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Stimulated Emission Devices and Lasers

Chapter 4 discusses stimulated emission devices, focusing on optical amplifiers and lasers, particularly the ruby laser and its principles. It highlights the contributions of Zhores Alferov and Herbert Kroemer, who won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2000 for their work on semiconductor heterostructures. The chapter also covers the mechanisms of laser operation, including population inversion and the necessary conditions for laser action.

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Stimulated Emission Devices and Lasers

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Chapter 4 Stimulated Emission Devices

Optical Amplifiers and LASERS

Zhores Alferov (on the right) and Herbert Kroemer (shown in Chapter 3) shared the Nobel
Prize in Physics (2000) with Jack Kilby. Their Nobel citation is "for developing
semiconductor heterostructures used in high-speed- and opto-electronics" (Courtesy of
Zhores Alferov, Ioffe Physical Technical Institute)

Optical Amplifiers and LASERS

Zhores Alferov (on the right) with Valery Kuzmin (technician) in 1971 at the Ioffe Physical
Technical Institute, discussing their experiments on heterostructures. Zhores Alferov carried out
some of the early pioneering work on heterostructure semiconductor devices that lead to the
development of a number of important optoelectronic devices, including the heterostructure
laser. Zhores Alferov and Herbert Kroemer shared the Nobel Prize in Physics (2000) with Jack
Kilby. Their Nobel citation is "for developing semiconductor heterostructures used in high-
speed- and opto-electronics" (Courtesy of Zhores Alferov, Ioffe Physical Technical Institute)
S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics and Photonics: Principles and Practices, Second Edition, © 2013 Pearson Education
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3
Stimulated Emission Devices
Optical Amplifiers and LASERS

The LASER Principle

The principle of the LASER, using a ruby laser as an example. (a) The ions (Cr3+ ions) in the ground state are
pumped up to the energy level E3 by photons from an optical excitation source. (b) Ions at E3 rapidly decay to
the long-lived state at the energy level E2 by emitting lattice vibrations (phonons). (c) As the states at E2 are
long-lived, they quickly become populated and there is a population inversion between E2 and E1. (d) A
random photon (from spontaneous decay) of energy h 21 = E2 E1 can initiate stimulated emission. Photons
from this stimulated emission can themselves further stimulate emissions leading to an avalanche of
stimulated emissions and coherent photons being emitted.

3-Level Lasers: The Ruby Laser

(a) A more realistic energy diagram for the Cr3+ ion in the ruby crystal (Al2O3), showing the optical pumping
levels and the stimulated emission. (b) The laser action needs an optical cavity to reflect the stimulated
radiation back and forth to build-up the total radiation within the cavity, which encourages further stimulated
emissions. (c) A typical construction for a ruby laser, which uses an elliptical reflector, and has the ruby crystal
at one focus and the pump light at the other focus.

systems
Consider the 3-level system Figure 4.2(a). Assuming that the transitions
from E3 to E2 are fast, and the spontaneous decay time from E2 to E1 is sp,
show that the minimum pumping power Ppmin that must be absorbed by the
laser medium per unit volume for population inversion (N2 > N1) is
Ppmin/V = (N0/2)h 13/ sp Minimum pumping for population inversion for 3-level laser (4.2.12)
where V is the volume, N0 is the concentration of ions in the medium and
hence at E0 before pumping. Consider a ruby laser in which the
concentration of Cr3+ ions is 1019 cm-3, the ruby crystal rod is 10 cm long
and 1 cm in diameter. The lifetime of Cr3+ at E2 is 3 ms. Assume the pump
takes the Cr3+ ions to the E3-band in Figure 4.3 (a), which is about 2.2 eV
above E0. Estimate the minimum power that must be provided to this ruby
laser to achieve population inversion.

Solution
Consider the 3-level system in Figure 4.2 (a). To achieve population inversion we
need to get half the ions at E1 to level E2 so that N2 = N1 = N0 /2 since N0 is the total
concentration of Cr3+ ions all initially at E1. We will need [(N0 / 2)h 13 × volume]
amount of energy to pump to the E3-band.

systems
Solution (continued)
The ions decay quickly from E3 to E2. We must provide this pump energy before
the ions decay from E2 to E1, that is, before sp Thus, the minimum power the ruby
needs to absorb is
Ppmin = V(N0 / 2)h 13/ sp

which is Eq. (4.2.12). For the ruby laser

Ppmin = [ (0.5 cm)2(10 cm)][(1019 cm-3)/2](2.2 eV)(1.6×10-19 J/eV)]/(0.003 s)

= 4.6 kW

The total pump energy that must be provided in less than 3 ms is 13.8 J.

A four energy level laser system

Highly simplified representation of Nd3+:YAG laser
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Einstein Coefficients 9

R12 = B12N1 ( ) R21 = A21N2 + B21N2 ( )

dN1 /dt Absorption dN2 /dt Spontaneous Stimulated

emission emission

We need A21, B12 and B21

Consider equilibrium R12 = R21

Boltzmann statistics N2 / N1 = exp[ (E2 E1)/kBT]
E1 and E2 have the same degeneracy

3
Planck’s black body 8 h
eq ( )
radiation law 3 h
c exp 1
k BT
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Einstein Coefficients
11

B12 = B21
A21 B21 = 8 h 3 c3
3
R21 (stim) B21 N 2 ( ) B21 ( ) c
3
( )
R21 (spon) A21 N 2 A21 8 h
R21 (stim) N2
R12 (absorp) N1
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LASER Requirements
12

R21 (stim) N2
Population inversion
R12 (absorp) N1
R21 (stim)
( ) Optical cavity
R21 (spon)
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13

3-Level Lasers: The Ruby Laser

Theodore Harold Maiman was born in 1927 in Los Angeles, son of an electrical engineer. He studied
engineering physics at Colorado University, while repairing electrical appliances to pay for college, and then
obtained a Ph.D. from Stanford. Theodore Maiman constructed this first laser in 1960 while working at
Hughes Research Laboratories (T.H. Maiman, "Stimulated optical radiation in ruby lasers", Nature, 187, 493,
1960). There is a vertical chromium ion doped ruby rod in the center of a helical xenon flash tube. The ruby
rod has mirrored ends. The xenon flash provides optical pumping of the chromium ions in the ruby rod. The
output is a pulse of red laser light. (Courtesy of HRL Laboratories, LLC, Malibu, California.)

R12 = dN1/dt and R21 = dN2/dt

R21 = rate at which N2 is decreasing by spontaneous and stimulated

emission

Consider N2 changes by spontaneous emission

dN2/dt = A21N2 = N2/ sp,

sp = 1/A21 = spontaneous decay time; or the lifetime of level E2.

Optical power absorbed by an ion

= Light intensity × Absorption cross section of ion
= I ab

I
ab N1
I x
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Emission Cross Section
17

Stimulated optical power emitted by an ion

= Light intensity × Emission cross section of ion
= I em

I
em N2
I x
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Optical Gain Coefficient
18

Definition

I g= emN2 abN1
g
I x net g( ) = em( )N2 ab( )N1
Optical gain is G
G = exp(gL)
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19

Erbium Doped Fiber Amplifier

EDFA (Strand Mounted Optical

EDFAs (LambdaDriver®-Optical Amplifier Modules)
Amplifier, Prisma 1550) for optical
with low noise figure and flat gain (to within ±1 dB)
amplification at 1550 nm. This model can
for use in DWDM over 1528 - 1563 nm. These
be used underground to extend the reach
amplifiers can be used for booster, in-line and
of networks; and operates over -40 C to
preamplifier applications. (Courtesy of MRV
+65 C. The output can be as high as 24
Communications, Inc)
dBm (Courtesy of Cisco).

Erbium Doped Fiber Amplifier

(a) Energy diagram for the Er3+ ion in the glass fiber medium and light amplification by
stimulated emission from E2 to E1. (Features are highly exaggerated.) Dashed arrows
indicate radiationless transitions (energy emission by lattice vibrations). The pump is a 980
nm laser diode (b) EDFA can also be pumped with a 1480 nm laser diode.
S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics and Photonics: Principles and Practices, Second Edition, © 2013 Pearson Education
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22

Erbium Doped Fiber Amplifier

(a) Typical absorption and emission cross sections, ab and em respectively, for Er3+ in a
silica glass fiber doped with alumina (SiO2-Al2O3). (Cross section values for the plots were
extracted from B. Pedersen et al, J. Light. Wave Technol. 9, 1105, 1991.) (b) The spectral
characteristics of gain, G in dB, for a typical commercial EDF, available from Fibercore as
IsoGainTM [Link] pumped at 115 mW and at 977 nm. The insertion losses are 0.45
dB for the isolator, 0.9 dB for the pump coupler and splices.

EDFA Configurations

Typical characteristics of EDFA small signal gain in dB vs launched pump power for two
different types of fibers pumped at 980 nm. The fibers have different core compositions and core
diameter, and different lengths (L1 = 19.9 m, and L2 = 13.6 m) (Figures were constructed by using
typical data from C.R. Jiles et al, IEEE Photon. Technol. Letts. 3, 363, 1991 and C.R. Jiles et al,
J. Light Wave Technol. 9, 271, 1991)
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28
EDFA

Typical dependence of small signal gain G on the fiber length L at different launched
pump powers. There is an optimum fiber length Lp. (Figures were constructed by using
typical data from C.R. Jiles et al, IEEE Photon. Technol. Letts. 3, 363, 1991 and C.R.
Jiles et al, J. Light Wave Technol. 9, 271, 1991)

Typical dependence of gain on the output signal strength for different launched pump powers. At
high output powers, the output signal saturates, i.e. the gain drops. (Figures were constructed by
using typical data from C.R. Jiles et al, IEEE Photon. Technol. Letts. 3, 363, 1991 and C.R. Jiles
et al, J. Light Wave Technol. 9, 271, 1991)
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EDFA 30

Psout G
Saturated Saturation
Psout
Ppin
Saturation
EDFA
Psin Small signal gain
Psout
Psin Psin
Maximum Psin Maximum Psin

Power Conversion Efficiency (PCE)

Psout Psin Psout
PCE
Ppin Ppin

sout p
PCE
pin s
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EDFA 31

Gain G
Psout Ppin
G 1 PCE
Psin Psin

Psin < ( p/ s)Ppin / (G 1)

Confinement
Pp AN0h pLp / sp
factor
Pp ANh pLp / sp

g= emN2 abN1 G = exp(gL)

EXAMPLE: An erbium doped fiber amplifier

Consider a 3 m EDFA that has a core diameter of 5 m, Er3+ doping concentration of 1×1019 cm-3 and
sp (the spontaneous decay time from E2 to E1) is 10 ms. The fiber is pumped at 980 nm from a laser
diode. The pump power coupled into the EDFA fiber is 25 mW. Assuming that the confinement factor
is 70%, what is the fiber length that will absorb the pump radiation? Find the small signal gain at 1550
nm for two cases corresponding to full population inversion and 90% inversion.
Solution
The pump photon energy h = hc/ = (6.626×10-34)(3×108)/(980×10-9) =
2.03×10-19 J (or 1.27 eV)
Rearranging Eq. (4.3.6), we get
Lp Pp sp / ANh p
i.e.
Lp (0.70)(25×10-3 W)(10×10-3 s)
/ [ (2.5×10-4 cm)2(1×1019 cm-3)(2.03×10-19 J)] = 4.4 m
which is the maximum allowed length. The small signal gain can be rewritten as

g= emN2 abN1 =[ em (N2/N0) ab(N1/N0)]N0

where N1 N2 = N0 is the total Er3+ concentration. Let x = N2 /N 0, then 1 x = N1/N0

where x represents the extent of pumping from 0 to 1, 1 being 100%.
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34
Solution (continued)
Thus, the above equation becomes

g=[ emx ab (1 x)]N0

For 100% pumping, x = 1,

g = [(3.2×10-21 cm2)(1) 0](1×1019 cm-3) = 3.2 m-1
and
G = exp(gL) = exp[(3.2 m-1)(3m)] = 14,765 or 41.7 dB

For x = 0.9 (90% pumping), we have

g = [(3.2×10-21 cm2)(0.9) (2.4×10-21 cm2)(0.1)](1×1019 cm-3)
= 2.64 m-1
and
G = exp(gL) = exp[(2.64 m-1)(3m)] = 2,751 or 34.4 dB

Even at 90% pumping the gain is significantly reduced. At 70% pumping, the gain is
19.8 dB. In actual operation, it is unlikely that 100% population inversion can be
achieved; 41.7 dB is a good indicator of the upper ceiling to the gain.
S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics and Photonics: Principles and Practices, Second Edition, © 2013 Pearson Education
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EDFA Pump Equalization
35

(a) The gain spectrum of one type of commercial gain flattened EDFA. The gain
variation is very small over the spectrum, but the gain decreases as the input
power increases due to saturation effects (Note, the corresponding power levels
are 0.031, 0.13 and 0.32 mW). (b) Schematic illustration of gain equalization by
using long fiber Bragg grating filters in series that attenuate the high gain regions
to equalize the gain over the spectrum. (An idealized example.)

(a) A gain flattened EDFA reported by Lucent Technologies uses two EDFA and
a long period grating between the two stages. (A simplified diagram). The two
EDFA are pumped at 980 and 1480 nm. (b) The resulting gain spectrum for
small signals is flat to better than 1 dB over a broad spectrum, 40 nm. The length
of EDFA1 is 14 m, and that of EDFA2 is 15 m. Pump 1 (980 nm) and 2 (1480
nm) diodes were operated at most at power levels 76 mW and 74.5 mW
respectively. EDFA2 can also be pumped counter directionally.

EDFA Noise Figure

SNR in
NF
SNR out
SNR in
NF(dB) 10 log
SNR out

(a) Amplified spontaneous emission (ASE) noise in the output spectrum

and the amplified signal. (b) The dependence of NF and gain (G) on the
input signal power level (Psin) for an EDFA under forward
(codirectional) pumping. Data for the plots were selectively extracted
from G.R. Walker et al, J. Light Wave Technol, 9, 182, 1991.

Ali Javan and his associates William Bennett Jr. and Donald Herriott at Bell Labs wee
first to successfully demonstrate a continuous wave (CW) helium-neon laser operation
(1960-1962). (Reprinted with permission from Alcatel-Lucent USA Inc)

He* + Ne He + Ne*
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He-Ne LASER: MODES 42

Fabry-Perot optical resonator

(a) Optical gain vs. wavelength characteristics (called the optical gain curve) of the lasing medium.
(b) Allowed modes and their wavelengths due to stationary EM waves within the optical cavity. (c)
The output spectrum (relative intensity vs. wavelength) is determined by satisfying (a) and (b)
simultaneously, assuming no cavity losses
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He-Ne LASER: MODES 43

2k B T ln( 2)
1/ 2 2 o
Mc 2

1/2 1/2

Axial or longitudinal modes

m L
2
Longitudinal mode number
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He-Ne LASER: Number of Modes 44

Number of laser modes depends on how the cavity modes intersect the optical
gain curve. In this case we are looking at modes within the linewidth /2.

What are other lasing emissions?

Wavelength (nm) 543.5 594.1 612 632.8 1523

Color Green Yellow Orange Red Infrared

EXAMPLE: Efficiency of the He-Ne laser

A typical low-power 5mW He-Ne laser tube operates at a dc voltage of 2000 V
and carries a current of 7 mA. What is the efficiency of the laser ?

Solution
From the definition of efficiency,
Output Light Power 5 10 3 W
Efficiency
Input Elec trical Power (7 10 3 A )( 2000 V )
0.036%

Typically He-Ne efficiencies are less than 0.1%. What is

important is the highly coherent output radiation. Note that 5 mW
over a beam diameter of 1 mm is 6.4 kW m-2.

EXAMPLE: He-Ne laser Doppler broadened

linewidth

Calculate the Doppler broadened linewidths and

(end-to-end of spectrum) for the He-Ne laser transition for
= 632.8 nm if the gas discharge temperature is about
127°C. The atomic mass of Ne is 20.2 (g mol-1). The laser
tube length is 40 cm. What is the linewidth in the output
wavelength spectrum? What is mode number m of the
central wavelength, the separation between two
consecutive modes and how many modes do you expect
within the linewidth 1/2 of the optical gain curve?

Solution
Due to the Doppler effect arising from the random motions of the gas atoms, the
laser radiation from gas-lasers is broadened around a central frequency o. The
central o corresponds to the source frequency. Higher frequencies detected will be
due to radiations emitted from atoms moving toward the observer whereas lower
frequency will be result of the emissions from atoms moving away from the
observer. We will first calculate the frequency width using two approaches, one
approximate and the other more accurate. Suppose that vx is the root-mean-square
(rms) velocity along the x-direction. We can intuitively expect the frequency width
rms between rms points of the Gaussian output frequency spectrum to be

vx vx 2 ov x (4.5.5)
rms o 1 o 1
c c c

Solution (continued)
We need to know the rms velocity vx along x which is given by the kinetic molecular
theory as 1/2M vx2 = 1/2kBT, where M is the mass of the atom. We can therefore
calculate vx. For the He-Ne laser, it is the Ne atoms that lase, so M = (20.2×10-3 kg
mol-1) (6.02×1023 mol-1) = 3.35×10-26 kg. Thus,
vx = [(1.38×10-23 J K-1)(127+273K) (3.35×10-26 kg)]1/2
= 405.9 m s-1
The central frequency is
8 -1 -9 14 -1
o= c o=(3×10 m s ) (632.8×10 m) = 4.74×10 s
The rms frequency linewidth is approximately,
rms (2 ovx ) c
= 2(4.74×1014 s-1)(405.9 m s-1) (3×108m s-1)
= 1.28 GHz.
The FWHM width 1/2 of the output frequency spectrum will be given by
Eq. (4.4.3) 23
2k BT ln( 2) 2(1.38 10 )( 400) ln( 2)
1/ 2 2 o 2( 4.74 1014 )
Mc 2 (3.35 10 26 )( 3 108 ) 2
1.51 GHz,

which is about 18% wider than the estimate from Eq. (4.5.5).
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EXAMPLE: Doppler broadened linewidth 51

Solution (continued)
To get FWHM wavelength width 1/2, differentiate =c
d c
d 2 (4.5.6)

so that
1/2 1/2 | | = (1.51×109 Hz)(632.8×10-9 m) (4.74×1014 s-1)
or
1/2 2.02×10-12 m, or 2.02 pm.

This width is between the half-points of the spectrum. The rms linewidth
would be 0.0017 nm. Each mode in the cavity satisfies m( /2) = L and since L is
some 4.7×105 times greater than , the mode number m must be very large. For =
o = 632.8 nm, the corresponding mode number mo is,

mo = 2L o = (2×0.4 m) / (632.8×10-9 m) = 1.264,222.5

and actual mo has to be the closest integer value , that is, 1.264,222 or 1.264,223
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EXAMPLE: Doppler broadened linewidth 52

Solution (continued)
The separation m between two consecutive modes (m and m +1) is
2L 2L 2L
m m m 1
m m 1 m2
2
o
or m Separation between modes (4.5.7)
2L
Substituting the values, we find m = (632.8×10-9)2 (2×0.4) = 5.01×10-13 m or
0.501 pm.
We can also find the separation of the modes by noting that Eq. (4.5.4), in
which = c/ , is equivalent to
= mc/2L Frequency of a mode (4.5.8)
so that the separation of modes in frequency, m, is simply
m = c/2L Frequency separation of modes (4.5.9)
Substituting L = 0.40 m in Eq. (4.5.9), we find m = 375 MHz. (A typical value for
a He-Ne laser.)

Solution (continued)
The number of modes, i.e. the number of m values, within the linewidth, that is,
between the half-intensity points will depend on how the cavity modes and the
optical gain curve coincide, for example, whether there is a cavity mode right at
the peak of the optical gain curve as illustrated in Figure 4.20 . Suppose that we
try to estimate the number of modes by using,
Linewidth of spectrum 1/ 2 2.02 pm
Modes 4.03
Separation of two modes m 0.501 pm
We can expect at most 4 to 5 modes within the linewidth of the output as
shown in Figure 4.20. We neglected the cavity losses.

The Ar atoms are ionized by electron collisions in a

high current electrical discharge.

Multiple collisions with electrons excite the argon ion,

Ar+, to a group of 4p energy levels 35 eV above the
atomic groun
A population inversion forms between the 4p levels
and the 4s level which is about 33.5 eV above the Ar
atom ground level.

The stimulated radiation from the 4p levels down to

the 4s level contains a series of wavelengths ranging
from 351.1 nm to 528.7 nm. Most of the power
however is concentrated, approximately equally, in the
488 and 514.5 nm emissions.

The Ar+ ion at the lower laser level (4s) returns to its neutral atomic ground state via a radiative
decay to the Ar+ ion ground state, followed by recombination with an electron to form the neutral
atom.

The Ar atom is then ready for "pumping" again.

P Nph n Nph
g
P x Nph x cNph t
dNph
Net rate of stimulated photon emission
dt
B21nh N 2 B21 ( ) N1B21 ( ) (N2 N1 ) B21 ( )
g( o ) (N2 N1 ) o
c N ph h o
( o)

Gop = Pf / Pi = 1

Pf Pi R1R2 exp[g (2 L)] exp[ s (2 L)]

1 1
g th s ln t
2L R1R2
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58

c
(N2 N1 ) th g th
B21nh o

2 2
8 n o sp
(N2 N1 ) th g th 2
c
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59

nkm(2L) = m(2 )

m mc
m L m
2n 2n L
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60

Laser Output vs. Pump Rate

A simplified description of a laser oscillator. (N2 N1)

and coherent output power (Po) vs. pump rate under
continuous wave steady state operation.
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61
EXAMPLE: Threshold population inversion for the He-Ne
laser
Consider a He-Ne gas laser operating at the wavelength 632.8 nm (equivalent to o = 473.8 THz). The
tube length L = 40 cm and mirror reflectances are approximately 95% and 100%. The linewidth is
1.5 GHz, the loss coefficient s is 0.05 m-1, the spontaneous decay time constant sp is roughly 100 ns,
and n 1. What are the threshold gain coefficient and threshold population inversion?

Solution
The threshold gain coefficient from Eq. (4.6.7) is
1 1 1 1
g th s ln (0.05 m 1 ) ln = 0.114 m-1
2L R1R2 2(0.4 m) (0.95)(1)

The threshold population inversion from Eq. (4.6.9) is

8 n2 2
o sp
N th g th 2
c
8 (1) 2 (473.8 1012 s 1 ) 2 (100 10 9 s)(1.5 109 s 1 )
1
(0.114 m )
(3 108 m s 1 ) 2
1.1 1015 m -3 .
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Laser Cavity 62

A pictorial visualization of photons inside a laser optical cavity bouncing

back and forth between the cavity ends with some being transmitted. Nph
is the photon concentration inside the cavity. ph+ is the photon flux in the
+x direction

= 1/ N (c/n)
ph+ 2 ph
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63

Laser Cavity

= 1/ N (c/n)
ph+ 2 ph

Po 1/ A(1
2 R1)h oNphc/n
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64

Photon Cavity Lifetime

ph+ = ph[1 exp( 2 tL)]

ph n/c t
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65

EXAMPLE: Output power and photon cavity lifetime ph

Consider the He-Ne laser in Example 4.6.1 that has a tube length of 40 cm and R1 = 0.95 and R2 = 1.
Suppose that the tube diameter is 0.8 mm, and the output power is 2.5 mW. What are the photon cavity
lifetime and the photon concentration inside the cavity? (The emission frequency o is 474 THz.)

Solution
Using L = 40 cm, R1 = 0.95, R2 = 1, s = 0.05 m-1, gives
t = s + (1/2 L)ln (R1R2)
-1

= m-1 + [2(0.4 m)]-1ln[(0.95×1)]-1 = 0.114 m-1,

and hence from Eq.(4.6.12),
8 2×0.114×0.4)] = 30.6 ns
ph = [(2)(1)(0.4)] / [(3×10 )(1 e

If we use Eq. (4.6.13) we would find 29.2 ns. To find the photon concentration, we use
Eq. (4.6.11)
Po = (0.0025 W) 1/2 A(1 R1)h oNphc/n
= ½[ (8×10-3/2)2](1 0.95)(6.62×10-34)(474×1012)Nph(3×108)/(1)
which gives
Nph 2.1×1015 photons m-3.

Laser Modes (a) An off-axis transverse mode is able to self-replicate after one
round trip. (b) Wavefronts in a self-replicating wave (c) Four low order transverse
cavity modes and their fields. (d) Intensity patterns in the modes of (c)

The spontaneous decay time sp is the natural decay time of Ne atoms from
E2 (2p55s1) to E1 (2p53p1). This time must be much longer than the
spontaneous decay from E1 to lower levels to allow a population inversion to
be built-up between E2 and E1, which is the case in the He-Ne laser.

Equation (4.6.8) was a simplified derivation that used two energy levels; E2
and E1. The He-Ne case is actually more complicated because the excited Ne
atom can decay from E2 not only to E1 but to other lower levels as well.
While the He-Ne is lasing, the optical cavity ensures that the photon density
in cavity promotes the E2 to E1 transitions to maintain the lasing operation.

Homogeneous Broadening

Lineshapes for homogenous broadening. The lineshape is

Lorentzian for homogeneous broadening.
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69

Homogeneous Broadening
E(t) = Eoexp( t/2 2)×cos( ot) g L ( )d 1
/
gL ( ) 2 2
( o)

Example:
Lifetime broadening
1/ = 2 lifetime of upper state E2
FWHM = 2

Inhomogeneous Broadening

Lineshapes for inhomogeneous broadening. The lineshape is

Gaussian for inhomogeneous broadening.

Inhomogeneous Broadening
1 2 2
gG ( ) 1/ 2
exp[ ( o ) / ]

g L ( )d 1

= 2 [ln(2)] 1/2
FWHM

Doppler broadening in gas lasers

2k B T ln( 2)
1/ 2 2 o 2
Mc

Broadening

Main characteristics Lineshape Examples of lasers

Homogeneous All atoms emit the same Lotentzian Nd3+:YAG; phonon collision
broadening spectrum with the same center function broadening
frequency o. Pressure broadening in CO2
Single mode lasing output lasers
Inhomogeneous Different atoms emit at slightly Gaussian He-Ne lasers; Doppler
broadening differing central frequencies, function broadening
due to random processes Nd3+:glass lasers; amorphous
shifting the peak frequency structure broadening
Multi-mode or single mode
lasing output
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Q-Switching
75

(a) The optical cavity has a low Q so that pumping takes the atoms to a very high
degree of population inversion; lasing is prevented by not having a right hand mirror.
(b) The right mirror is "flung" to make an optical resonator, Q is switched to a high
value which immediately encourages lasing emissions. There is an intense pulse of
lasing emission which brings down the excess population inversion.

A simplified schematic of Q-
switching in the generation of
short laser pulses. (a) The
pump profile i.e. the flash
tube output. (b) The evolution
of the population difference
N2 N1 with time. (c) The
switching of the optical cavity
Q during the pumping
procedure while the
population inversion is very
large and greater than the
normal threshold population.
(d) The output light pulse.

Selected typical characteristics of two commercial Q-switched Nd3+:YAG lasers.

Usually higher energy output pulses require operation at a lower repetition frequency.

Laser Nd3+:YAG Nd3+:YAG

NL220 by P-1064-150-HE
EKSPLA by Alphalas

Emission wavelength (nm) 1064 1064

Output pulse energy (mJ) 10 1.5
Pulse width (ns) 7 1.1
Repetition rate (Hz) 1000 100
Peak power (kW) ~1,400 ~1,400
Q-switch EO Passive
Output beam TEM00 TEM00
Output beam M2 <1.5
Beam divergence (mrad) < 1.5 6
Beam diameter (mm) 2.5 0.3
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Q-Switching
78

(a) Q-switching by using a rotating prism. (b) Q-switching by using a saturable absorber. (c) Q-
switching by using an electro-optic (EO) switch. Normally a polarizer is also needed before or
after the switch but this is part of the EO switch in this diagram.

(a) A mode-locked laser has its N modes all in phase so that the modes add
correctly to generate a short laser pulse every T seconds. is the full width at
half maximum (FWHM). (b) The output light intensity from a mode locked laser
is a periodic series of short intense optical pulses that are separated in time by T =
2L/c, the round trip time for the pulse in the resonator. (c) A laser can be mode-
locked by using an EO switch in the optical cavity that becomes transparent
exactly at the right time, every T seconds. Each time the pulse in the resonator
impinges on the left mirror, every T = 2L/c seconds, a portion of it is transmitted,
which constitutes the output from a mode-locked laser

Semiconductor Laser Diode

(a) The energy band diagram of a degenerately doped pn with no bias. (b) Band diagram with a
sufficiently large forward bias to cause population inversion and hence stimulated emission.

Semiconductor Laser Diode

(a) The density of states and energy distribution of electrons and holes in the conduction and
valence bands respectively at T > 0 in the SCL under forward bias such that EFn EFp > g.
Holes in the VB are empty states. (b) Gain vs. photon energy (h ).
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82

Semiconductor Laser Diode

A schematic illustration of a GaAs homojunction laser diode. The cleaved surfaces act as
reflecting mirrors.

Semiconductor Laser Diode

Robert Hall and his colleagues, while working
at General Electric's Research and
Development Center in Schenectady, New
York, were among the first groups of
researchers to report a working
semiconductor laser diode in 1962. He
obtained a US patent in 1967, entitled
"Semiconductor junction laser diode" for his
invention. When Robert Hall retired from GE
in 1987, he had been awarded more than
forty patents. (R.N. Hall, et al, Phys Rev
Letts, 9, 366, 1962.) (Courtesy of GE)

Semiconductor Laser Diode Output

Typical output optical power vs. diode current (I) characteristics and the corresponding
output spectrum of a laser diode. Ith is the threshold current and corresponds to the extension
of the coherent radiation output characteristic onto the I-axis.

Izuo Hayashi (left) and Morton Panish (1971) at Bell Labs were able to design the first
semiconductor laser that operated continuously at room temperature. The need for
semiconductor heterostructures for efficient laser diode operation was put forward by
Herbert Kroemer in the USA and Zhores Alferov in Russia in 1963. (Reprinted with
permission of Alcatel–Lucent USA Inc.)

Stripe Geometry Laser Diode

Schematic illustration of the structure of a double heterojunction stripe contact laser diode

Buried Double Heterostructure

A simplified schematic diagram of a double heterostructure semiconductor laser device

that has its active region buried within the device in such a way that it is surrounded by
low refractive index materials rendering the active region as a waveguide.

Buried Double Heterostructure

A highly simplified schematic sketch of a buried heterostructure laser diode for telecom
applications. The active layer (InGaAsP) is surrounded by the wider bandgap, lower
refractive index InP material. Layers are grown on an InP substrate. The InP np junction is
reverse biased and prevents the current flow outside the central active region.
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90

Semiconductor Laser Diodes

Top left: High power (0.5 – 7 W) CW laser diodes with

emission at 805 nm and a spectral width of 2.5 nm.
Applications include medical systems, diode pumped
lasers, analytical equipment, illuminators,
reprographics, laser initiated ordnance etc. Top right:
Typical pigtailed laser diodes for telecom. These are
Fabry-Perot laser diodes operating at peak
wavelengths of 1310 and 1550 nm with spectral
widths of 2 and 1.3 nm respectively. The threshold
currents are 6 mA and 10 mA, and they can deliver 2
mW of optical power into a single mode fiber. Lower
left: High power 850 and 905 nm pulsed laser
diodes for use in range finders, ceilometers, weapon
simulation, optical fuses, surveying equipment etc.
(Courtesy of OSI Laser Diode Inc.)

m
m m 1 m2 2 nL
where we assumed that the refractive index n does not change significantly with wavelength from one
mode to another. Thus the separation between the modes for a given peak wavelength increases with
decreasing L.
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92
EXAMPLE: Modes in a laser and the optical cavity length
Solution (continued)
When L = 200 m,
(870 10 9 ) 2 10
m 5.26 10 m or 0.526 nm
2(3.6)( 200 10 6 )
If the optical gain has a bandwidth of , then there will be m
number of modes, or (6 nm) 0.526 nm), that is 11 modes.

When L = 20 m, the separation between the modes becomes,

(870 10 9 ) 2
m 5.26 nm
2(3.6)( 20 10 6 )

Then ( m = 1.14 and there will be one mode that corresponds to about 870
nm. In fact m must be an integer so that choosing the nearest integer, m = 166,
gives 867.5 nm (choosing m = 165 gives 872.7 nm) It is apparent that reducing
the cavity length suppresses higher modes. Note that the optical bandwidth
depends on the diode current.
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Quantum Well Lasers 93

(a) A single quantum well (SQW) of bandgap Eg1 sandwiched between two semiconductors of wider bandgap Eg2,
(b) The electron energy levels, and stimulated emission. The electrons and holes are injected from n-AlGaAs and p-
AlGaAs respectively. The refractive index variation tries to confine the radiation to GaAs but d is too thin, and most
of the radiation is in the AlGaAs layers rather than within d. (c) The density of sates g(E) is a step-like function, and
is finite at E1 and E1 . The E1 sub-band for electrons and E1 sub-band for holes are also shown. The electrons in the
E1 sub-band have kinetic energies in the yz-plane.
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Quantum Well Lasers 94

A simplified schematic diagram of multiple quantum well (MQW) heterostructure laser

diode. Electrons are injected by the forward current into quantum wells. The light intensity
distribution is also shown. Most of the light is in the active region.

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95
EXAMPLE: A GaAs quantum well
Consider a very thin GaAs quantum well sandwitched between two wider bandgap semiconductor
layers of AlGaAs (Al0.33Ga0.67As in present case). The QW depths from Ec and Ev are approximately
0.28 eV and 0.16 eV respectively. Effective mass me* of a conduction electron in GaAs is
approximately 0.07me where me is the electron mass in vacuum. Calculate the first two electron
energy levels for a quantum well of thickness 10 nm. What is the hole energy in the QW above Ev of
GaAs, if the hole effective mass mh* 0.50me? What is the change in the emission wavelength with
respect to bulk GaAs, for which Eg = 1.42 eV? Assume infinite QW depths for the calculations.
Solution
As we saw in Ch3 (Section 3.12), the electron energy levels in the QW are with
respect to the CB edge Ec in GaAs. Suppose that n is the electron energy with
respect to Ec in GaAs, or n = En Ec in Figure 4.40(b). Then, the energy of an
electron in a one-dimensional infinite potential energy well is
h 2n 2 (6.626 10 34 )2 (1)2 -21 J or 0.0538 eV
n 9 2 = 8.62×10
8me*d 2 31
8(0.07 9.1 10 )(10 10 )
where n is a quantum number, 1, 2, and we have used d = 10 10-9 m, me* = 0.07me and
n = 1 to find 1 = 0.054 eV. The next level from the same calculation with n = 2 is 2 =
0.215 eV. h 2n 2
The hole energy levels below Ev in 4.40(b) are given by n * 2
8mh d
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96
EXAMPLE: A GaAs quantum well
Solution (continued)
where n is the quantum number for the hole energy levels above Ev. Using d =
10 10-9 m, mh* 0.5me and n = 1, we find, 1 = 0.0075 eV.
The wavelength of emission from bulk GaAs with Eg = 1.42 eV is
hc (6.626 10 34 )(3 108 )
g 19 = 874 10 -9 m (874 nm)
Eg (1.42)(1.602 10 )
In the case of QWs, we must obey the selection rule that the radiative
transition must have n = n n = 0. Thus, the radiative transition is from 1 to
1 so that the emitted wavelength is,
hc (6.626 10 34 )( 3 108 )
QW 19
Eg 1 1 (1 . 42 0 . 0538 0 . 0075 )(1 . 602 10 )
838 10-9 m (838 nm)
The difference is g QW = 36 nm. We note that we assumed an infinite
PE well. If we actually solve the problem properly by using a finite well depth,
then we would find 1 0.031 eV, 2 0.121 eV, 1 0.007 eV. The emitted
photon wavelength is 848 nm and g QW = 26 nm
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97
Elementary Laser Characteristics

LEFT: The laser cavity definitions and the output laser beam characteristics.
RIGHT: Laser diode output beam astigmatism. The beam is elliptical, and is
characterized by two angles and //.
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98
Elementary Laser Characteristics

Output spectra of lasing

emission from an index guided
edge emitting LD. At
sufficiently high diode currents
corresponding to high optical
power, the operation becomes
single mode. (Note: Relative
power scale applies to each
spectrum individually and not
between spectra.)

Elementary Laser Characteristics

Ith = Aexp(T/To)

Output optical power vs. diode current at three different temperatures. The
threshold current shifts to higher temperatures.

Peak wavelength o vs. case temperature characteristics. (a) Mode hops in

the output spectrum of a single mode LD. (b) Restricted mode hops and
none over the temperature range of interest (20 40 C ). (c) Output
spectrum from a multimode LD.

Po Po
slope
I above threshold I I th

Increase in optical output power

slope
Increase in input current above threshold

Laser Diode Efficiencies

External Quantum Efficiency

Number of output photons from the diode per unit second

EQE
Number of injected electrons into the diode per unit second

Po / h ePo
EQE
I /e Eg I

Laser Diode Efficiencies

External Differential Quantum Efficiency

Increase in number of output photons from diode per unit second

EDQE
Increase in number of injected electrons into diode per unit second

Po / h e e Po
EDQE slope
I /e h E g I I th

Laser Diode Efficiencies

Internal Quantum Efficiency

Number of photons generated internally per unit second

IDQE
Number of injected electrons into diode per unit second

Rate of radiative recombination

1/ r
IQE
Rate of all recombination processes 1/ r 1/ nr

nr = Nonradiative recombination time

r = Radiative recombination time

Laser Diode Efficiencies

Internal Differential Quantum Efficiency

Increase in number of photons generated internally per unit second

IDQE
Increase in number of injected electrons into diode per unit second

If the current increases by I above threshold,

increase in the injected electrons is I/e

The increase in the number of photons

generated internally is then

IDQE × I/e
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107

Laser Diode Efficiencies

Extraction efficiency
=
(Loss from the exit cavity end)
/ (Total loss)

EE = (1/2L)ln(1/R1) / t

Laser Diode Efficiencies

Po = EE IDQEh (I Ith)/e
slope = Po / I = EE IDQEh /e

EDQE = ( Po / h I/e)
= (Po/ h (I Ith)/e] = EE IDQE
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109

Laser Diode Efficiencies

Power Conversion Efficiency
Optical output power Po Eg
PCE EQE
Electrical input power IV eV

Po Eg
PCE EQE
IV eV

Laser Diode Efficiencies

Typical characteristics for a few selected red and violet commercial laser diodes. All LDs are
MQW structures and have FP cavities. Violet lasers are based on InGaN/GaN MQW, and red
LEDs use mainly AlGaInP/GaInP MQW.

LD Po Ith I V // slope PCE

(mW) (nm) (mA) (mA) (V) (mW/mA) %
Red 500 670 400 700 2.4 21 10 1.0 30
Red 100 660 75 180 2.5 18 9 1.0 22
Red 50 660 60 115 2.3 17 10 0.90 19
Red 10 639 30 40 2.3 21 8 1.0 11
Violet 400 405 160 390 5.0 45 15 1.7 21
Violet 120 405 45 120 5.0 17 8 1.6 20
Violet 10 405 26 35 4.8 19 8.5 1.1 6.0

Laser Diode Efficiencies

Typical values for the threshold current Ith, slope efficiency ( slope ) and power conversion efficiency
PCE) for 36 commercial red LDs with different optical output powers from 3 mW 500 mW.

Solution
From the definition in Eq. (4.12.2),
slope = Po / (I Ith)
= (60 mW) / (100 30 mA) = 0.86 mW/mA-1
From Eq. (4.12.8), PCE is
PCE = Po / IV
= (60 mW) / [(100 mA)(5.6 V)] = 0.11 or 11%
We can find the EQE from Eq. (4.12.3) but we need h , which is hc/ . In eV,
h (eV) = 1.24 / m
= 1.24 /0.488 = 2.54 eV
EQE is given by Eq. (4.12.3)
EQE = (Po /h ) / (I /e )
= [(60×10-3)/(2.54×1.6×10-19)]/[(100×10-3) /(1.6×10-19)]
= 0.24 or 24%

EDQE = ( Po /h ) / ( I /e ) (Po /h ) / [( I Ith )/e )]

= [(60×10-3)/(2.54×1.6×10-19)] / [(100×10-3 30×10-3)/1.6×10-19)]

= 0.34 or 34%

The EDQE is higher than the EQE because most injected electrons above Ith are
used in stimulated recombinations. EQE gauges the total conversion efficiency from
all the injected electrons brought by the current to coherent output photons. But, a
portion of the current is used in pumping the gain medium.

Consider an InGaAs FP semiconductor laser diode that emits CW radiation at 1310 nm. The cavity
length (L) is 200 m. The internal loss coefficient s = 20 cm-1, R1 = R3 0.33 (cleaved ends).
Assume that internal differential quantum efficiency, IDQE, is close to 1. The threshold current is 5
mA. What is the output power Po at I = 20 mA? The forward voltage is about 1.3 V. What is the EDQE
and conversion efficiency?
Solution
From the definition of IDQE in Eq. (4.12.6), the number of internal coherent photons
generated per second above threshold is IDQE(I Ith)/e. Thus,

Internal optical power generated = h × IDQE(I Ith)/e

The extraction efficiency EE then couples a portion of this optical power into the
output radiation. The output power Po is then EE × h × IDQE(I Ith)/e. Thus,

Po = EE IDQEh (I Ith)/e Output power vs current (4.12.9)

The slope efficiency from Eq.(4.12.2) is

slope = Po / I = EE IDQE(h /e ) Slope efficiency (4.12.10)

EDQE = ( Po / h I /e) = (Po / h (I Ith)/e] = EE IDQE

External differential quantum efficiency (4.12.11)

We can now calculate the quantities needed. The total loss coefficient is

t = s + (1/2L) ln (1 / R1R2)

=2000 + (2×200×10-6)-1 ln(0.33×0.33)-1 = 7543 m-1

The extraction efficiency is

EE = (1/2L)ln (1/R1) / t = (2×200×10-6)-1 ln(1/0.33) / (7543)

= 0.37 or 37%

Po = (0.37)(1)[(6.62×10-34)(3×108)/(1310×10-9)][(0.02 0.005) /
(1.6×10-19)] = 5.2 mW

The slope efficiency from Eq. (4.12.10) is

slope = Po / I = (5.2 mW 0) / (20 mA 5 mA) = 0.35 mW mA-1

The EDQE from Eq. (4.12.11) is

EDQE = EE IDQE = 0.37 or 37%

The power conversion efficiency PCE = Po / IV

= 5.2 mW / (20 mA × 1.3 V)
= 0.20 or 20%

Equation

A highly simplified and idealized description of a

semiconductor laser diode for deriving the LD
equation. (a) The heterostructure laser diode structure.
(b) The current I injects electrons in the conduction
band, and these electrons recombine radiatively with
the holes in the active region. (c) The coherent
radiation intensity across the device; only a fraction
is within the active region where there is optical gain.
(d) Injected electron concentration n and coherent
radiation output power Po vs. diode current I. The
current represents the pump rate.
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Laser Diode Equation 118

I n
CnNph
eLWd τr
Radiative lifetime
Rate of electron injection by current I
= Rate of spontaneous emissions
+ Rate of stimulated emissions

Nph Rate of coherent photon loss in the cavity

CnNph = Rate of stimulated emissions
ph
Photon cavity lifetime
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Laser Diode Equation
119

I th nth Threshold
eLWd τr
1
nth Threshold
C ph

Substitute back into steady state rate equation

I nth
Cnth N ph N ph
ph
(I I th )
eLWd τr eLWd
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Laser Diode Equation
120

ph
N ph (I I th )
eLWd
( 12 N ph )(Cavity Volume)(Ph oton energy)
Po (1 R )
t

hc 2 ph (1 R )
Po (I I th )
2en L

2
hc ph (1 R )
Io (J J th )
2en d

1 1
g th t s ln
2L R1R2

= Fraction of the coherent optical

radiation within the active region

The gain g works on the radiation

within the cavity, which means that
we must multiply g with to
account for less than perfect optical
confinement

(a)
(b)

Optical gain g vs. photon energy for an InGaAsP active layer (in a 1500 nm LD) as a function of injected
carrier concentration n from 1×1018 to 3×1018 cm-3. (The model described in Leuthold et al, J. Appl. Phys.,
87, 618, 2000 was used to find the gain spectra at different carrier concentrations.) (Data combined from J.
Singh, Electronic and Optoelectronic Properties of Semiconductor Structures, Cambridge University Press,
203, p390; N.K. Dutta, J. Appl. Phys., 51, 6095, 1980; J. Leuthold et al, J. Appl. Phys., 87, 618, 2000.)

The dependence of the peak gain coefficient (maximum g) on the injected carrier concentration n for
GaAs (860 nm), In0.72Ga0.28As0.6P0.4 (1300 nm), and In0.60Ga0.40As0.85P0.15 (1500 nm) active layers. (Data
combined from J. Singh, Electronic and Optoelectronic Properties of Semiconductor Structures,
Cambridge University Press, 203, p390; N.K. Dutta, J. Appl. Phys., 51, 6095, 1980; J. Leuthold et al, J.
Appl. Phys., 87, 618, 2000.)
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125
EXAMPLE: Threshold current and optical output power
from a Fabry-Perot (FP) heterostructure laser diode
Consider GaAs DH laser diode that lases at 860 nm. It has an active layer (cavity) length L of 250 m.
The active layer thickness d is 0.15 m and the width W is 5 m. The refractive index is 3.6, and the
attenuation coefficient s inside the cavity is 103 m-1. The required threshold gain gth corresponds to a
threshold carrier concentration nth 2×1018 cm-3. The radiative lifetime r in the active region can be
found (at least approximately) by using r = 1/Bnth, where B is the direct recombination coefficient, and
assuming strong injection as will be the case for laser diodes [see Eq. (3.8.7) in Chapter 3]. For GaAs, B
2×10-16 m3 s-1. What is the threshold current density and threshold current? Find the output optical
power at I = 1.5Ith, and the external slope efficiency slope. How would = 0.5 affect the calculations?

Solution
The reflectances at the each end are the same (we assume no other thin film
coating on the ends of the cavity) so that R = (n 1)2/ (n 1)2 = 0.32. The total
attenuation coefficient t and hence the threshold gain gth, assuming = 1 in Eq.
(4.13.9), is 1 1
1
g th t (10 cm ) 4
ln = 55.6 cm-1
(2 250 10 cm) (0.32)(0.32)
From Figure 4.48(b), at this gain of 56 cm-1, nth 2×1018 cm-3. This is the
threshold carrier concentration that gives the right gain under ideal optical
confinement, with = 1.
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126
EXAMPLE: Threshold current and optical output power
from a Fabry-Perot (FP) heterostructure laser diode
Solution (continued)
The radiative lifetime r = 1/Bnth = 1/[2×10-16 m3 s-1)( (2×1024 m-3)] = 2.5 ns

Since J = I/WL, the threshold current density from Eq. (4.13.4) is

nth ed (2 1024 m 3 )(1.6 10 19 C)(0.15 10 6 m)
J th =
τr (2.5 10 9 s)

= 1.9×107 A m-2 or 1.9 kA cm-2 or 19 A mm-2.

The threshold current itself is,
Ith = (WL)Jth = (5×10-6 m) (250×10-6 m)(1.9×107 A m-2)
= 0.024 A or 24 mA
The photon cavity lifetime depends on t, and is given by
ph = n/(c t) = 3.6 / [(3×10 m s )(5.56×10 m )]
8 -1 3 -1

= 2.16 ps
The laser diode output power is
hc 2 ph (1 R ) (6.626 10 34 )(3 108 )2 (2.16 10 12 )(1 0.32)
Po (I I th ) 19 9 6
(I I th )
2 en L 2(1.6 10 )(3.6 )(860 10 )(250 10 )
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127
EXAMPLE: Threshold current and optical output power
from a Fabry-Perot (FP) heterostructure laser diode
Solution (continued)
That is Po = (0.35 W A-1)(I – Ith ) = (0.35 mW mA-1)(I – 24 mA)
When I = 1.5Ith = 36 mA,
Po = (0.35 mW mA-1)(36 mA 24 mA) = 4.2 mW
The slope efficiency is the slope of the Po vs. I characteristic above Ith,
Po hc 2 ph (1 R )
slope = 0.35 mW mA-1
I 2en L
We can now repeat the problem say for = 0.5, which would give gth = t, so that
gth = 55.6 cm-1 / 0.5 = 111 cm-1. From Figure 4.48 (b), at this gain of 111 cm-1, nth
2.5×1018 cm-3. The new radiative lifetime,
-16 m3 s-1)(2.5×1024 m-3)] = 2.0 ns
r = 1/Bnth = 1/[2.0×10
The corresponding threshold current density is
Jth = nthed/ r = (2.5×1024 m-3)(1.6×10-19 C)(0.15×10-6 m)/(2.0×10-9 s)
= 30 A mm-2
and the corresponding threshold current Ith is 37.5 mA
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128
EXAMPLE: Threshold current and optical output power
from a Fabry-Perot (FP) heterostructure laser diode
Solution (continued)
There are several important notes to this problem

• First, the threshold concentration nth 2×1018 cm-3 was obtained graphically from Figure
4.48 (b) by using the gth value we need.

• Second is that, at best, the calculations represent rough values since we also need to know
how the mode spreads into the cladding where there is no gain but absorption and, in
addition, what fraction of the current is lost to nonradiative recombination processes. We
can increase s to account for absorption in the cladding, which would result in a higher
gth, larger nth and greater Ith. If nr is the nonradiative lifetime, we can replace r by an
effective recombination time such that , 1
r
1
nr
1
which means that the threshold
current will again be larger. We would also need to reduce the optical output power since
some of the injected electrons are now used in nonradiative transitions.

• Third, is the low slope efficiency compared with commercial LDs. slope depends on ph,
the photon cavity lifetime, which can be greatly improved by using better reflectors at the
cavity ends, e.g. ,by using thin film coating on the crystal facets to increase R.
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129

Distributed Bragg Reflector (DBR) LDs

(a) The basic principle of the Distributed Bragg Reflection (DBR) laser. (b)
Partially reflected waves at the corrugations can only constitute a reflected
wave when the wavelength satisfies the Bragg condition. Reflected waves A
and B interfere constructively when q( B/n) = 2 . (c) Typical output
spectrum. SMSR is the side mode suppression ratio.

LEFT: Distributed feedback (DFB) laser structure. The mode field diameter is
normally larger than the active layer thickness and the radiation spreads into the
guiding layer.

RIGHT: There are left and right propagating waves, partial reflections from the
corrugation, and optical amplification within the cavity, which has both the active
layer and the guiding layer.

Distributed Feedback (DFB) LDs

2
B
m B ( m 1)
2 nL

LEFT: Ideal lasing emission output has two primary peaks above and
below B. RIGHT: Typical output spectrum from a DFB laser has a single
narrow peak with a typically very narrow, and much less than 0.1 nm
S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics and Photonics: Principles and Practices, Second Edition, © 2013 Pearson Education
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132

Distributed Bragg Reflector (DBR) and

Distributed Feedback (DFB) LDs
Selected properties of DBR, DFB and external cavity (EC) laser diodes
Note: fm is 10-15 s; and are spectral widths (FWHM). SMSR is the side
mode suppression ratio, TEC is a thermoelectric cooler

LD 0 SMSR Po I slope Comment

(nm) dB mW mA mA

DBRa 1063 2 MHz, 45 80 200 0.8 GaAs DBR LD for spectroscopy and metrology, includes
8 fm monitor current, TEC and thermistor.
DFBb 1063 2 MHz, 45 80 190 0.2 GaAs DFB LD for spectroscopy and metrology, includes
8 fm monitor current, TEC and thermistor
DFBc 1550 10 MHz, 45 40 300 0.3 Pigtailed to a fiber, includes monitor current, TEC and
0.08 pm thermistor. CW output for external modulation. For use in
long haul DWDM.
DFBd 1653 0.1 nm 35 5 30 0.23 Pigtailed to a single mode fiber, includes monitor current,
TEC and thermistor. Mainly for fiber optic sensing.

ECe 1550 50 kHz; 45 40 300 0.2 Pigtailed. Tunable over = 3 GHz. Mainly for
0.4 fm communications
aEagleyard, EYP-DBR-1080-00080-2000-TOC03-0000; bEagleyard, EYP-DFB-1083-00080-1500-TOC03-0000;
cFurukawa-Fitel, FOL15DCWD; dInphenix, IPDFD1602; eCovega SFL1550S, marketed by Thorlabs.
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133
Example: DFB LD wavelength
Consider a DFB laser that has a corrugation period of 0.22 m and a grating length of 400 m.
Suppose that the effective refractive index of the medium is 3.5. Assuming a first order grating, calculate
the Bragg wavelength, the mode wavelengths and their separation.

Solution
The Bragg wavelength is
2 n 2( 0.22 μm)(3.5)
B = 1.5400 m.
q 1
and the symmetric mode wavelengths about B are
2
(1.5400 μm) 2
m B
B
( m 1) 1.5400 (0 1)
2n L 2(3.5)(400 μm)
so that the m = 0 mode wavelengths are
0 = 1.53915 or 1.54085 m.
The two are separated by 0.0017 m, or 1.7 nm. Due to a design
asymmetry, only one mode will appear in the output and for most practical purposes
the mode wavelength can be taken as B. Note: The wavelength calculation was kept
to five decimal places because m is very close to B..
S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics and Photonics: Principles and Practices, Second Edition, © 2013 Pearson Education
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134

External Cavity Laser Diodes (ECLD)

A simplified diagram of an external cavity diode laser (ECDL), which uses an angled
interference filter (IF) to select the wavelength o (depends on the angle of the IF), and the
optical cavity has a GRIN lens with one end coated for full reflection back to the LD. The
output is taken from the left facet of the LD.
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135

External Cavity Laser Diodes (ECLD)

LEFT: A commercial external cavity diode laser, based on the principle shown on the right. (US Patent
6,556,599, Bookham Technology). The output is a single mode at 785 nm ( 1.5 pm) with a linewidth less
than 200 kHz, and coupled into a fiber. The output power is 35 mW, and the SMSR is 50 dB. (ECDL,
SWL-7513-P. Courtesy of Newport, USA)

Vertical Cavity Surface Emitting Lasers (VCSELs)

This VCSEL diode provides Sketch of the VCSEL Kenichi Iga, currently
a single transverse mode in Kenichi Iga's (2012) the President of
emission 795 nm. The laboratory book the Tokyo Institute of
spectral width is less than (1997). Professor Iga Technology, was first to
100 MHz, and the output was at the Tokyo conceive the VCSEL, and
power is 0.15 mW at 2 mA. Institute of Technology played a pioneering role
(Courtesy of Vixar Inc.) at the time. (See K. in the development of
Iga, Jpn J. Appl. VCSELs. (Courtesy of
Phys., 47, 1, 2008) Professor K. Iga)
(Courtesy of
Professor K. Iga)

Vertical Cavity Surface Emitting Lasers (VCSELs)

A simplified schematic illustration of

a vertical cavity surface emitting
laser (VCSEL). The cross section is
circular.
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138

Vertical Cavity Surface Emitting Lasers (VCSELs)

d d Ith I V Po slope VCSEL
(nm) (nm) nm /K (mA) (mA) (V) (mW) (mW/mA)
680 <0.1 0.046 21 0.4 3 2.8 0.95 0.32 STMa
680 0.5 0.04 15 2.5 8 2.3 4 0.7 MTMa
850 0.0002 0.06 17 0.5 2 2.2 0.75 0.5 STMb
850 <0.65 0.06 26 1 6 1.9 2 0.4 MTMd
aVixar, 680-000-x001, single and multi mode devices; bLaser Components (ULM Photonics) ULM775-03-TN;
dOclaro, 850 nm 8.5 Gb/s Multimode VCSEL Chip

Vertical Cavity Surface Emitting Lasers (VCSELs)

Left: A packaged addressable VCSEL array with 8×8 individually

addressable laser devices. The chip is 3 mm × 3 mm. Right: A closer
view of the chip. (Courtesy of Princeton Optronics, USA)

Vertical Cavity Surface Emitting Lasers (VCSELs)

Selected characteristics of a few commercial VCSELs. STM and MTM refer to single
transverse mode and multi-transverse mode devices
d d Ith I V Po slope VCSEL
(nm) (nm) nm /K (mA) (mA) (V) (mW) (mW/mA)

680 <0.1 0.046 21 0.4 3 2.8 0.95 0.32 STMa

680 0.5 0.04 15 2.5 8 2.3 4 0.7 MTMa
850 0.0002 0.06 17 0.5 2 2.2 0.75 0.5 STMb
850 <0.65 0.06 26 1 6 1.9 2 0.4 MTMd

Notes: aVixar, 680-000-x001, single and multi mode devices; bLaser Components (ULM
Photonics) ULM775-03-TN; dOclaro, 850 nm 8.5 Gb/s Multimode VCSEL Chip

Semiconductor Optical Amplifiers

Covega semiconductor optical amplifier (SOA)

(Courtesy of Thorlabs)

Semiconductor Optical Amplifiers

Covega semiconductor optical

amplifier (SOA) for use as a A Semiconductor Optical Amplifier
booster amplifier in the O-band (SOA) for use at 1050 nm.
(around 1285 nm). The small signal
gain is 27 dB and the NF is 7 dB
(Courtesy of Thorlabs).

Semiconductor Optical Amplifiers

A semiconductor optical amplifier for use in optical

communications (Courtesy of Amphotonix, Glasgow, UK)

Semiconductor Optical Amplifiers

(a) Traveling wave (TW) and (b) Fabry-Perot (FP) semiconductor optical amplifier (SOA). (c)
Gain vs. output power for a 1500 nm TW SOA (GaInAsP). SOAs exhibit saturation at high output
powers; saturation lowers the gain. Higher gain (25 dB) is achieved by passing a higher current
through the SOA. (Selected data used from T. Saitoh and T. Mukai, IEEE J. Quantum Electron.,
QE23, 1010, 1987)

TW SOA
Traveling wave (TW) semiconductor optical amplifier:
The ends of the optical cavity have antireflection (AR)
coatings so that the optical cavity does not act as an
efficient optical resonator, a condition for laser-oscillations.
Laser oscillations are therefore prevented.
Light from an optical fiber is coupled into the active
region of the laser structure. As the radiation propagates
through the active layer, optically guided by this layer, it
becomes amplified by the induced stimulated emissions,
and leaves the optical cavity with a higher intensity. The
device must be pumped to achieve optical gain (population
inversion) in the active layer.

Random spontaneous emissions in the active layer feed “noise” into the signal and broaden
the spectral width of the passing radiation. This can be overcome by using an optical filter
at the output to allow the original light wavelength to pass through. Typically, such laser
amplifiers are buried heterostructure devices and have optical gains of ~20 dB depending
on the efficiency of the AR coating.

FP SOA

The FP SOA is basically a

regenerative amplifier in which
positive feedback; reflections back
into the cavity from the end mirrors

Polarization dependent gain, Gp, is defined as the difference

between maximum and minimum gain for different orientations
of the optical field (TE and TM waves), and is quoted in dB

Various properties of three selected TW SOAs. BW is the bandwidth of the amplifier,

wavelengths over which it amplifies the optical signal, IF and VF are the forward current and
voltage under normal operation with the given gain, Gp is the polarization dependent gain.

Gain BW IF VF Posat NF Gp Comment

nm dB nm mA V dBm dB dB

850 25 40 150 2.2 8 7 Pigtailed (fiber coupled)a

1310 22 45 250 ~2 10 7 0.5 Pigtailed, inline amplifierb

1550
aSuperlum
20 35 200 b ~2 11 c 6 0.5 Pigtailed preamplifierc
Diodes, SOA-372-850-SM; Inphenix, IPSAD1301; Amphotonix (Kamelian) C-band, preamp.

Superluminescent LEDs

Two superluminescent light emitting diodes, each

has been pigtailed to a fiber for operation at 1310
nm. Their spectral width is 40-45 nm. (Courtesy of
InPhenix)

Superluminescent LEDs

Stripe geometry superluminescent LED

Superluminescent LEDs

(a) The LD is biased by passing a dc current I1 and a sinusoidal

current modulation Imsin(2 ft) is superimposed on the dc
current. (b) Po vs. I characteristics of a LD showing how a
superimposed ac current modulates on top of a dc current I1 the
output power. The optical power output has a dc value of Po1
about which the power varies sinusoidally with a maximum
amplitude Po. (c) The frequency response Pm(f)/ Pm(0) vs.
frequency has a relaxation oscillation peak at a certain
frequency fr, which depends on the diode current; or the output
power.

I1 = Operating diode bias current

Ith = Threshold current

r = Radiative lifetime

Digital
Modulation

(a) The diode current is applied suddenly at t = 0 as a step from I1 (below Ith) to I2, (above Ith). (b) The transient
response of the output power, Po, as a function of time. There is a delay td before any output appears. Po2 is the steady
state output, after the relaxation oscillations have died out, after a few cycles. (c) The laser diode is biased at I1 near Ith
for faster switching. The input current is a pulse of magnitude (I2 – I1), which generates an output is Po2. (Ideal
response in which time delays have been neglected, as would be the case under sufficiently low repetition rates)

Dennis Gabor (1900 - 1979), inventor of holography, is standing next to his holographic portrait.
Professor Gabor was a Hungarian born British physicist who published his holography invention in
Nature in 1948 while he was at Thomson-Houston Co. Ltd, at a time when coherent light from lasers
was not yet available. He was subsequently a professor of applied electron physics at Imperial
College, University of London
(© Linh Hassel/AGE Fotostock.)

Wavefront Reconstruction

A highly simplified illustration of holography. (a) A laser beam is made to interfere with
the diffracted beam from the subject to produce a hologram. (b) Shining the laser beam
through the hologram generates a real and a virtual image.
S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics and Photonics: Principles and Practices, Second Edition, © 2013 Pearson Education
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. This publication is protected by Copyright and written permission should be obtained from the
publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or
likewise. For information regarding permission(s), write to: Rights and Permissions Department, Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458.
Holography
156

Wavefront Construction
Reference beam wavefront
Eref(x,y) = Ur(x,y)ej t

Wavefront reflected from the cat

Ecat(x,y) = U(x,y)ej t

These interfere and form a hologram

2 2
I ( x, y ) Eref Ecat Ur U (U r U )(U r U )

I ( x, y ) UU U rU r U rU U r U

Intensity pattern on the hologram

I ( x , y ) UU U rU r U rU U r U Intensity pattern on the hologram

Transmitted intensity through the

hologram
Ut U rI ( x , y )
U r [UU U rU r U rU U r U ]

Ut a bU ( x, y ) cU ( x, y )
Virtual image Real image
(Conjugate image)
S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics and Photonics: Principles and Practices, Second Edition, © 2013 Pearson Education
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. This publication is protected by Copyright and written permission should be obtained from the
publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or
likewise. For information regarding permission(s), write to: Rights and Permissions Department, Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458.
Updates and
Corrected Slides
Class Demonstrations
Class Problems
Check author’s website
[Link]

Email errors and corrections to

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