UNIT – 5

Marginal costing is the change in total cost on account of adding/ subtracting one additional unit.

Definition:
The ICMA London has defined, “Marginal cost as the amount of any given volume of output by
which aggregate costs are changed, if the volume of output is increased or decreases.
In simple Marginal cost is the additional cost of producing additional units.
For example:
A company is producing 100 cell phones per month. The total fixed cost per month is Rs 10,000 and
variable cost per phone is Rs. 500. The total cost per month is:
Marginal Cost (Variable) of 100 phones = 100 X 500 50,000
Fixed Cost 10,000
Total Cost 60,000
If the output is increased by one unit, the cost will be:
Marginal Cost (Variable) of 100 phones = 101 X 500 50,500
Fixed Cost 10,000
Total Cost 60,500
Thus, the additional cost of producing one additional unit is Rs. 500.
It is known as marginal cost.
Characteristics of Marginal Costing:
1. It is a technique of analysis and presentation of cost rather than an independent method of
costing
2. Total costs are classified into fixed costs and variable costs.
3. It considers only variable costs in analysis.
4. It guides pricing and other managerial decisions on the basis of ‘contribution’ which is the
difference between sales value and variable costs.
5. It valuates finished stock and work-in-progress at marginal cost only.
6. It charges the fixed costs against ‘contribution’
7. It takes the difference between contribution and fixed cost as profit or loss.

Assumptions:
The following are some of the assumptions of marginal costing.
1. All costs are divisible into fixed costs and variable costs.
2. Selling price and variable cost per unit will remain the same.
3. Total fixed costs will remain constant.
4. Volume is the only factor which influences the costs.
5. There is a linear relationship between variable costs and revenues.

Page | 1
Marginal Cost Equation:
The following equation is known as basic marginal cost equation:
If Profit : Sales – Variable Cost = Fixed Cost + Profit or Loss
If Loss : Sales – Variable Cost = Fixed Cost – Loss
Contribution:
Contribution is the difference between sales and variable cost. In other words, contribution is the
excess of sales over the variable cost. It is also known as gross margin or marginal income. It enables
to meet fixed costs and contributes to profit.
Contribution = Sales – Variable Cost
Contribution = Fixed Cost + Profit
Contribution = Fixed Cost – Loss
Contribution = Sales x P/V Ratio
Profit Volume Ratio (P/V Ratio):
P/V Ratio is a ratio of contribution to sales. It states the relationship between contribution and ales.
Therefore it is also called as contribution/sales ratio, or contribution ratio or marginal ratio. It is
calculated by using the following formula:

Determination of Profit under Marginal Costing

Total Per Unit
Particulars (Rs.) (Rs.)
Sales xxx xxx
Less: Variable costs
1. Direct Materials xxx
2. Direct Wages xxx
3. Direct Expenses xxx
4. Variable Overheads xxx xxx xxx
Contribution xxx xxx
Less: Fixed Cost xxx xxx
Profit/Loss xxx xxx
Change in Pr ofit / Loss S −V F  P Contribution per unit
P / VRatio = or or or
Change in Sales Sales Sales Selling price per unit
This ratio can also be calculated by comparing the change in contribution or profit to change in sales
as follows:
Change in Contribution
Or P / VRatio =
Change in Sales

Or P / VRatio = Change in Pr ofit / Loss

Change in Sales
Break Even Point (BEP):
Break-even point is a point at which the total costs are equal to sales. It is a volume of sales at which
there is neither profit nor loss. Hence, it is also called as no profit no loss point. If the sale is increased
beyond break-even-point level, profit will accrue and if sale is decreased below the BEP level, loss
will occur.

Page | 2
 Fixed Cost
1. BEP (in units) =
Contribution per unit
2. BEP (in Rs.) = BEP units × Selling price per unit
3. BEP (in Rs.) = Fixed Cost
P / V Ratio
Margin of Safety:
Margin of safety is the excess of actual sales over sales at break-even-point. In other words, sales
over and above the break-even point are known as margin of safety.
If the margin of safety is large, it is the sign of soundness of the business and if the margin of safety
is small, it is a sign of weak position of business.
The margin of safety can be expressed in absolute sales amount or in terms of percentage to sales.
1. Margin of Safety (Amount) = Actual sales – Sales at BEP
2. Margin of Safety (Units) = Actual Sales units – BEP Sales units
Pr ofit
3. Margin of Safety (Amount) =
P / V Ratio
Pr ofit
4. Margin of Safety (Units) =
Contribution per unit
Estimated Sales or Profit:
In order to calculate the estimated sales at a given profit or estimated profit at given volume of sales
the following formulae are used.
1. Estimated Sales (units) = Fixed Cost + Given Pr ofit
Contribution per unit
2. Estimated Sales (amt) = Estimated Sales (units) × Selling price per unit
Fixed Cost + Given Pr ofit
3. Estimated Sales (amt) =
P / VRatio
Ascertainment of Variable Cost:
1. Variable Cost = Sales – Contribution
2. Variable Cost = Total Cost – Fixed Cost
Change in total cost
3. Variable Cost ratio to sales =
Change in Sales
Therefore, Variable Cost = Sales × Variable cost ratio
4. Variable Cost = Sales (1- P/V Ratio)
5 Marks Illustrations:
1. Calculate P/V ratio, from the following:
Particulars Years
2010 2011
Sales (Rs.) 1,50,000 2,00,000
Profit (Rs.) 25,000 40,000
Solution: P/V Ratio = Change in Pr ofit
Change in Sales
40, 000 − 25, 000 = 15, 000 100 = 30% = P/V Ratio
=
2, 00, 000 −1, 50, 000 50, 000
2. From the following particulars, calculate P/V Ratio:

Page | 3
 Year Sales(Rs.) Profit/Loss (Rs.)
2010 6,00,000 60,000 (loss)
2011 12,00,000 90,000 (Profit)
Solution: P/V Ratio = Change in Pr ofit
Change in Sales
90, 000 − (−60, 000) = 1, 50, 000 100 = 25%
=
12, 00, 000 − 6, 00, 000 6, 00, 000
3. Calculate P/V Ratio from the following information:
Year Sales(Rs.) Total Cost (Rs.)
2010 7,00,000 5,50,000
2011 10,00,000 8,00,000
Solution:
Particulars 2011(Rs.) 2010 (Rs.)
Sales 10,00,000 7,00,000
Less: Total Cost 8,00,000 5,50,000
Profit 2,00,000 1,50,000
P/V Ratio = Change in Pr ofit
Change in Sales
2, 00, 000 −1, 50, 000 50, 000 100 = 16.67% = PV R
= =
10, 00, 000 − 7, 00, 000 3, 00, 000
Break Even Point (BEP)
4. Diya Ltd. Gives the following information, calculate BEP in value and in units.
i. Sales – 40,000 units at Rs. 20 per unit.
ii. Profit volume ratio = 50%
iii. Fixed Cost = Rs. 3,20,000
Solution:
Fixed Cost 3, 20, 000
BEP (Value) = = = Rs.6, 40, 000
P / V Ratio 0.5
6, 40, 000
BEP (Units) = BEP in Value = = 32, 000 Units
Selling Pr ice Per Unit 20

5. From the following information of Asha Co. Ltd. Calculate P/V Ratio and Margin of Safety.
i. Sales -- Rs. 10, 00,000
ii. Variable Cost -- Rs. 4, 00,000
iii. Profit -- Rs. 3, 00,000
Solution:
Contribution = Sales – Variable Cost
= Rs. 10,00,000 – Rs. 4,00,000
= Rs. 6,00,000
Fixed Cost = Sales – Variable Cost – Profit or Contribution - Profit
= Rs. 10,00,000 – Rs. 4,00,000 – Rs. 3,00,000
= Rs. 10,00,000 – Rs. 7,00,000
= Rs. 3,00,000

Page | 4
 P/V Ratio = Contribution = 6,00, 000 100
Sales 10, 00, 000
= 60%
Fixed Cost 3, 00, 000
BEP (Value) = = = Rs. 5, 00,000
P / V Ratio 0.6
Margin of Safety = Sales – BEP
= Rs. 10,00,000 – Rs. 5,00,000
= Rs. 5,00,000

6. Fixed expenses of Rs. 3, 60,000 with sales of Rs. 12, 00,000 and profit of Rs. 2,40,000 of a
company, calculate the profit volume ratio. If in the next period the company suffered a loss
of Rs. 1, 20,000, Calculate sales volume.
Solution:
Contribution = Fixed Cost + Profit
= Rs. 3,60,000 + Rs. 2,40,000
= Rs. 6,00,000
P/V Ratio = Contribution = 6, 00, 000 100
Sales 12, 00, 000
P/V Ratio = 50%
Sales in the next period if the company suffered a loss of Rs. 1, 20,000
Sales = Fixed Cost − loss = 3, 60, 000 −1, 20, 000 = 2, 40, 000 = Rs. 4, 80,000
P / V Ratio 50% 0.50
7. Calculate P/V Ratio from the following particulars:
Budgeted production and sales – 1, 50,000 units
Variable cost Rs. 20 per unit
Fixed Cost Rs. 6, 00,000
Selling price per unit Rs. 30
Solution:
Contribution= Sales – Variable Cost
= Rs. 30 – Rs. 20
= Rs. 10
P/V Ratio = Contribution = 10 100 = 33.33%
Sales 30
8. Arya Ltd has a total turnover of Rs. 10 lakhs. It is enjoying 30% margin of safety. Its total
variable cost is 60% of sales. Determine Fixed Cost and BEP in Sales.

Solution:
Variable Cost = 60% of Sales
= 0.60 × Rs. 10, 00,000
= Rs. 6,00,000
Contribution = Sales – Variable Cost
= Rs. 10,00,000 – Rs. 6,00,000
= Rs. 4,00,000

Page | 5
 Contribution 4, 00, 000
P/V Ratio = = 100 = 40%
Sales 10, 00, 000
Margin of Safety = 30% of Rs. 10,00,000
= Rs. 3,00,000
Pr ofit
Margin of Safety =
P / V Ratio
:. Profit = Margin of Safety × P/V Ratio
= Rs. 3, 00,000 × 0.40
Profit = Rs. 1, 20,000
Fixed Cost = Contribution – Profit
= Rs. 4, 00,000 – Rs. 1, 20,000
= Rs. 2,80,000
BEP (Value) = Actual Sales – Margin of Safety
= Rs. 10,00,000 – 3,00,000
= Rs. 7,00,000
Alternatively: BEP (Value) = Fixed Cost = 2,80, 000 = Rs. 7, 00,000
P / V Ratio 0.40
9. From the following particulars calculate:
a. P/V Ratio b. Fixed Cost
I year sales Rs. 1, 95,000 profit Rs. 9,000
II Year sales Rs. 2, 25,000 profit Rs. 15,000
Change in Pr ofit 15, 000 − 9, 000
Solution: P/V Ratio = = =
6, 000 100
Change in Sales 2, 25, 000 −1,95, 000 30, 000
P/V Ratio = 20%
Variable Cost = Sales (1- P/V Ratio)
= Rs. 2,25,000 (1- 0.20)
= Rs. 2,25,000 × 0.80
= Rs. 1,80,000
Fixed Cost = Sales – Variable Cost – Profit
= Rs. 2,25,000 – Rs. 1,80,000 – 15,000
= Rs. 30,000
10. The sales turnover and profit during two periods were:
Period Sales(Rs.) Profit (Rs.)
Period I 20,00,000 2,00,000
Period II 30,00,000 4,00,000
Calculate a. P/V Ratio; b. Fixed cost
Change in Pr ofit 2, 00, 000
Solution: P/V Ratio = = 100 = 20%
Change in Sales 10, 00, 000
Variable Cost = Sales (1 – P/V Ratio)
= Rs. 20,00,000 (1 – 0.20)
= Rs. 20,00,000 ( 0.80)
= Rs. 16,00,000
Fixed Cost = Sales – Variable Cost – Profit
= 20,00,000 – 16,00,000 – 2,00,000

Page | 6
 = Rs. 2,00,000
11. Sales Rs. 5,00,000; Fixed cost Rs. 60,000; Variable cost Rs. 3,80,000
Calculate; a. BEP, b. P/V Ratio, c. Contribution, d. Profit.
Contribution = Sales – Variable Cost
= Rs. 5,00,000 – 3,80,000
= Rs. 1,20,000
P/V Ratio = Contribution = 1, 20, 000 100 = 24%
Sales 5, 00, 000

BEP = Fixed Cost = 60, 000 = Rs. 2,50,000

P / V Ratio 0.24
Profit = Sales - Variable Cost – Fixed Cost
= Rs. 5,00,000 – Rs. 3,80,000 – Rs. 60,000
= Rs. 60,000

12. From the following information calculate;

a. B.E.P. sales value; b. P/V ratio if sales price is reduced by 20%
Sales 20,000 units at Rs. 50 per unit:
P/V Ratio – 40%, Fixed cost – Rs. 1, 20,000,
Solution:
Sales = 20,000 units x Rs. 50 = Rs. 10,00,000
Contribution = Sales x P/V Ratio
= 10,00,000 x 0.40
= Rs. 4,00,000
a. BEP at Sales = Fixed Cost = 1, 20, 000 = Rs.3, 00, 000
P / V Ratio 0.40
b. Variable Cost = Sales(1-P/V Ratio)
= 10, 00,000 (1- 0.40)
= 10, 00,000(0.60)
Variable Cost = Rs. 6, 00,000
Variable Cost 6, 00, 000
Variable cost per unit = = = Rs.30 per unit
Total units 20, 000
Change in Sales Price: Reduced by 20%
Present selling price per unit = Rs. 50
Less: 20% of Rs. 50 = Rs. 10
New selling price = Rs. 40
New P/V Ratio = S −V = 40 − 30 = 10 = 0.25 or 25%
S 40 40
New P/V Ratio = 25%
13. From the following particulars calculate:
a. P/V Ratio b. Fixed Cost
I year sales Rs. 1, 30,000 profit Rs. 6,000
II Year sales Rs. 1, 50,000 profit Rs. 10,000 (KUD May 2010)

Page | 7
 Change in Pr ofit 4, 000
Solution: P/V Ratio = = 100 = 20%
Change in Sales 20, 000
Variable Cost = Sales (1 – P/V Ratio)
= Rs. 1,50,000 (1 – 0.20)
= Rs. 1,50,000 (0.80)
= Rs. 1,20,000
Fixed Cost = Sales – Variable Cost – Profit
= Rs.1,50,000 – Rs.1,20,000 – Rs.10,000
= Rs. 20,000
14. From the following data, calculate
a). Break-even point sales
b). No. Of units to be sold to earn the profit of Rs. 60,000
Selling price -- Rs. 20 per unit
Variable cost (Manufacturing) -- Rs. 11 per unit
Variable cost (selling) -- Rs. 03 per unit
Fixed cost -- Rs. 2, 52,000 a year

Solution:
Contribution = Selling price – Variable Cost
= Rs. 20 – Rs. 11 - Rs.3
= Rs. 20 – Rs. 14 = Rs. 6 per unit.
Contribution 6
P/V Ratio = = 100 = 30%
Sales 20
a. BEP = Fixed Cost = 2,52, 000 = Rs. 8,40,000
P / V Ratio 0.30
b. No. Of units to be sold to earn a profit of Rs. 60,000
Fixed Cost + Pr ofit 2, 52, 000 + 60, 000
= =
Contribution Per unit 6
3,12, 000
= = 52,000 units
6
15. From the following particulars calculate:
a. P/V Ratio b. Fixed Cost, c. Break-even point.
I Year sales Rs. 30 lakhs, profit Rs. 3 lakhs
II Year sales Rs. 50 lakhs, profit Rs. 7 lakhs
Change in Pr ofit 4, 00, 000
Solution: P/V Ratio = = 100 = 20%
Change in Sales 20, 00, 000
Variable Cost = Sales (1 – P/V Ratio)
= Rs. 30,00,000 (1 – 0.20)
= Rs. 30,00,000 (0.80)
= Rs. 24,00,000
Fixed Cost = Sales – Variable Cost – Profit
= Rs. 30,00,000 – Rs. 24,00,000 – Rs. 3,00,000
= Rs. 30,00,000 – Rs. 27,00,000
= Rs. 3,00,000

Page | 8
 BEP = Fixed Cost = 3, 00, 000 = Rs. 15,00,000
P / V Ratio 0.20

Utility of Marginal Costing and Cost-Volume-Profit Analysis:

Marginal Costing and CPV analysis assume a greater significance in guiding management in making
various decisions with the help of its tools like contribution, Break-even point, P/V Ratio and Margin
of Safety. Following are some of the important areas where marginal costing is effectively applied for
decision making.
1. Pricing Decisions
2. Accepting Special Bulk Orders or Foreign Market Orders
3. Profit Planning
4. Make or Buy Decisions
5. Problem of Key or Limiting factor
6. Choice of Profitable Sales Mix
7. Decision Making
8. Evaluation of Performance
9. Determination of optimum Activity Level
10. Cost Control
1. Pricing Decisions:
In normal situations the prices of the products are usually fixed to cover variable cost, fixed cost and
desired margin of profit. Under such situations, the marginal costing has no role to play. But during
the period of depression and competition marginal costing guides the management in fixing selling
price.
According to marginal costing, the price of the product should be equal to marginal cost during
depression and competition. If price falls below the marginal cost, it would be advisable to stop the
production.
In other words the production should be continued so long as the price equals the marginal cost. It
is so because any excess of price over marginal cost contributes to the recovery of fixed cost and
minimizes loss to such extent.

Example 1:
A cost sheet shows the following situations prevailing in Star Ltd., which is facing depression:
Direct Materials -- Rs. 50,000
Direct Wages -- Rs. 20,000
Overheads: Variable -- Rs. 10,000
Fixed -- Rs. 20,000 -- Rs. 30,000
Total Cost -- Rs.1,00,000
Sales 4,000 units @ Rs. 23 per unit -- Rs. 92,000
Loss: -- Rs. 8,000
There is no sign of improvement in the situation. Therefore, the management wants to know whether
it is desirable to stop the production. What should be the minimum price at which company should
shut down its production?
Solution:
Even if there is a loss of Rs. 8,000, it is not desirable to stop the production. Because, fixed costs will
be incurred even if production is stopped and loss would be equal to fixed cost of Rs. 20,000. The

Page | 9
present loss is less because selling price is more than marginal cost and the same contributes
towards recovery of fixed costs. Therefore, so long as there is contribution, it is not advisable to stop
the production. The following statement gives the clear idea of the situation.

Per Unit Total

Marginal Cost Rs. Rs.
Sales price of 4,000 units 23.00 92,000
Less: Variable Cost Direct Materials 12.50 50,000
Direct Wages 5.00 20,000
Variable Overheads 2.50 10,000
Marginal (Variable) Cost 20.00 80,000
Contribution 3.00 12,000
The price Less: Fixed Cost 5.00 20,000 per unit of
Rs. 23 is Loss 2.00 8,000 more than
marginal cost of Rs. 20.
Therefore, the production should be continued.
The minimum price at which production should be discontinued should be equal to marginal cost. In
this case marginal cost is Rs. 20, so minimum price should be Rs. 20. It is better to stop the production
if selling price falls below the marginal cost of Rs. 20 to avoid the loss more than fixed cost of Rs.
20,000.

2. Accepting Special Bulk Orders or Foreign Market Orders:

Usually bulk orders received from large scale buyers or foreign dealers are at below the market price.
In such case, decision as to accept or reject the order may be difficult. Marginal costing recommends
for acceptance of order, if the quoted price is above the marginal cost.
The reason is that the local market price provides contribution sufficient to cover the fixed cost and
certain profit, and any contribution from the foreign offer would be net addition to the profit.
However, if the quoted price is below the marginal cost the order should not be accepted. Anyhow
care should taken, that there should not be any adverse impact of accepted low quotations on local
market.
Example 2:
Anderson Ltd., has a capacity to produce 5,000 units but actually produces only 2,000 units for home
market at the following costs:
Materials -- Rs. 40,000
Wages -- Rs. 36,000
Factory Overheads:
Fixed -- Rs. 12,000
Variable -- Rs. 20,000
Administration OH (Fixed) Rs. 18,000
Selling & distribution OH
Fixed -- Rs. 10,000
Variable -- Rs. 16,000
Total Cost: -- Rs. 1,52,000

Page | 10
The home market can consume only 2,000 units at a selling price of Rs. 80 per unit. An additional
order for the supply of 3,000 units is received from foreign country at Rs. 65 per unit. Should, this
order be accepted or not?

Marginal Cost and Contribution from foreign order of 3,000 units are shown below:

Per Unit Total Rs.

Particulars Rs. 3,000 Units
Sales 65.00 1,95,000
Materials 20.00 60,000
Wages 18.00 54,000
Variable Overheads
Factory overheads 10.00 30,000
Selling & Distribution oh 8.00 24,000
Marginal Cost of Sales 56.00 1,68,000
Contribution 9.00 27,000

The acceptance of foreign order will result into additional contribution of Rs. 27,000. Since fixed
costs are already recovered from home market price, the additional contribution of Rs. 27,000 is all
profit. Therefore, the foreign order should be accepted as it increases the profit by Rs. 27,000.

3. Profit Planning:
Profit planning is the planning for future operations to maximise profits or to maintain a specified
level of profit. The sales required to earn a desired amount of profit may be determined with the help
of P/V Ratio, whenever there is change in sales price, variable cost, product mix etc.

Example 3:
Ashish Ltd., produced and sold 8,000 cycles last year at a price of Rs. 400 each. The cost structure per
cycle is as follows:
Materials -- Rs. 80
Labour -- Rs. 40
Variable overheads: -- Rs. 30
Marginal Cost -- Rs. 150
Fixed Overheads -- Rs. 175
Total Cost -- Rs. 325
Profit -- Rs. 75
Sales Price -- Rs. 400
The company has to reduce selling price to Rs. 350 due to tough competition in the coming year.
Assuming no change in costs, state the number of cycles to be sold at the new price to ensure the
same amount of total profit as in the last year.

Page | 11
Solution:
Calculation of Contribution and Profit of last year

Per Unit Amount

Particulars Rs. Rs.
Sales (400 X 8,000) 400-00 32,00,000
Materials (80 X 8,000) 80-00 6,40,000
Labour (40 X 8,000) 40-00 3,20,000
Variable Overheads (30 X 8,000) 30-00 2,40,000
Marginal Cost 150-00 12,00,000
Contribution 250-00 20,00,000
Less: Fixed Cost (175 X 8,000) 175-00 14,00,000
Profit (75 X 8,000) 75-00 6,00,000
SP −VC 350 −150 200 4
New P.V .Ratio = = = =
Sales 350 350 7
Calculation of Sales to earn the total profit of Rs. 6, 00,000 at Rs. 350 per cycle:
Fixed Cost + Desired Pr ofit
Sales to earn desired profit =
P / V Ratio
14, 00, 000 + 6, 00, 000 = 20, 00, 000  7 = Rs.35, 00, 000
=
4 4
7
Number of cycles to be sold = Total Sales 35, 00, 000
= = 10, 000
Selling Pr ice Per Cycle 375
Number of cycles to be sold = 10,000 Cycles

4. Make or Buy Decisions:

Marginal costing renders useful assistance when a management has to take decision on whether a
particular component or part should be manufactured internally or purchased from outside supplier.
As per marginal costing technique it is normally done by comparing the outside price with firm’s own
marginal costing technique, it is normally done by comparing the outside price with firm’s own
marginal cost.
If the outside price of the component is lower than the marginal cost of manufacturing it, then it is
advisable to buy it. On the other hand, if the outside price is higher than the marginal cost, then it is
worth to manufacture it.
Example 4:
Phillips Radio Company finds that while it costs Rs. 12.50 to make a component X, the same is
available in the market at Rs. 11.50 with an assurance of continued supply. The break-down of the
cost is;
Materials -- Rs. 5.50
Labour -- Rs. 3.50
Other variable overheads -- Rs. 1.00
Depreciation & other fixed cost -- Rs. 2.50
Total Cost -- Rs.12.50

Page | 12
 a. Should you make or buy?
b. What would be your decision, if the supplier offered the component at Rs. 9.70 each.

Solution:
Marginal Cost Statement

Per Unit
Particulars Rs.
Materials 5.50
Labour 3.50
Variable Overheads 1.00
Marginal Cost 10.00
a. The marginal cost of producing the component is Rs. 10 per unit and fixed cost per unit is Rs.
2.50, thereby making a total cost of Rs. 12.50 per unit. But this component is available in the
market at Rs. 11.50. As the market price per unit is less than the total cost, apparently it looks
better to buy the component instead of making it. But a close observation reveals that the
component will actually cost Rs. 14 (i.e. 11.50+2.50) if it is purchased, as the fixed cost of Rs.
2.50 is required to be incurred even if the component is purchased. Therefore, it may not be
wise to buy a component which will actually cost Rs. 14, which is being manufactured at Rs.
12.50.
b. If the price offered by the supplier is Rs. 9.70 per unit, then it is advisable to purchase the
component from the outside market as the outside market price of Rs. 9.70 is less than
marginal cost of Rs. 10. There will be saving of Re. 0.30 per unit if the component is purchased
from outside market.

5. Problem of Key or Limiting Factor:

A key of limiting factor is factor which restricts production and profit of a business concern. It may
be shortage of any factor of production such as material, labour, capital, plant capacity or even sales
also. In such case, a decision has to be taken regarding the choice of the product whose production is
to be increased, decreased or stopped. Ordinarily when there is no limiting factor, the choice of the
product will be on the basis of highest P/V Ratio.
But, when there is scarce or limited resources, selection of the product will be on the basis of
contribution per unit of scarce factor of production. In short, scarce resources should be utilised for
those product lines where the contribution per unit of scarce factor is relatively high.

Example 5:
You are given the following data:
Particulars Product A Product B
Rs. Rs.
Direct Materials 50 50
Direct Wages @ Rs. 1.00 per hour 20 10
Variable Overheads 100% on wages -- --
Fixed Overheads Rs. 2,000 -- --
Sales 100 80

Page | 13
There is a shortage of labour hour due to strike. You are required to find out the profitability of
producing either of the two products.
Solution:
Statement of Marginal Cost
Particulars Product A Product B
Rs. Rs.
Sales 100 80
Direct Materials 50 50
Direct Wages @ Rs. 1.00 per hour 20 10
Variable Overheads 100% of direct wages 20 10
Marginal Cost 90 70
Contribution 10 10
Contribution per labour hour 0.50 1.00
Working Notes:
Contribution
Contribution per labour hour =
Labour hours
10
Product A = = Rs. 0.50 per hour
20
10
Product B = = Rs. 1.00 per hour
10
Direct Wages
Number of Labour hours =
Wage rate per hour
20
Product A = = 20 hours
1
10
Product B = = 10 hours
1
Product B is more profitable as contribution per labour hour in its case is more than that of A.

Example 6:
Following information is relating to Product A and Product B for which material is the scarce:
Particulars Product A Product B
Rs. Rs.
Direct Materials: 4 units @ Rs. 10 per unit 40 --
5 units @ Rs. 10 per unit -- 50
Labour 20 30
Overheads Variable 10 10
Overheads Fixed 34 30
Total Cost 104 120
Sales 110 135
Profit 6 15
You are required to find out the product which is more profitable from the point of view of
economical use of scarce material.

Page | 14
Solution:
Marginal Cost Statement
Particulars Product A Product B
Rs. Rs.
Sales 110 135
Direct Materials: 4 units @ Rs. 10 per unit 40 --
5 units @ Rs. 10 per unit -- 50
Labour 20 30
Overheads Variable 10 10
Marginal Cost 70 90
Contribution 40 45
Working Notes:
Contribution
Contribution per unit of material =
Number of units of material
40
Product A = = Rs. 10 per unit
4
45
Product B = = Rs. 9 per unit
5
Since contribution per unit of material in Product A is more than Product B, available material should
be used first for Product A and then when its demand is met, Product B should be produced.

6. Choice of Profitable Sales Mix:

Sales mix refers to the proportion in which various products are produced and sold. The problem of
selecting a profitable sales mix arises only when a business concern has more than one product line
and each making contribution on its own. Any changes in sales mix results in the change in the profit.
The marginal costing guides the management in selecting of most profitable mix. According to
marginal costing most profitable sales mix is one which yields maximum contribution.
Example 7:
From the following data, you are required to present to management:
a. The marginal cost of product X and Y and contribution per unit.
b. The total contribution and profits resulting from each of the suggested sales mixtures.
Particulars Per unit of X Per unit of Y
Rs. Rs.
Direct Materials: 10.00 8.50
Direct Wages 3.00 2.00
Selling Price 20.50 14.50
Fixed expenses total Rs. 800 -- --
Variable expenses 100% of direct wages -- --
Suggested sales mixtures:
a. 100 units of X and 200 units of Y
b. 150 units of X and 150 units of Y
c. 200 units of X and 100 units of Y
Recommend which of the sales mixtures should be adopted.

Page | 15
 Solution:
Statement of Marginal Cost
Particulars Product X Product Y
Per Unit (Rs.) Per Unit (Rs.)
Selling Price 20.50 14.50
Direct Materials: 10.00 8.50
Direct Wages 3.00 2.00
Variable expenses (100% of Direct wages) 3.00 2.00
Marginal Cost 16.00 12.50
Contribution 4.50 2.00

Statement showing contribution and profit from each of the suggested sales mix
Mix a Mix b Mix c
Particulars X-100 X-150 X-200
Y-200 Y-150 Y-100
Contribution:
On X @ Rs. 4.50 per unit 450 675 900
On Y @ Rs. 2.00 per unit 400 300 200
Total Contribution 850 975 1,100
Less: Fixed expenses 800 800 800
Profit 50 175 300
On the basis of above calculations, sales mix of C is recommended as it yields maximum
contribution and profit.

7. Decision Making:
Decision making is a process of selecting best course of action from available alternatives. Various
problems like selection of production method, capacity utilisation, discontinuation of line of
production, market expansion etc., need decision making. In such cases the best course should be
selected on the basis of contribution analysis.
8. Evaluation of Performance:
Performance evaluation of a department or product line or a particular market is necessary for
managerial control. The contribution of departments, product lines or sales divisions not only
indicates the performance but also provides basis for comparison between them.
9. Determination of Optimum Activity Level:
The management wants to increase or decrease the production depending upon the conditions. The
contribution earned at different levels of activities guides the management in raising the level of
production. The optimum level of activity is that where marginal cost is equal to selling price.
10. Cost Control:
Marginal costing divides the costs into variable costs and fixed costs. Variable costs are controlled by
lower level management and fixed costs are controlled by the top level of management.

Page | 16
Q.1 XYZ Ltd. has prepared the following budget for the year 2020 - 2021
Sales units 15,000
Fixed Expenses Rs. 34,000
Sales Value (Rs. 10/- per unit) Rs. 1,50,000
Variable cost Rs. 6 per unit
Find (i) P/V ratio (ii) Break even point (iii) Margin of safety (iv) MOS Ratio (v) BEP Ratio

Q.2 The following data have been extracted from the books of Alfa Ltd.
Year Sale Profit
s Rs.
Rs.
2019 5,00,000 (Loss)
(25,000)
2020 7,50,000 1,00,000

You are required to calculate :

(i) P/V Ratio
(ii) Fixed Cost
(ii) Break-even Sales
(iv) Profit on sales of Rs. 4,00,000
(v) Sales to earn a profit of Rs. 1,25,000.

Page | 17