stability

1.9 Absorption by bricks and stones

 The ability of material to absorb water is governed by the texture and density. This means
that if the texture of the material is impervious and has high density, porosity will be less.
Also, porosity is inversely proportional to hardness. When hardness of the material
increases, porosity decreases

 A good quality brick has a mass of 3.5kg and absorbs 0.5kg of water. A brick of less
quality weighs less and absorbs more water because hardness and density are reduced,
increasing porosity. Glazed bricks absorb much less water compared to the two types of
bricks discussed previously

 The hardness of stones suitable to be used in the external surface will absorb 17% of
the moisture, including limestones

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Module 1 Building Drawing N3
  The absorption rate of granite is 1% while marble is non-absorbent. Marble was used for
manufacturing baths in ancient Rome times because of its properties to hold water

 Material properties mentioned above, show that in areas where heavy rainstorms are
experienced, water can be absorbed in the walls and penetrate until it reaches the plaster
on the interior wall causing dampness on the walls. See figure below.

Figure 1.50 Dampness is shown by the dark circular marking on the wall.

 As can be seen from the above figure, dampness does not give a pleasant look and it
also provides an unhealthy environment to live in

 During building work, the damp proof course is provided 152mm from the subsoil to
prevent moisture from rising up the walls

Damp-proof course (DPC)

A layer or course is used above the subsoil of the in window opening to prevent vertical
movement of water.

Figure 1.51 A damp proof course shown in black colour.

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There are many ways that can be used to prevent water from penetrating through the wall,
and two of them include plastering the external wall with an impervious coat and adding
waterproof paint. Another method is to apply an oil base coat.

The modern way of avoiding moisture absorption through the walls is by building a cavity wall
which has 115mm dimension on the inner and outer walls of the external wall and provides a
hollow space ranging from 38mm to 89mm. The two-brick walls should be connected with ties
to ensure that they stay together.

1.9.1 Types of wall ties

The figure below shows the use of a vitrified tie brick.

Figure 1.52 Vitrified brick tie in a cavity wall.

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 Figure 1.53 Different patterns of wall ties.

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Module 1 Building Drawing N3
1.10 Various arrangements in cavity walls

1.10.1 Alternate plan courses

Figure 1.54 Metal ties built in a wall on the left and various shapes of metal ties on the right.

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1.10.2 Arrangement at stopped end

Figure 1.55 Shows a three-quarter bat used at the end of a cavity wall.

1.10.3 Arrangement reveals employing King and Queen closers

Reveals are used at the face of the opening, such as for doors and windows. The figure below
shows the window reveal and closer stop-end where the window will connect with the wall.

Figure 1.56 Stopped end of cavity wall at the window opening.

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1.10.4 Arrangement at reveal employing slates to close cavity

Cavity walls around the opening use different materials to ensure windows are properly fixed
and secured to the wall. Material such as slates are used to close the cavity around the
window.

The figure below shows a lintel cavity tray placed above the window opening. Other materials
can be used in a similar manner as the lintel tray to close the cavity.

Figure 1.57 Lintel cavity tray used to close the cavity above window opening.

Figure 1.58 Shows English bond in the inner wall.

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Module 1 Building Drawing N3
1.11 Disadvantages of cavity walls

The discussion in the previous sections clearly shows many advantages of cavity walls,
however, there are some disadvantages of using cavity walls as discussed below:

 The cavity in a cavity wall wastes space, which means interior walls become smaller
because of the additional space required

 Cavity walls require special attention and material around doors and windows to
protect against water penetration and exposure to severe weather

 In thin walls, the weight from floor timber may be carried by the 114mm inner wall, and
this may pose stability issues

 The cavity wall may harbour unwanted creatures such as rats, worms, flies, mice,
weasels if not protected from the beginning. It may be hard to even get rid of these
creatures because once the building is finished, the cavity cannot be inspected

1.12 Dampness penetration

It was said that all brick material absorb water to a certain level which can introduce damp and
moisture to the interior of the building. However, there are other ways which damp can
penetrate buildings, and they are discussed below:

 Rain can penetrate where the wall ends if the capping material fails (see the figure
below) and then soak down to levels below the roof

Figure 1.59 Capping materials to close the cavity where the wall ends.

 Rain penetrates through the outer skin, and moisture gets absorbed by the fabric or
insulation. This can introduce moisture into the interior walls of the building and cause
dampness

 Moisture can also travel from the subsoil vertically up the walls, just above the subsoil,
through the narrow spaces of the bricks and cause dampness

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1.13 Damp-proof courses

The damp-proof course is used in buildings to provide a barrier which prevents moisture from
reaching the fabric from an external source such as the subsoil or rain.

It can also be used as a barrier that stops moisture travelling from one part of the building to
another.
The damp-proof course can be used horizontally or vertically in the following areas:

 Below the ground level to prevent moisture from the subsoil reaching the floor level
 A few distances above ground level to prevent moisture travelling up the wall
vertically by capillary action. Capillary action means the transfer of liquids from one
point to another by moving through narrow spaces

1.14 Materials for damp proof courses

The building standard used to select material for damp proof course is BS 743. The standard
states the following criteria which these materials must comply with:

 Damp proof course must be completely impervious. This means it must provide a
complete barrier to prevent water from passing through

 It must be durable. Buildings are constructed to last for many years, therefore, the
damp proof course must last longer than other building material because once used in
a building, it cannot be replaced

 It must not spoil the appearance or shape of the building

 It must also be able to withstand or carry the applied load without forcing appearance
through the walls

 It must be flexible to conform to the movement of the building such as settlement or

expansion without fracturing

Important notes

Lead – Any lead used in buildings should be code No.4-BS 1178 lead to show that it complies
with the British standards. Lead is a flexible material which is supplied in sheets of small
thicknesses, making it easy to use and model to make different shapes with little joints. It is a
very expensive material which can easily be dented if subjected to heavy loading.

Copper – The minimum thickness to be used is 0.25mm, and it is also expensive like lead.

Bitumen – Bitumen is used for many purposes, but one of them is roof surfacing. It also can
be laid beneath the tiles. It is supplied in thin sheets forming small joints, and it needs to be
laid as quickly as possible. Before laying a sheet of bitumen, different bases such as hessian,
fibre, asbestos and lead can be applied for better cohesion.

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Module 1 Building Drawing N3
 Figure 1.60 shows a man laying bitumen felt.

Mastic asphalt – Mastic asphalt is another material which can be used as a roofing finish and
is applied in two layers giving a total thickness of 25mm. It is applied on site where it needs to
be used and is supplied in liquid form, meaning it does not form any joints. It is an expensive
material.

Figure 1.61 A man applying mastic asphalt.

Polythene – Is also supplied in sheet-form of assorted colours, however, in building, a

recommended colour is black with a thickness of 0.5m. Due to low its density, it can easily be
torn and punctured.

Slates – Are materials used as either roof tiles or floor tiles. The recommended length should
be more than 230mm long, and the minimum thickness recommended is 4mm. When used as
floor tiles, they are laid in two courses separated by mortar of 1:3 mix ratios. They are inflexible
but have a hard, durable surface which is also impervious. The cost depends on location.

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Module 1 Building Drawing N3
 Figure 1.62 An example of roof slates.

Bricks - Bricks used in building should comply to BS 3921 standards and should be laid in
two courses. Bonding between bricks is provided by cement mortar of 1:3 mix ratios.

Worked example 1

Using a scale of 1:5, draw a vertical cross-section through cavity wall showing details of a
window frame. The wall is plastered internally only.

SPECIFICATIONS

Bottom rail: 70mm x 50mm

Sill: 125mm x 75mm
Internal sill: 150mm x 15mm fibre cement
External sill: brick-on-edge
Cavity wall: 290mm
Plaster: 19mm
DPC 375 micron

Worked example 2

Using a scale of 1:10, draw two vertical sections showing details from foundation to a few
courses above ground level. Ensure your section shows all important components such as
weeping hole, hardcore, floor finishes and any other information learned in this module.

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Module 1 Building Drawing N3
Specification

Walls: Cavity wall 280mm

Solid wall 230mm
Plaster: Cavity wall 20mm internally only
Solid wall 20 mm both sides
Weeping holes: In cavity wall only floor
Screed: 50mm to both floors
Skirting: Cavity wall 75mm x 22mm meranti for both floors
Concrete floor 100mm on both floors
Foundations: Cavity wall 840mm x 300mm strip foundation
Solid wall 690mm x 230mm strip foundation
Natural ground level Not less than 150mm below DPC to both floors

Figure 1.63 Example of how to approach question (a).

 To answer question (a), it is best to start drawing with the foundation. A foundation is
a building component or structure which supports the rest of the building. In the above
figure, the foundation is shaded in grey colour

 It is also important to determine the centre line of the foundation (half the length of
foundation) and the thickness of the cavity. From the centre line, measure half of the
wall to the left and then to the right. That will be the position of the wall.

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Module 1 Building Drawing N3
  Once the edges of the walls have been established, the width of the brick can be
measured and drawn from the edges of the wall on both sides. The space left between
the walls will be the cavity

 Draw the height of about 5 courses above the foundation to the natural ground level
(subsoil level)

 Measure a height of 150mm from the natural ground level and mark this as the height
to place DPC

 Indicate a weeping hole with the same height as one brick. A weeping hole is a hole
that drains water from within the building to the external environment

 The weeping hole is at the same height as the internal floor where skirting can be
drawn. Measure the height and width of the skirting as provided, and draw it

 Remember to indicate plaster, both internally and externally

 Steps to follow when answering question (b) is still the same as previously outlined
steps for question (a); the only difference is wall thickness and foundation

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Module 1 Building Drawing N3
Additional material

1. Types of bonds
[Link]

2. Cavity walls
[Link]

3. Understanding obtuse and acute squints

[Link]
V1/[Link]

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Module 1 Building Drawing N3
References

1. Designing Buildings Wiki. (2020) Types of brick bonding.

[Link]
s%20the%20arrangement%20of,width%20wise%20along%20the%20wallViewed on 19
Nov. 2021.

2. Designing buildings. (, 2020). Wall tie failure. Available

[Link] Viewed on 19 Nov. 2021.

3. Swanton Welding Company. (, 2017). How is a girder different from a beam? Available at
[Link] Accessed 19 Nov.
20.
4. Flemish garden-wall bond. Available at
[Link] Accessed 19
Nov. 2021.

5. The Brick Industry Association. Technical Notes-17 -Reinforced Brick Masonry -

Introduction. Virginia, USA.

6. Types of Bonds in Brick Masonry Wall Construction-

[Link] Accessed 19 Nov. 2021.

7. Chudley R. & Greeno R. (2006) Advanced Construction Technology. 4th Ed. Pearson
Education Limited United Kingdom

8. Sharma, S. (2017). Various types of bonds used in brick masonry. Available at

[Link]
Accessed on 23 Nov. 2021.

9. Middleton G.A.T. Flemish Bond, Double and Single; Heading Bond; Stretching Bond,
And Garden-Wall Bond. Available at [Link]
Buildings-Construction-V1/Chapter-IV-Flemish-Bond-Double-And-Single-Heading-Bond-
[Link] Viewed on 23 Nov. 2021.

10. Solanki, R. (2020). Types of brick masonry English Bond & Flemish Bond- Difference
between English Bond and Flemish Bond. Available [Link]
flemish-bond/#What_Is_Flemish_Bond Viewed on 23 Nov. 20.

11. Sharma, S. (2017). Various types of bonds used in brick masonry. Available
[Link]
Viewed on 23 Nov. 2021.
12. Bailey H., Hancock D. (1990) Piers. In: Brickwork 2 and Associated Studies.
Palgrave, London. [Link]

13. Books of Brickworks. (, 2011). Available at [Link]

[Link]/2011/07/[Link] Viewed on 25 Nov. 2021.

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Module 1 Building Drawing N3
14. Melbourne Bricks. (, 2019). Brick Types at Melbourne Bricks. Available at
[Link] Viewed on 25
Nov. 2021.

15. The Constructor. What is a Cavity Wall? Construction and Advantages of Cavity wall.
Available at [Link]
advantages/14000/[Link]
advantages/14000/ Viewed on 25 Nov. 2021.

16. Wikipedia. Beams. Available at [Link] Viewed on

25 Nov. 2021.

17. Mishra G. Damp Proof Course (DPC) – Methods of DPC Installation in Construction.
Available at [Link] Viewed on
26 Nov. 2021.

18. Tutor isolated and brick pier. Available at [Link]

isolated-and-attached-piers-ppt1 Viewed on 22 Dec. 2021.

19. Gateway to Engineering studies Building Drawing N3. IF & Abrahams. Hybrid Learning
Solutions (Pty) Ltd

20. Bonding pattern. Available at [Link]

0----0-10-0---0---0direct-10---4-------0-1l--11-en-50---20-about---00-0-1-00-0--4----0-0-11-
10-0utfZz-8-00&a=d&cl=CL1.3&d=HASH01564539ee308f58c8424cbb.4.2 Viewed on 08
Jan. 2021

21. 9 Civ Tech Civil Serv 6 - Graphics_ Joining_ Roof work and Stormwater (Specific) no
[Link]://[Link]/FET%20vanaf%20Junie%202020/11/9%20Civ%20T
ech%20Civil%20Serv%206%20-
%20Graphics_%20Joining_%20Roofwork%20and%20Stormwater%20(Specific)%20no
%[Link] Viewed on 08 Jan. 2021

22. Walls and bricks. Available at [Link] Viewed on 08 Jan.

2021

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