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UPDATED TO 2023-2025 SYLLABUS

CAIE IGCSE
COMPUTER SCIENCE
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE THEORY SYLLABUS
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The program or set of programs is developed based on

1. Algorithm Design & the design.
Each module of the program is written using a suitable
Problem-Solving programming language.
Testing is conducted to ensure that each module
functions correctly.
1.1. Program Development Life Cycle Iterative testing is performed, which involves conducting
(PDLC) modular tests, making code amendments if necessary,
and repeating tests until the module meets the required
Analysis functionality.
Design
Coding Testing
Testing
Maintenance The completed program or set of programs is executed
multiple times using various test data sets.
Analysis This testing process ensures that all the tasks within the
program work together as specified in the program
Before solving a problem, it is essential to define and design.
document the problem clearly, known as the Running the program with different test data can identify
"requirements specification" for the program. and address potential issues and errors.
The analysis stage involves using tools like abstraction The testing phase aims to verify the overall functionality
and decomposition to identify the specific requirements and performance of the program by evaluating its
for the program. behaviour with various inputs.
Abstraction focuses on the essential elements needed
for the solution while eliminating unnecessary details 1.2. Structure Diagrams
and information.
Decomposition involves breaking down complex Every computer system is made up of sub-systems,
problems into smaller, more manageable parts that can which are in turn made up of further sub-systems.
be solved individually. Structure Diagrams – The breaking down of a computer
Daily tasks can be decomposed into constituent parts for system into sub-systems, then breaking each sub-system
easier understanding and solving. into smaller sub-systems until each one only performs a
single action. A structure diagram diagrammatically
Design represents a top-down design. Example below.
The program specification derived from the analysis
stage is used as a guide for program development.
During the design stage, the programmer should clearly
understand the tasks to be completed, the methods for
performing each task, and how the tasks will work
together.
Documentation methods such as structure charts,
flowcharts, and pseudocode can be used to document
the program's design formally. 1.3. Pseudocode & Flowcharts
Coding and iterative testing

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Pseudocode - Verbal representation of an algorithm (a Declaration & Usage of Variables & Constants
process or set of steps) and flowcharts are a Variable – Store of data which changes during
diagrammatic representation. execution of the program (due to user input)
Flowcharts: A flowchart shows diagrammatically the Constant – Store of data that remains the same
steps required to complete a task and the order that during the execution of the program
they are to be performed Basic Data Types
Algorithm: These steps, together with the order, are Integer – Whole Number e.g. 2; 8; 100
called an algorithm Real – Decimal Number e.g. 7.00; 5.64
Char – Single Character e.g. ‘a’; ‘Y’
String – Multiple Characters (Text) e.g. “ZNotes”;
“COOL”
Boolean – Only 2 Values e.g. True/False; Yes/No; 0/1
Input & Output (READ & PRINT) – Used to receive and
display data to the user respectively. (It is recommended
to use input and output commands)
INPUT Name
OUTPUT "Hello Mr." , Name

// Alternatively //

READ Name
An example of a flowchart is given below from a past paper
PRINT "Hello Mr," , Name
question in which all of the functions of a flowchart are
shown: Declaration of variable - A variable/constant can be
declared by the following manner

DECLARE [Variable Name] : [DATATYPE OF VARIABLE

Array: Array is similar to variable but it can store

multiple values of same datatype under single name

DECLARE [ARRAYNAME] : ARRAY [Lower Limit : Uppe

Assignment - Each variable is assigned using a left

arrow.

[VARIABLE NAME] <---- [Value to be assigned]

ArrayName [IndexValue] <---- [Value to be assig
This flowchart’s task is to check if a rider’s height is more the Conditional Statements:
requirement (1.2) in this case. It then counts until the IF…THEN…ELSE…ENDIF
accepted riders are 8. After they are 8, it outputs the
number of rejected riders and tells the rest that they are
ready to go!

2. Pseudocode

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Loop Structures:
FOR…TO…NEXT : Will run for a determined/kn

REPEAT… UNTIL – Will run at least once till condition is

satisfied; Verification is done after running code

CASE…OF…OTHERWISE…ENDCASE – Multiple conditions and

corresponding consequences \n

WHILE…DO…ENDWHILE – May not ever run; Verification

is done before running code

Note: When using conditions in these loop structures

and conditional statement, it has to be kept in mind that
it can be done in two ways.
1. use of a Boolean variable that can have the value
TRUE or FALSE
2. comparisons made by using coparison operators,
where comparisons are made from left to right

IF [BOOLEAN VARIABLE]
THEN
OUTCOME
ELSE
OUTCOME
ENDIF

IF ((CONDITION 1) OR ( CONDITION 2)) AND (CONDIT

THEN
OUTCOME
ELSE
OUTCOME
ENDIF

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MaxiumumValue <--- Array[1] MinimumValue <--- A

2.1. FOR Counter ← 2 TO LoopLimit
IF Array[Counter] > MaximumValue
THEN
MaximumValue ← Array[Counter]
ENDIF

IF Array[Counter] < MinimumValue

THEN
MinimumValue ← Array[Counter]
ENDIF
NEXT Counter

// Average//

2.2. Standard methods used in Total ← 0

FOR Counter ← 1 TO NumberOfValues
algorithm: Total ← Total + StudentMark[Counter]
NEXT Counter
Totalling :Totalling means keeping a total that values are Average ← Total / NumberOfValues
added to
Linear Search: In a linear search, each item in the list is
Total ← 0 inspected sequentially until a match is found or the
FOR Counter ← 1 TO LoopLimit entire list is traversed.
Total ← Total + ValueToBeTotalled
NEXT Counter
INPUT Value
Counting: Keeping a count of the number of times an Found ← FALSE
action is performed is another standard method. Counter ← 0
REPEAT
PassCount ← 0
IF Value = Array[Counter]
FOR Counter ← 1 TO LoopLimit
THEN
INPUT Value
Found ← TRUE
IF Value > Range ELSE
THEN Counter ← Counter + 1
PassCount ← PassCount + 1
ENDIF
ENDIF
UNTIL Found OR Counter > NumberOfValues
NEXT Counter IF Found
THEN
Maximum, minimum and average : Finding the largest
OUTPUT Value , " found at position " , Counte
and smallest values in a list are two standard methods
ELSE
that are frequently found in algorithms
OUTPUT Value , " not found."
ENDIF

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Bubble Sort: Iteratively compare and swap adjacent REPEAT

elements in a list to sort them. Start from the first INPUT Value
element and continue until the second-to-last element. IF Value < MinimumValue OR Value > MaximumValu
After each pass, the last element is in its correct place. THEN
However, other elements may still be unsorted. Repeat OUTPUT "The student's mark should be in the r
the process, excluding the last element, until only one ENDIF
element remains or no swaps are needed. UNTIL Value >= MinimumValue AND Value <= Maximu

First ← 1 Length check

Last ← 10
REPEAT This can either ensure that data consists of a precise
Swap ← FALSE number of characters.
FOR Index ← First TO Last - 1
IF Array[Index] > Array[Index + 1] OUTPUT "Please enter your value of ", Limit , "
THEN REPEAT
Temp ← Array[Index] INPUT Value
Array[Index] ← Array[Index + 1] IF LENGTH(Value) <> Limit
Array[Index + 1] ← Temp THEN
Swap ← TRUE OUTPUT "Your value must be exactly" , Limit ,
ENDIF ENDIF
NEXT Index UNTIL LENGTH(Value) = Limit
Last ← Last - 1
UNTIL (NOT Swap) OR Last = 1
It can also check if the data entered is a reasonable number
of characters or not

2.3. Validation and Verification OUTPUT "Please enter your value "
REPEAT
To ensure the acceptance of reasonable and accurate data INPUT Value
inputs, computer systems must thoroughly examine each IF LENGTH(Value) > UpperLimit OR LENGTH(Value)
data item before accepting it, and this is where Validation THEN
and Verification come into play! OUTPUT "Too short or too long, please re-ent
ENDIF
Validation UNTIL LENGTH(Value) <= UpperLimit AND LENGTH(Va

Validation in computer systems involves automated checks Type check

to ensure the reasonableness of data before accepting it. If
the data is invalid, the system should provide an explanatory A type check verifies that the entered data corresponds to a
message for rejection and allow another chance to enter the specific data type.
data.
There are multiple types of validation. These include: OUTPUT "Enter the value "
Range check REPEAT
A range check verifies that a numerical value falls within INPUT Value
specified upper and lower limits. IF Value <> DIV(Value, 1)
THEN
OUTPUT "This must be a whole number, please
ENDIF
UNTIL Value = DIV(Value, 1)

Presence check
A presence check checks to ensure that some data has been
entered and the value has not been left blank

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OUTPUT "Please enter the value " Test data refers to input values used to evaluate and
REPEAT assess the functionality and performance of a computer
INPUT Value program or system.
IF Value = "" It helps identify errors and assess how the program
THEN handles different scenarios
OUTPUT "*=Required "
ENDIF 3.1. Normal Data
UNTIL Value <> ""
Normal data is the test data which accepts values in
Format Check acceptible range of values of the program
Normal data should be used to work through the
A format check checks that the characters entered conform solution to find the actual result(s) and see if they are the
to a pre-defined pattern.
same as the expected result(s)
e.g. in a program where only whole number values
Check Digit ranging from 0 to 100 (inclusive) are accepted, normal
A check digit is the final digit included in a code; it is test data will be : 23, 54, 64 , 2 and 100
calculated from all the other digits.
Check digits are used for barcodes, product codes, 3.2. Abnormal Data
International Standard Book Numbers (ISBN), and
Vehicle Identification Numbers (VIN). Test data that would be rejected by the solution as not
suitable, if the solution is working properly is called
Verification abnormal test data / erroneous test data.
e.g. in a program where only whole number values
Verification is checking that data has been accurately copied ranging from 0 to 100 (inclusive) are accepted, abnormal
from one source to another data will be: -1, 151, 200, 67.2, “Sixty-Two” and -520
There are 2 methods to verify data during entry ( there
are other methods during data transfer, but they are in 3.3. Extreme Data
paper 1)
Extreme data are the largest and smallest values that
1. Double Entry normal data can take
e.g. in a program where only whole number values
Data is inputted twice, potentially by different operators.
ranging from 0 to 100 (inclusive) are accepted, extreme
The computer system compares both entries and if they
data will be: 0 and 100
differ, an error message is displayed, prompting the data
to be reentered.
3.4. Boundary Data
2. Screen/Visual check
This is used to establish where the largest and smallest
A screen/visual check involves the user manually values occur
reviewing the entered data. At each boundary two values are required: one value is
After data entry, the system displays the data on the accepted and the other value is rejected.
screen and prompts the user to confirm its accuracy e.g. in a program where only whole number values
before proceeding. ranging from 0 to 100 (inclusive) are accepted, one
The user can compare the displayed data against a paper example of boundary data will be: 100 and 101. 100 will
document used as an input form or rely on their own be accepted and 101 will not be accepted
knowledge to verify correctness.
4. Trace Table
3. Test Data

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Riders Reject Height OUTPUT
A trace table is utilized to document the outcomes of 0
1
0
1.4
every step in an algorithm. It is employed to record the 2 1.3
variable's value each time it undergoes a change. 1 1.1
3 1.3
A dry run refers to the manual process of systematically 2 1.0
executing an algorithm by following each step in 4 1.5
3 1.2
sequence. 5 1.3
A trace table is set up with a column for each variable 6 1.4
7 1.3
and a column for any output e.g. 4 0.9
8 1.5 Ready to go 4

4.1. Identifying errors:

Trace tables can be used to trace errors in a program.
For example, if the requirement for the previous
question would be to accept riders that are of height 1.2
Test data is employed to execute a dry run of the flowchart too, rather than rejecting them, then the error would
and document the outcomes in a trace table. During the dry have been caught in the trace table as when 1.2 is
run: entered, it would increment rejected which it shouldn’t in
our example
Whenever a variable's value changes, the new value is
recorded in the respective column of the trace table.
Each time a value is outputted, it is displayed in the 5. How to write an algorithm?
output column.
The ability to write an algorithm is very important for
An example of trace table is given below using a past paper this syllabus and paper. Some key steps/points to be
question: known in-order to write the perfect algorithm are as
Q: The flowchart below inputs the height of children who follows:
want to ride on a rollercoaster. Children under 1.2 metres
are rejected. The ride starts when eight children have been
accepted.

Complete the trace table for the input data: 1.4, 1.3, 1.1, 1.3,
1.0, 1.5, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.3, 0.9, 1.5, 1.6, 1.0

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1. Make sure that the problem is clearly understood Python is an open-source, versatile programming
which includes knowing the purpose of the algorithm language that encourages quick program development
and the tasks to be completed by the algorithm. and emphasises code readability. The integrated
2. Break the problem into smaller problems (e.g. in a development environment (IDE) showcased in this
program which outputs average values, divide the chapter is referred to as IDLE.
problem into multiple ones i.e. how to count the Visual Basic is a popular programming language that is
number of iterations and how to count the total of all extensively used for Windows development. The
values) integrated development environment (IDE) featured in
3. Identify the data that is needed to be saved into this chapter is known as Visual Studio, which is utilised
variables/constants/arrays and what datatype it is, for capturing screenshots.
and declare all the variables/constants/arrays Java is a widely adopted programming language utilised
accordingly, with meaningfull names by numerous developers. The integrated development
4. Decide on how you are going to construct your environment (IDE) employed for capturing screenshots in
algorithm, either using a flowchart or pseudocode. If this chapter is known as BlueJ.
you are told how to construct your algorithm, then
follow the guidance. 6.2. Programming Concepts
5. Construct your algorithm, making sure that it can be
easily read and understood by someone else. Take Constructs of a Program
particular care with syntax e.g. when conditions are
used for loops and selection. Data use – variables, constants and arrays
6. Use several sets of test data (Normal, Abnormal and Sequence – order of steps in a task
Boundary) to dry run your algorithm and check if the Selection – choosing a path through a program
expected results are achieved (a trace table can be Iteration – repetition of a sequence of steps in a program
used for this purpose) . If error is found, find the Operators use arithmetic for calculations and logic and
point of error in the trace table and fix it in the code. Boolean for decisions.
Note: The algorithms that you have looked at so far in these
notes were not designed with readability in mind because
Variables and Constants
you needed to work out what the problem being solved was. A variable within a computer program refers to a named
storage unit with a value that can be modified
6. Programming throughout the program's execution. To enhance
comprehension for others, it is advisable to assign
significant names to variables.
6.1. Programming Languages A constant within a computer program represents a
named storage unit that holds a value which remains
There are many high-level programming languages to unchanged throughout the program's execution. Similar
choose from. We will only be treating Python, Visual to variables, it is recommended to assign meaningful
Basic, or Java. names to constants to enhance comprehensibility for
others.

Data Types

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Selection is a very useful technique, allowing different routes
Different data types are assigned to computer systems through the steps of a program. The code of this is explained
for effective processing and storage. in the notes of previous chapters.
Data types allow data, such as numbers or characters, to
be stored appropriately. Iteration
Data types enable effective manipulation using
mathematical operators for numbers and character As explained in the previous chapter, we already
concatenation.
Some data types provide automatic validation. Totalling and Counting
The types of datatypes are told in Chapter 1 already!
As explained in the previous chapter, we already
Input and Output
String Handling
Programs require input and output statements to handle
data. Strings are used to store text and can contain various
In IGCSE Computer Science, algorithms and programs characters.
are designed to take input from a keyboard and output An empty string has no characters, while the
to a screen. programming language specifies the maximum number
Prompting the user with clear instructions for input is of characters allowed.
necessary for the user to understand what is expected. Characters in a string can be identified by their position
Input data in programming languages must match the number, starting from either zero or one, depending on
required data type of the variable where it will be stored. the programming language.
By default, inputs are treated as strings, but commands String handling is an important aspect of programming.
can convert input to integer or real number data types. In IGCSE Computer Science, you will need to write
Users should be provided with information about the algorithms and programs for the following string
output/results for a program to be useful. methods:
Each output should be accompanied by a message Length: Determines the number of characters in a
explaining the result's meaning or significance. string, including spaces.
If an output statement has multiple parts, they can be Substring: Extracts a portion of a string.
separated by a separator character. Upper: Converts all letters in a string to uppercase.
Lower: Converts all letters in a string to lowercase.
6.3. Basic Concepts These string manipulation methods are commonly
provided in programming languages through library
When writing the steps required to solve a problem, the routines.
following concepts need to be used and understood: Finding the length of a string:
Sequence LENGTH("Text Here")
Selection
Iteration LENGTH(Variable)
Counting and totalling
String handling Extracting a substring from a string:
Use of operators.
SUBSTRING("Computer Science", 10, 7)
Sequence // returns the next 7 values starting from the
SUBSTRING(Variable, Position, Length)
The ordering of the steps in an algorithm is very important.
An incorrect order can lead to incorrect results and/or extra Converting a string to upper case
steps that are not required by the task. UCASE("Text here")

Selection UCASE(Variable)

Converting a string to lowercase

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LCASE("Text Here") FUNCTION FunctionName (ParameterName : Paramete

[Commands]
LCASE(Variable) RETURN ValueToBeReturned
ENDFUNCTION
Arithmetic, Logical and Boolean Operators
When defining procedures and functions, the header is
As explained in the previous chapter, we already the first statement in the definition.
The header includes:
Use of Nested Statements The name of the procedure or function.
Parameters passed to the procedure or function,
Selection and iteration statements can be nested, along with their data types.
meaning one statement can be placed inside another. The data type of the return value for a function.
Nested statements help reduce code duplication and Procedure calls are standalone statements.
simplify testing of programs. Function calls are made as part of an expression,
Different types of constructs can be nested within each typically on the right-hand side.
other, such as selection statements within condition-
controlled loops or loops within other loops. Local and Global Variable
Procedures and Functions Any part of a program can use a global variable – its
scope covers the whole program
Procedures and functions are defined at the start of the A local variable can only be used by the part of the
code. program it is declared in – its scope is restricted to that
part of the program.
A procedure refers to a collection of programming
statements organized under a single name, invoked at Note: Any variables/arrays made in this procedure and
any given point in a program to execute a specific task. functions will be local and cannot be used out of these.
A function is a compilation of programming statements To be made available all over the program, they must be
consolidated under a singular name, invoked at any declared globally in the following way.
moment within a program to accomplish a particular
task. Unlike a procedure, a function also has the DECLARE [VariableName] : DataType AS GLOBAL
capability to return a value back to the main program.
Parameters refer to variables that store the values of 6.4. Library Routines
arguments passed to a procedure or function. While not
all procedures and functions require parameters, some Programming language development systems often
utilize them to facilitate their operations. provide library routines that can be readily incorporated
into programs.
Procedures without parameters: Library routines are pre-tested and ready for use, making
PROCEDURE ProcedureName ()
programming tasks easier.
[Commands]
Integrated Development Environments (IDEs) typically
ENDPROCEDURE
include a standard library of functions and procedures.
//Calling/running the procedure
Standard library routines perform various tasks,
CALL ProcedureName()
including string handling.
MOD – returns the remainder of a division
The procedure with parameters: DIV – returns the quotient (i.e. the whole number part) of
a division
PROCEDURE ProcedureName (ParameterName : Parame ROUND – returns a value rounded to a given number of
[Commands] decimal places
ENDPROCEDURE RANDOM – returns a random number.
//Calling/running the procedure
CALL ProcedureName (ParameterValue) Examples:

Function:

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Value1 <--- MOD(10,3) returns the remainder of 10 A two-dimensional array can be referred to as a table
divided by 3 with rows and columns.
Value2 <---- DIV(10,3) returns the quotient of 10 divided
by 3
Value3 <--- ROUND(6.97354, 2) returns the value
rounded to 2 decimal places
Value4 <--- RANDOM() returns a random number
between 0 and 1 inclusive

6.5. Creating a Maintainable Program

A maintainable program should:

always use meaningful identifier names for variables,

constants, arrays, procedures and functions
be divided into modules for each task using procedures When a two-dimensional array is declared in
and functions pseudocode, the first and last index values for rows and
be fully commented using your programming language’s the first and last index values for columns alongside the
commenting feature data type are included.
Commenting in pseudocode: Declaring a 2D Array:
// Now the text written is commented and thus i DECLARE Name : ARRAY[RowLower:RowUpper,ColumnLow

"" Filling a 2-D array using a loop:

This method can also be used to comment
FOR ColumnCounter ← 1 TO 3
multiple lines but the singular line method
FOR RowCounter ← 1 TO 10
is more widely accepted and reccomended too
OUTPUT "Enter next value "
""
INPUT ArrayName [RowCounter, ColumnCounter]
NEXT RowCounter
6.6. Arrays NEXT ColumnCounter

An array is a data structure containing several elements

of the same data type; these elements can be accessed
6.7. File Handling
using the same identifier name.
The position of each element in an array is identified Computer programs store data that
using the array’s index.
There are two types of arrays
will be needed again in a file.
Data stored in RAM is volatile and will be lost when the
One-Dimensional Array computer is powered off.
Explained in the previous chapter in detail Data saved to a file is stored permanently, allowing it to
be accessed by the same program at a later date or by
Two-Dimensional Array other programs.
Stored data in a file can be transferred and used on
other computers.
The storage of data in files is a commonly used feature in
programming.

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Key point: When writing in a file, the program is
outputing the data to the file, and when reading a file, To store data about people, things, and events.
the program in inputing the data from the file Any modifications or additions need to be made only
\n There are 3 ways a file can be opened in a program i.e. to once, ensuring data consistency.
write, to read and to append All users access and utilize the same set of data,
promoting uniformity.
Relational databases store data in a non-repetitive
6.8. Writing in a file manner, eliminating duplication.
OPENFILE "[Link]" FOR WRITE
7.2. What makes a database?
//When opening a file to write, all the data al
Data is stored in tables in databases. Each table consists
of a specific type of data e.g. cars. These tables HAVE to
WRITEFILE "[Link]" , Value be named according to what they contain e.g. a table
containing patient information will be PATIENT
// The next command of WRITEFILE would be write These tables consist of records (rows). Each record
consists of data about a single entity (a single item,
CLOSEFILE "[Link]" person or event ) e.g. a single car
These tables also have columns that are knows an fields.
These consist of specific information regarding the
6.9. Reading a file: entities that are written later in records e.g. car name,
car manufacturer etc.
OPENFILE "[Link]" FOR READ
READFILE "[Link]" , Variable Note: In this chapter, skills of dealing with a database
// The value in the line (which is identified b are also required so working with Microsoft Access is
CLOSEFILE "[Link]" needed to understand this chapter better. You have to be
able to define a single-table database from given data
6.10. Reading a file till EOF: storage requirements, choose a suitable primary key for a
database table and also be able to read, complete and
OPENFILE "[Link]" FOR READ understand SQL scripts.
DECLARE DataVariable : STRING
WHILE NOT EOF("[Link]) DO
READFILE "[Link]", DataVariable
// here the line can be outputted or stored in
//before the file ends has been read
ENDWHILE

7. Databases
Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer Science by
A database is a well-organized compilation of data that Hodder Education
enables individuals to retrieve information according to their
specific requirements. The data contained within a database 7.3. Validation in databases
can encompass various forms such as text, numerical
values, images, or any other type of digital content that can
be stored on a computer system.

7.1. Why do we need a database?

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Database management software automatically provides Structured Query Language (SQL) is the standard
some validation checks, while others need to be set up language for writing scripts to retrieve valuable
by the developer during construction. information from databases.
For example; The software automatically validates fields By using SQL, we can learn how to retrieve and display
like "DateOfAdmission" in the PATIENT table to ensure specific information needed from a database.
data input is a valid date. \n For instance, someone visiting a patient may only require
the ward number and bed number to locate them in the
7.4. Basic Data Types hospital, while a consultant may need a list of the names
of all the patients under their care. This can be done
Each field will require a data type to be selected. A data type using SQL
classifies how the data is stored, displayed and the
operations that can be performed on the stored value. SQL Scripts
The datatypes for database are quite similar to original
An SQL script is a collection of SQL commands that are
datatypes, however, there are a few differences.
used to perform a specific task, often stored in a file for
reusability.
To comprehend SQL and interpret the output of an SQL
script, practical experience in writing SQL scripts is
necessary.

Select Statements:

SELECT (fieldsname)
Note: Access datatype refers to the software Microsoft FROM (tablesname)
Access which is a DBMS (DataBase Management WHERE (condition)
System). Here, databases could be worked upon in ORDER BY (sortingcondition) ;
practical form
Selecting Sum of values in a table:
7.5. Primary Key SELECT SUM ( fieldsname )
FROM (tablesname)
Each record in a table represents a unique item, person, WHERE (condition)
or event. ORDER BY (sortingcondition) ;
To ensure reliable identification of these items, a field
called the primary key is necessary. Counting the number of records where the field
The primary key is a unique field that distinguishes each matches a specified condition
item within the data.
In order to serve as a primary key, a field must have SELECT COUNT ( fieldsname )
values that are never repeated within the table. FROM (tablesname)
An existing field can serve as a primary key if it is unique, WHERE (condition)
such as the ISBN in the book table. ORDER BY (sortingcondition) ;
In cases where all existing fields may contain repeated
==ORDER BY ASCENDING - sorts in ascending order.==
data, an additional field, such as "HospitalNumber," can
==ORDER BY DESENDING - sorts in descending order.==
be added to each record to serve as the primary key. Note: ORDER BY…is not necessary to add. It has to be only
added if required!
7.6. Structured Query Language - SQL

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AND gate: A.B

A B Output
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

7.7. Operators
OR gate: A + B
Just like pseudocode, the operators used there can also be
used here for conditions, however, a few more are also used A B Output
0 0 0
in databases 0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1

NAND gate: A.B

A B Output
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

8. Boolean Logic
8.1. Logic Gates and their functions NOR gate: A + B ​

A B Output
Six types of logic gates 0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
NOT Gate 1 1 0
AND Gate
OR Gate
NAND Gate
NOR Gate
XOR Gate
XOR gate: A ⨁ B​
NOT gate: an inverter, A A B Output
0 0 0
A Output 0 1 1
0 1 1 0 1
1 0 1 1 0

9. Writing Logic Statements

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Logic Statements is a way of showing all the logics that are in
place for a logic circuit. 10.1. From Logic Circuits
9.1. Writing from a logic circuit 1. Create a truth table with each input possible, creating
every possible combination of inputs . Tip: For the
1. Look at the ciruit and go around the logic gates used first input, write it in the combination of 1,0,1,0
in the circuit and so on. For the second, go 1,1,0,0 and so on,
2. Go from the one output that is being given towards and for the third one, go 1,1,1,1,0,0,0,0 going by
the input the powers of 2 for each input. This would
3. Write the last gate ( the first gate you walk through ) guarantee each possible combination
in the middle and then, for each of the value coming 2. Run through the circuit with the inputs and get the
into the gate, leave space at the side output that will be reached and write it accordingly
4. If the value coming into the gate is coming from
another gate, use a bracket for the gate’s logic For logic statements, and problem statements,
5. Repeat process 3-4 till you are able to reach the input convert them to logic circuits first and then do the
values fully rest
9.2. Writing from a truth table 10.2. Example
1. Create logic circuit fom the truth table (shown later) This is the example of a truth table of a logic circuit
2. Write the logic statement using the ciruit

9.3. Writing from a Problem statement

1. See what logics go in place in the statement to take
place
2. Go from the logic of any 2 inputs at the start, and
then keep on going until you are able to reach the
final gate which gives the output
3. When writing the statement, make sure you show the
logic statement where the output is 1
The circuit:
9.4. Example of a LOGIC STATEMENT
(B AND C) OR (A NOR (A NAND C)) is the logic statement for
the following Logic Circuit

11. Logic Statements from

Truth Tables

10. Creating Truth Tables

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1. Given the truth table above, take the rows where the
output (x) is 1 (Rows 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7)
2. Create a logic expression from these rows (example,
row 1 will be (NOT A AND NOT B AND NOT C) = X
3. Create logic expressions for all the rows with output
1 and connect them with OR gate

12. Exam-Style Question

1. The Conditions are given so make logic statements

using the conditions and the table. (NOT S AND T) OR
(S AND W) OR (NOT T AND W)
2. Make the logic circuit from the given equation
3. Make the truth table

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Computer Science

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