1.
Terms: Basic Vocabulary
Archaea and Bacteria
• Both are prokaryotes (no nucleus, simple cells).
• Bacteria: Found everywhere — soil, water, human body.
• Archaea: Live in extreme places — very hot, salty, or acidic environments.
Prokaryote vs. Eukaryote
• Prokaryote: No nucleus, simple and small. Example: Bacteria, Archaea.
• Eukaryote: Has a nucleus, more complex and larger. Example: Animals, Plants, Fungi,
Protists.
Autotroph vs. Heterotroph
• Autotroph: Makes its own food. Example: Plants (photosynthesis).
• Heterotroph: Consumes other organisms for energy. Example: Humans, animals.
Unicellular vs. Multicellular
• Unicellular: Single-celled organisms. Example: Amoeba, bacteria.
• Multicellular: Many cells working together. Example: Humans, dogs, trees.
Chaperone Proteins
• Help other proteins fold into the correct three-dimensional shape.
• Incorrect folding can lead to malfunction or disease.
2. Properties of Life
All living things:
• Are made of cells
• Can reproduce
• Grow and develop
• Use energy
• Respond to their environment
• Maintain homeostasis (internal balance)
• Evolve over time
3. Biological Organization
Levels from smallest to biggest:
Atom → Molecule → Macromolecule → Organelle → Cell → Tissue → Organ → Organ
System → Organism → Population → Community → Ecosystem → Biome → Biosphere
4. Types of Bonds
Type Description Example
Covalent Bond Share electrons Water (H₂O)
Ionic Bond Transfer electrons Salt (NaCl)
Hydrogen Bond Weak attraction between molecules Water molecules sticking together
5. Chemistry Basics
Term Meaning
Atomic number Number of protons in an atom
Atomic mass Sum of protons and neutrons
Ion Atom with a positive or negative charge
Isotope Same element, different number of neutrons
Isomer Same chemical formula, different structure
Compound Two or more elements bonded together
Element A pure substance like carbon (C) or oxygen (O)
Trace Element An element needed in very small amounts (iron, zinc)
6. Organic Molecules (Molecules of Life)
Type Monomer Function
Carbohydrates Monosaccharides (simple sugars) Provide quick energy
Proteins Amino acids Build body structures, enzymes
Nucleic Acids Nucleotides Store and transmit genetic information
Lipids (No true monomer) Store energy, form cell membranes
Animal Fats vs. Plant Fats
• Animal fats: Saturated fats (solid at room temperature, like butter).
• Plant fats: Unsaturated fats (liquid at room temperature, like olive oil).
Simple vs. Complex Carbohydrates
• Simple Carbohydrates: Sugars, provide quick bursts of energy.
• Complex Carbohydrates: Starches and fibers, provide longer-lasting energy.
Hydrolysis vs. Dehydration Synthesis
• Hydrolysis: Breaks molecules apart by adding water.
• Dehydration Synthesis: Joins molecules together by removing water.
Denaturation
• When a protein loses its shape due to heat, pH change, or chemicals, causing it to lose
function.
7. Organelles: Name, Structure, and Function
Organelle Function
Nucleus Stores DNA and controls the cell
Mitochondria Produces energy (ATP)
Ribosome Makes proteins
Endoplasmic Reticulum Rough ER has ribosomes and makes proteins; Smooth ER makes
(ER) lipids
Golgi Apparatus Modifies, packages, and ships proteins
Lysosome Digests waste and old cell parts
Chloroplast Site of photosynthesis (plants only)
Cell Membrane Regulates what enters and exits the cell
Cytoplasm Jelly-like substance that holds organelles
8. Cell Transport
Passive Transport (no energy needed):
• Diffusion
• Osmosis (movement of water)
Active Transport (requires energy):
• Moves substances against concentration gradient
Examples of Cell Transport:
• Phagocytosis: "Cell eating" solids.
• Pinocytosis: "Cell drinking" liquids.
• Receptor-mediated Endocytosis: Engulfing specific molecules using receptor proteins.
Theory of Endocytosis
• Cells take materials inside by folding their membrane around them.
Cell Theory
• All living things are made of cells.
• Cells are the basic units of structure and function.
• All cells come from pre-existing cells.
Osmosis Vocabulary:
Term Effect on Cell
Hypotonic Cell swells (water enters)
Hypertonic Cell shrinks (water leaves)
Isotonic Cell stays the same (balanced water movement)
Concentration Gradient
• Difference in the amount of a substance across a space or membrane.
9. pH and pH Scale
pH Value Description Examples
0-6 Acidic Lemon juice, vinegar
7 Neutral Pure water
8-14 Basic (Alkaline) Soap, bleach
10. Energy: Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration
Photosynthesis
• Plants convert sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide into glucose and oxygen.
• Equation:
CO₂ + H₂O + sunlight → C₆H₁₂O₆ (glucose) + O₂
• Reactants: Carbon dioxide, water, sunlight.
• Products: Glucose, oxygen.
• Occurs in chloroplasts.
Cellular Respiration
• Cells break down glucose to produce ATP (energy).
• Equation:
C₆H₁₂O₆ + O₂ → CO₂ + H₂O + ATP
• Reactants: Glucose, oxygen.
• Products: Carbon dioxide, water, ATP.
• Occurs in mitochondria.
Structure of Chloroplast and Mitochondria
Organelle Main Job Important Structures
Chloroplast Photosynthesis Thylakoid membranes (stacked into grana)
Mitochondria ATP production Cristae (folded inner membrane)
Steps of Cellular Respiration
1. Glycolysis: Breaks glucose into smaller parts, occurs without oxygen.
2. Citric Acid Cycle (Krebs Cycle): Finishes breaking down glucose pieces.
3. Electron Transport Chain: Makes the most ATP, requires oxygen.
Aerobic vs. Anaerobic Respiration
• Aerobic Respiration: Requires oxygen, makes lots of ATP.
• Anaerobic Respiration: Does not use oxygen, makes little ATP (examples: fermentation
in muscles).
Oxidation and Reduction
• Oxidation: Loss of electrons.
• Reduction: Gain of electrons.
Helpful tip: "OIL RIG" = Oxidation Is Loss, Reduction Is Gain.