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EC : ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATIONS

Module  7 : COMMUNICATIONS

INDEX
Sr. Pg.
No. Contents Topics No.

1. Basics of Analog Communication Systems & Amplitude Modulation

Review of Signals and Systems 1
Introduction to Communication Systems 11
Modes Of Communication 12
Modulation 13
Double Sideband Full Carrier (DSBFC) 16
Frequency Spectrum Of AM Wave 18
AM Bandwidth 25
Generation Of AMFC 26
Low Level Modulation 27
High Level Modulation 28
AM Receiver 30
Parameters Of AM Receiver 31
Notes Demodulation Of AM Signals 34
AM Demodulators 35
Linear Modulation Schemes 39
Double Side Band  Suppressed Carrier (DSBSC) 40
Generation of DSBSC 41
Demodulation of DSB-SC 46
Hilbert Transform 50
Single Sideband (SSB) 53
Generation of SSB  SC 54
Comparison of SSB Generators 60
SSB Demodulation 61
SSB Receivers 63
Advantages of SSB Transmission 65
Sr. Pg.
No. Contents Topics No.
Disadvantages of SSB Transmission 65
Vestigial Sideband (VBS) 66
Independent Sideband Transmission (ISB) 67
Multiplexing 69
List of Formulae 72
LMR (Last Minute Revision) 73
Assignment1 Questions 75
Test Paper  1 Questions 78

2. Angle Modulation
Introduction 81
Frequency Modulation (Single Tone Modulation) 84
Types of FM 84
Narrowband to Wideband Conversion 91
Generation of FM 92
Notes
FM Receivers 97
Basic FM Demodulators 99
FM Demodulator Comparison 104
List of Formulae 105
LMR (Last Minute Revision) 106
Assignment2 Questions 107
Test Paper2 Questions 110

3. Noise
Introduction 113
Noise Properties 113
Sources of Noise 115
Properties of Inphase and Quadrature Components
121
of Narrowband Noise
Notes Noise Figure 122
Noise Temperature 123
Noise in Analog Communication Systems 126
List of Formulae 131
LMR (Last Minute Revision) 132
Assignment3 Questions 133
Test Paper3 Questions 136
Sr. Pg.
Contents Topics
No. No.
4. Digital Modulation
Introduction 139
Sampling Theorem for Low Pass Signals 139
Sampling Theorem for Bandpass Signals 142
Types of Sampling 142
Pulse Analog Modulation 146
Notes
Pulse  Code Modulation 149
Differential Pulse Code Modulation (DPCM) 162
Delta Modulation (DM) 164
Adaptive Delta Modulation 167
List of Formulae 168
LMR (Last Minute Revision) 168
Assignment  4 Questions 170
Test Paper  4 Questions 173
5. Digital Communication Techniques
Introduction 175
Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK) 176
Differential Phase Shift Keying (DPSK) 179
Differentially Encoded PSK (DEPSK) 182
Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK) 184
Non Offset QPSK 189
MARY Phase Shift Keying (MPSK) 191
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK) 194
Notes Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM) 198
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) 202
MAry Frequency Shift Keying (MFSK) 206
Minimum Shift Keying (MSK) 209
The Basic SNR Parameter for Digital Communication
214
System
Comparison of MARY Digital Modulation Techniques 215
List of Formulae 217
LMR (Last Minute Revision) 218
Assignment  5 Questions 220
Test Paper  5 Questions 223
Sr. Pg.
Contents Topics
No. No.
6. Miscellaneous
PART 1 : Information Theory & Channel
225
Capacity
Average Information Content (Entropy) 226
Shannon’s Theorem on Channel Capacity 228
Capacity of a Gaussian Channel 228
Source Coding Theorem 230
PART  2 : Probability Distribution Functions,
230
Random Variable & Random Process
Distribution Function 231
Statistical Averages 233
Special Distributions 235
Notes Random Processes 236
Spectral Density 240
Correlation 242
Transmission of Random Processes Through
244
Linear Systems
Special Classes of Random Processes 245
PART 3 : Base Band Data Transmission &
248
Matched Filter
Correlative Coding 251
Matched Filter 258
List of Formulae 260
LMR (Last Minute Revision) 262
Assignment6 Questions 263
Test Paper6 Questions 268
Practice Problems 271
SOLUTIONS
Answer Key 287
Assignments
Model Solutions 289
Answer Key 311
Test Papers
Model Solutions 313
Answer Key 329
Practice Problems
Model Solutions 330
 Topic 1 : Basics of Analog Communication Systems and
Amplitude Modulation

REVIEW OF SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS

Classifications of Signals
For our purposes, we define a signal as a single-valued function of time that conveys
information. It may be real valued or complex valued.

Different Classes of Signals :

1. Periodic Signals, Non-periodic Signals :
A periodic signal g(t) is a function that satisfies the condition
g(t) = g(t +T0), …(1)
for all t, where t denotes time and T0 is a constant. The smallest value of T0 that
satisfies this condition is called the period of g(t).
Any signal for which there is no value of T0 that satisfies the condition of equation (1)
is called a non-periodic or aperiodic signal.

2. Deterministic Signals, Random Signals :

A deterministic signal is a signal about which there is no uncertainty with respect to
its value at any time. Accordingly, we find that deterministic signals may be modeled
as completely specified functions of time.
On the other hand, a random signal is a signal about which there is some degree of
uncertainty before it actually occurs. Such a signal may be viewed as belonging to a
collection or ensemble of signals, with each signal in the collection being different.

3. Energy Signals and Power Signals :

In signal analysis it is customary to work with a l-ohm resistor, so that, regardless of
whether a given signal g(t) represents a voltage or a current, we may express the
instantaneous power associated with the signal as
p = | g(t) |2 …(2)
Based on this convention, we define the total energy of a signal g(t) as
T 2 f 2
E = lim ∫ g(t) dt ∫f g(t) dt …(3)
T of  T

and its average power as

1 T 2

T of 2T ∫ T
P = lim g(t) dt

We say that the signal g(t) is an energy signal if and only if the total energy of the
signal satisfies the condition
0<E<f

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We say that the signal g(t) is a power signal if and only if the average power of the
signal satisfies the condition
0<P<f
The energy and power classifications of signals are mutually exclusive i.e a signal
cannot be both energy signal as well as power signal simultaneously. In particular, an
energy signal has zero average power, whereas a power signal has infinite energy.
Also, note that, usually, periodic signals and random signals are power signals, and
signals that are both deterministic and non-periodic are energy signals.

4. Analog Signals and Digital Signals

• An analog signal is a continuous/discrete function of time, with the amplitude
being continuous.
• On the other hand, a discrete-time signal is defined only at discrete times. Thus,
in this case the independent variable takes on only discrete values, which are
usually uniformly spaced.
• Consequently, discrete-time signals are described as sequences of samples
whose amplitudes may take on a continuum of values.
• When each sample of a discrete-time signal is quantized (i.e., its amplitude is
only allowed to take on a finite set of discrete values) and then coded, the
resulting signal is referred to as a digital signal. The output of a digital computer
is an example of a digital signal. Naturally, an analog signal may be converted
into digital form by sampling it in time, then quantizing and coding it.

Fourier Series
Let gP(t) denote a periodic signal with period T0. By using a Fourier series expansion of
this signal, we are able to resolve the signal into an infinite sum of sine and cosine terms.
This expansion may be expressed in the form :
f
2S
gP (t) a 0  ∑ > an cos(nZ0 t)  bn sin(nZ0 t)@ …(where Z0 = 2Sf0 = ) …(4)
n 1 7
The quantity nZ0 represents the nth harmonic of the fundamental frequency Z0. Each of
the terms cos(nZ0t) and sin (nZ0t) are called basis function. These basis functions form
an orthogonal set over the interval T0.

The value of different Fourier coefficient are given by

1 T0 / 2
T0 ∫ T0 / 2
a0 gP (t)dt

2 T0 / 2
an
T0 ∫  T0 / 2
gP (t)cos nZ0 t dt, n = 1, 2 ……

2 T0 / 2
and bn
T0 ∫
 T0 / 2
gP (t)sin nZ0 t dt, n = 1, 2 ……

[Note : The limit of integration should be over one complete cycle i.e. it can be also ‘t’ to ‘t + T0’]

To apply the Fourier series representation of equation (4), it is sufficient that the function
gP(t) satisfies the following conditions :

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 Basics of Analog Communication Systems & Amplitude Modulation

1. The function gP(t) is single-valued within the interval T0.

2. The function gP(t) has at most a finite number of discontinuities in the interval T0.
3. The function gP(t) has a finite number of maxima and minima in the interval T0.
4. The function gP(t) is absolutely integrable, that is,
T0 / 2
∫-T0 / 2
gP (t) dt  f

These conditions are known as Dirichlet’s conditions.

Complex Exponential Fourier Series :

The Fourier series of equation (4) can be put into a much simpler and more elegant form
with the use of complex exponentials as given by
f
gP (t) ∑De
n f
n
jnZ0 t
…(5)

1 T0 / 2
where Dn ∫ gP (t)e  jnZ0 t dt, n = 0, r1, r2, …… …(6)
T0  T0 / 2

The series expansion of equation (5) is referred to as the complex exponential Fourier
series. The Dn are called the complex Fourier coefficients.

For a real-valued periodic function gP(t), we find, from the definition of the Fourier
coefficient Dn given by equation (6), that

Dn = Dn*

Where Dn* is the complex conjugate of Dn. We therefore have

Dn Dn and arg (Dn) = arg (Dn)

That is, the amplitude spectrum of a real-valued periodic signal is symmetrical (an even
function of n) and the phase spectrum is antisymmetrical (an odd function of n) about the
vertical axis passing through the origin. Thus Dn has conjugate symmetry.

Note : Dn is related to an and bn by

⎧1
⎪ 2 (an  jbn ) n!0
⎪
Dn ⎨ a0 n 0
⎪1
⎪ (an  jbn ) n0
⎩2
Fourier Transform
In the previous sections we used the Fourier series to represent a periodic signal. We
now wish to develop a similar representation for a signal g(t) that is non-periodic, in terms
of exponential signals, which gives it’s Fourier transform.

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? Fourier transform of signals g(t) is given by

f
G(f) ∫ f
g(t)e j2 Sft dt
and inverse Fourier transform given by,
f
g(t) ∫f
G(f)e j2 Sft df
For a signal g(t) to be Fourier transformable, it is sufficient that g(t) satisfies Dirichlet’s
conditions :

1. The function g(t) is single-valued, with a finite number of maxima and minima and a
finite number of discontinuities in any finite time interval.

2. The function g(t) is absolutely integrable, i.e.

f
∫f
| g(t) | dt  f
For a real-valued function g(t), we have
G(f) = G*(f)
Therefore, it follows that if g(t) is a real-valued function of time, then
| G (f) | = | G(f) | and T(f) = T(f)
That is, the amplitude spectrum | G(f) | of a real-valued signal is an even function of f,
and the phase spectrum T(f) is an odd function of f.

Summary of Properties of the Fourier Transform

Property Mathematical Description

1. Linearity ag1(t) + bg2(t)  aG1(f) + bG2 (f)
where a and b are constants
2. Time scaling 1 ⎛f⎞
g(at)  G ⎜ ⎟ where a is a constant
|a| ⎝a⎠
3. Duality If g(t)  G(f), then G(t)  g(f)
4. Time shifting g(t  t0)  G(f) e-j2πft o
5. Frequency shifting e j2 Sfc t g(t)  G(f  fC)
6. Area under g(t) f
∫ f
g(t) dt G(0)
7. Area under G(f) f
∫ f
G(f) df g(0)
8. Differentiation in the time domain d
g(t)  j2SfG(f)
dt
9. Integration in the time domain t 1 G(0)
∫ f
g(W) dW 
j2Sf
G(f) 
2
G(f)

10. Conjugate functions If g(t)  G(f) then g*(t)  G*(f)

11. Multiplication in the time domain * g1(t) g2(t)  G1(f) G2(f)
12. Convolution in the time domain * g1(t) g2(t)  G1(f) G2(f)

* ⇒ Convolution

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 Basics of Analog Communication Systems & Amplitude Modulation

Fourier Transform of Commonly used Signals in Communication

1. Rectangular Pulse [rect(t)]

⎧ 1 1
⎪⎪ 1,  2  t  2
rect(t) ⎨
⎪0, 1
| t |!
⎪⎩ 2
which stands for a rectangular function of unit amplitude and unit duration centered at t = 0

g(t) |G(f)|
AT

t f
T 0 T 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4
    
2 2 T T T T T T T T

(a) Rectangular Pulse (b) Amplitude spectrum

Then, in terms of this function, we may express the rectangular pulse of above figure
(a) simply as follows :
⎛t⎞
g(t) A rect ⎜ ⎟
⎝T⎠
The Fourier transform of this rectangular pulse is given by
T/2
G(f) ∫
T/2
A e(  j2 Sft) dt

⎡ sin(SfT) ⎤
AT ⎢ ⎥
⎣ SfT ⎦
sin(Sx)
ATsinc (f T) …where sinc (x) =
Sx
we thus have the Fourier transform pair :
⎛t⎞
A rect ⎜ ⎟  ATsinc (f T)
⎝T⎠
The amplitude spectrum | G(f) | is shown plotted in above figure (b). The first zero-
crossing of the spectrum occurs at f = r 1/T. As the pulse duration T is decreased,
this first zero-crossing moves up in frequency and conversely, as the pulse duration T
is increased, the first zero-crossing moves toward the origin. The example shows that
the relationship between the time-domain and frequency-domain descriptions of a
signal is an inverse one.

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Vidyalankar : GATE – EC

2. Radio Frequency (RF) Pulse

Consider the pulse signal g(t) shown in below figure (a) which consists of a sinusoidal
wave of amplitude A and frequency fc, extending in duration from t = T/2 to t = T/2.
This signal is sometimes referred to as an RF pulse when the frequency fc falls in the
radio-frequency band. The signal g(t) of below figure (a) may be expressed
mathematically as follows :
⎛t⎞
g(t) A rect ⎜ ⎟ cos(2Sfc t)
⎝T⎠
To find the Fourier transform of this signal, we note that
1 j2 Sfc t  j2 Sfc t
cos(2Sfc t) [e e ]
2
?applying the frequency-shifting property we get,
AT
G(t) {sinc[T(f  fc )]+sinc[T(f  fc )]}
2

g(t) 1
fc
A

| G(f) |

t AT
2

f
T fc 2 0 fc 2
T T

(a) RF (b) Amplitude spectrum

The amplitude spectrum of the RF pulse is shown in above figure (b). This diagram, in
relation to, clearly illustrates the frequency-shifting property of the Fourier ransform.
3. Dirac Delta Function, G(t)
• To combine the Fourier series and Fourier transform into a unified theory, so that
the Fourier series may be treated as a special case of the Fourier transform.
• To include power signals in the list of signals to which we may apply the Fourier
transform.
It turns out that both of these objectives can be met through the “proper use” of the
Dirac delta function or unit impulse.
The Dirac delta function, denoted by G(t), is defined as having zero amplitude
everywhere except at t = 0 where it is infinitely large in such a way that it contains
unit area under its curve; that is
G(t) = 0, tz0
f
∫ f
G(t)dt 1

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 Basics of Analog Communication Systems & Amplitude Modulation

The sifting property of delta function is given by,

f
∫f
g(t)G(t)dt g(0) …(provided g(t) is continuous at t = 0)
and the replication property of delta function is given by,
f
∫f
g(W)G(t  W)dW g(t) or g(t) G(t) g(t)
thus convolution of any function with the delta function leaves that function
unchanged.
The Fourier transform of the delta function is given by,
f
F[G(t)] ∫ f
G(t)e j2 Sft dt 1 …(by sifting property of delta function)

g(t) G(f)

1.0

t f
0
0
(a) Dirac delta function G(t) (b) Spectrum of G(t)

4. Sinusoidal Functions
(a) Cosine Function, cos(2Sfct)
We know that
1 j2 Sfc t
cos(2Sfc t) [e  e j2 Sfc t ]
2
? Fourier transform pair is given by
1
cos(2Sfc t)  [G(f  fc )  G(f  fc )]
2
G(f)
g(t)

1.0 1/2 1/2

t f
fc 0 fc

1.0
1
fc
(a) Cosine function (b) Spectrum

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Vidyalankar : GATE – EC

(b) Sine Function, sin(2Sfct)

Similarly, we may show that the sine function sin(2Sfct) is represented by the
Fourier transform pair

1
sin(2Sfc t)  [G(f  fc )  G(f  fc )]
2j

g(t) jG(f)

1.0 1/

fc
t f
0 fc

1.0 1/2
1
fc

(a) Sine function (b) Spectrum

5. Unit Step Function, u(t)

Unit step function can be obtained by integrating delta function
t
? u(t) = ∫
f
G(W)dW

Therefore, Fourier transform pair is given by,

1 1
u(t)   G(f) … using integrating property of Fourier Transform
j2Sf 2

g(t) |G(f)|

1.0

1/2
t f
0 0

(a) Unit step function (b) Amplitude spectrum

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 Basics of Analog Communication Systems & Amplitude Modulation

Fourier-Transform Pairs

Time Function Fourier Transform

⎛t⎞
rect ⎜ ⎟ T sinc(fT)
⎝T⎠
1 ⎛ f ⎞
sinc(2Wt) rect ⎜ ⎟
2W ⎝ 2W ⎠
1
exp(at)u(t) a>0
a  j2Sf
2a
exp(a|t|), a>0
a  (2Sf)2
2

⎧ |t|
⎪1  | t | T
⎨ T T sinc2 (fT)
⎪⎩ 0 | t |t T

G(t) 1

1 G(f)

G(t  t0) e-j2Sf t0

e j2Sfc t G(ffc)
1
cos(2Sfct) [G(f  fc )  G(f  fc )]
2
1
sin(2Sfct) [G(f  fc )  G(f  fc )]
2j
1
sgn(t)
jSf
1
j sgn (f)
St
1 1
u(t) G(f) 
2 j2Sf
f
f 1 ⎛ n ⎞
∑ G(t  iT0 ) T0
∑ G⎜ f  T ⎟
i f n f ⎝ 0 ⎠

Distortionless Transmission
By distortionless transmission we mean that the output signal of a communication
channel is an exact replica of the input signal, except for a possible change of amplitude
and a constant time delay. For this y(t) is defined by

y(t) = Kx (t  t0) …(1)

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where the constant K accounts for the change in amplitude and the constant t0 accounts
for the delay in transmission. Let X(f) and Y(f) denote the Fourier transforms of x(t) and
y(t), respectively. Then, applying the Fourier transform to equation (1) and using the time-
shifting property of the Fourier transform, we get

Y(f) = KX(f) e j2 Sft0

The transfer function of a distortionless channel is therefore
Y(f)
H(f) Ke  jSft0
X(f)
A more general expression for distortionless transmission is

H(f) K e j( 2 Sft0 rnS ) …(2)

where n is an integer including zero.

Equation (2) indicates that in order to achieve distortionless transmission through a

channel, the transfer function of the channel must satisfy two conditions :

1. The amplitude response | H(f) | is constant for all frequencies as shown by

|H(f)| = K …(3)

2. The phase E(f) is linear with frequency, passing through zero or a multiple of S at
zero frequency, as shown by
E(f) = 2Sft0 r nS …(4)

If, however, the spectrum of the transmitted signal is limited to a band of frequencies,
then eq.3 and eq.4 need to be satisfied by the channel only for that band of frequencies.
This is illustrated in parts (a) and (b) of below figure 1 and 2 for low-pass and band-pass
channels, respectively.

|H(f)| E(f)

K slope = 2St0

0
f f
B 0 B B B
nS
(a)
(b)
Fig. 1 : Frequency response of ideal low-pass channel

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 Basics of Analog Communication Systems & Amplitude Modulation

|H(f)| E(f)

K nS
slope = 2St0

fc + B
f f
0 0 fc  B
fc  B fc fc + B

(a) (b)

Fig. 2 : Frequency response of ideal band-pass channel

(only the response for positive frequencies is shown)
Note : That in the band-pass case, the phase E(f) may have any value at the mid-band
frequency fc, but at zero frequency the phase E(f) must be a multiple of S.

INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

The term communication refers to sending, receiving and processing of information by

electric means. Modern communication process is concerned with sorting, processing
and storing of information before its transmission. Then the further processing and
filtering of noise takes place.
The block diagram of normal communication system is as shown below :

distortion distortion distortion

Information Input Output

Transmitter Channel Receiver transducer Destination
Source transducer
Encoding / Decoding/
Modulation Noise Demodulation
source

Important Terms related to Communication System

Information :
Information itself is what is conveyed. The message comes from information source. The
amount of information contained in any given message is measured in bits or dits.

No real information is conveyed by a redundant message or totally

predictable message.

For example, “Petrol catches fire” does not contain any information. But “water catches
fire’ is a message which contains information.

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Vidyalankar : GATE – EC

Input Transducer
It converts the natural form of message (sound/light) into a base band electrical signal.
e.g. : microphone, camera tube etc.

Note : Any Signal which is limited in bandwidth is called base band signal,
e.g. : AF signal  20 Hz to 20 KHz.

Transmitter
It processes and possibly encode the incoming information so as to make it suitable for
transmission and subsequent reception. In a transmitter, the information modulates the
carrier. Modulation can be Amplitude, Frequency, Phase etc.
ChannelNoise
The term channel is often used to refer to the frequency range allocated to a particular
service or transmission. There is introduction of noise (i.e. unwanted energy, distortion,
random character) in the transmission system due to any cause. Noise interferes with
signal at any point in the communication and affects the signal when it is weakest.

Receiver
The exact form of the receiver is influenced by modulation system, operating frequency,
operating range and type of display required. The main function of receiver is
demodulation.
e.g. superheterodyne receiver.

Output Transducer
It converts the base band signal into the corresponding natural form e.g. loud speaker,
picture tube.
Thus the entire process reveals :
 Generation of message signal e.g. voice, music
 Description of message as set of symbols i.e. electrical, aural or visual
 Encoding in a form suitable for transmission
 Transmission
 Decoding and reproduction
 Recreation of the original signal

MODES OF COMMUNICATION

Broadcasting
Single powerful transmitter and numerous receivers. Here signal containing information
flow in one direction only e.g. Radio.
PointtoPoint Communication
Single transmitter and single receiver. The communication takes place through direct link
between the transmitter and receiver. There is bidirectional flow of information bearing
signals. e.g. Telephone.

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 Basics of Analog Communication Systems & Amplitude Modulation

MODULATION

A. Definitions

1. The transmitter modifies the message signal in the form suitable for transmission.
This is achieved with the help of modulation.

2. Modulation is the process by which some characteristics of high frequency sine wave
is varied in accordance with the instantaneous value of the modulating signal.

3. It is the process by which the characteristic of a high frequency carrier are modified to
suit the requirements of the transmission channel.

4. The receiver recreates the signal. This recreation is accomplished by using a process
known as demodulation.
B. Need for Modulation

(a) Modulation for ease of radiation

For transmission, reception and for efficient electromagnetic radiation, we need
radiating elements whose physical dimensions are in the range of O/10 to O/4, where
O = c/f. In the case of voice signal, most of the signals are in the range of 30 Hz to 3
KHz. To radiate the voice frequency the antenna length is 100 km or more, which can't
be practically realizable. By using the frequency translation property of modulation,
the signal can be impressed on a high frequency carrier thereby substantially
reducing the physical size of antenna.

(b) Modulation to reduce noise and interface

Certain types of modulation system have the ability to suppress noise and
interference eg: FM system can suppress noise.

(c) Modulation for frequency assignment

The receiver has the provision to select one of the many stations even if all the
stations are broadcasting the voice signal. This is possible only if each station is
allotted a different carrier frequency. This is achieved through modulation.

(d) Modulation for multiplexing

Simultaneous transmission of many signals through a single line between two points
is possible using modulation. e.g. satellite communication.

(e) Modulation to overcome equipment limitation

The design of a system is constrained by the available equipment limitation and the
performance is based on the signal frequency involved. Modulation helps in optimum
selection of bandwidth and signal power, reduces cost and complexity in system
design.

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C. Types of Modulation
It is classified in 2 types :
(a) Continuous Wave (CW) Modulation
Here a high frequency sinusoidal carrier waveform is taken and its characteristic
such as amplitude or frequency or phase is varied keeping the other two constant.
For e.g. Amplitude Modulation, Frequency Modulation and Phase Modulation.
(b) Pulse Modulation
Here a high frequency pulse waveform is taken and its characteristic are varied such
as pulse amplitude, pulse duration or pulse position, e.g. PAM, PWM and PPM.
D. Classification of Modulation
Modulation

Continuous wave modulation Pulse modulation

(Carrier : sinusoidal wave) (Carrier : pulse waveform)

Amplitude Angle modulation Analog

Digital
Modulation
(Carrier x Pulse Amplitude
Frequency Phase x PCM
amplitude is Modulation (PAM)
Modulation Modulation
varied) x Pulse Duration / width
(carrier (carrier
Modulation (PDM)/PWM
frequency is phase is
varied) x Pulse Position
varied)
Modulation (PPM)
E. Limitations of Analog Communication System
There are two fundamental limitations of analog communication system.
(a) Bandwidth Limitation
To transmit large amount of information within a short period of time, wide band
signals is required, but a system takes some definite time to change this stored
energy and time taken to change its stored energy is measured in terms of rise
time. Also bandwidth is used to measure signaling speed. It is seen that rise
time is proportional to 1/bandwidth.
1
tr α
BW
Since bandwidth cannot be increased indefinitely, we consider the fractional
bandwidth BW where fc is the (centre) carrier frequency. From information theory,
fc

for efficient transmission, the fractional bandwidth is limited by 0.01  BW  0.1

fc
Thus amplitude modulation signals can be transmitted using a low frequency
carrier where as video signals can be transmitted using a high frequency carrier.

GATE/EC/Comm/SLP/Module_7/Ch.1_Notes/Pg.14
 Basics of Analog Communication Systems & Amplitude Modulation

(b) Noise Limitation

From kinetic theory  any body at a temperature other than absolute zero has
random motion of electrons. If the electron motion takes place in conductor
medium it causes a noise voltage [Vn]. RF signal travels as electromagnetic
waves i.e. electrons exist as particle or wave. Hence electronic communication
has noise.

Amplitude Modulation
Different Types of AM Modulation
m(t) M(f)

(a) Am
0
1 fm 0 fm
fm
c(t) C(f)
Ac
(b) 0 fc 0 fc
1
s(t) fc

(c) 0
fc 0 fc
2fm 2fm

s(t) S(f)
(d) 0
fc  fm fc + fm 0 fc  fm fc + fm

s(t) S(f)
(e)
0
fc  fm 0 fc + fm

s(t) S(f)

(f)
0 fc + fm 0 fc  fm
time frequency

Illustrating the time-domain (on the left) and frequency-domain (on the right)
characteristics of different modulated waves produced by a single tone (a)
Modulating wave (b) Carrier wave. (c) AM wave. (d) DSBSC wave (e) SSB
wave with the upper-side frequency transmitted (f) SSB wave with the
lower-side frequency transmitted.
GATE/EC/Comm/SLP/Module_7/Ch.1_Notes/Pg.15
Vidyalankar : GATE – EC

DOUBLE SIDEBAND FULL CARRIER (DSBFC)

The amplitude of the carrier is made proportional to the instantaneous amplitude of the
modulating voltage is termed as Amplitude Modulation.

The frequency of the modulating voltage is invariably lower than that of the
carrier.

Definition
Amplitude modulation is defined as a process in which the amplitude of the carrier wave
c(t) is varied about a mean value, linearly with the baseband signal m(t).

Expression of AM Signal
Consider a sinusoidal carrier wave c(t) defined by
c(t) = A C cos(2SfC t)
where A C = carrier amplitude
fC = carrier frequency
Let m(t) denote the baseband signal that carries the specification of the message where
m(t) = A m cos Zm t .
An AM wave, as a function of time can be described as

S(t) = A C [1  K a m(t)] cos(2SfC t)

where, K a = amplitude sensitivity of modulation responsible for the generation of modulated

signal s(t)
and K a m(t) = m = Modulation index of AM signal.

Thus AM signal can be represented as, (for single tone modulation)

AM signal = ⎡⎣1  K a Am cos Zm t ⎤⎦ A C cos ZC t

= >1  m cos Zm t @ AC cos ZC t

mA C mA C
= A C cos ZC t 
cos(ZC  Zm )t  cos(ZC  Zm )t
2 2
= carrier + USB + LSB
= AM-FC or DSB-FC
Thus AM signal consists of 3 components :
i) High frequency carrier A C cos ZC t without any change in shape.
mA C
ii) An upper sideband (ZC  Zm ) with magnitude
2
mA C
iii) A lower sideband (ZC  Zm ) with magnitude
2

GATE/EC/Comm/SLP/Module_7/Ch.1_Notes/Pg.16
 Basics of Analog Communication Systems & Amplitude Modulation

AM
(a)

Modulating Signal

Ac
(b)

Carrier Signal

(c) Am

AM wave (m < 1)
Vmax = 2Ac

Vmn = 0V Am
Am= Ac
Ac
(d)

AM wave (m = 1)

• Modulation index is a number lying between 0 and 1.

• Amplitude Modulation has the effect of adding terms to the unmodulated
wave rather than changing it.

From fig., we note that

The envelope of AM wave has the same shape as the baseband signal m(t) if :
The amplitude of K a m(t) is always less than unity i.e.
| K a m(t) | < 1 for all t
if | K a m(t) | > 1,
carrier wave becomes over modulated and modulated wave exhibits envelope distortion.
Since carrier phase is revered whenever |Kam(t)| becomes greater than 1.

GATE/EC/Comm/SLP/Module_7/Ch.1_Notes/Pg.17
Vidyalankar : GATE – EC

m(t)
t

Sinusoidal modulating
signal
Carrier phase is reversed
when m(t) goes negative

s(t) Over modulated signal

The carrier frequency fC must be much greater than the highest frequency
component W of the message signal m(t), i.e. fC >> W.

FREQUENCY SPECTRUM OF AM WAVE

The frequencies present in AM wave are carrier frequency and first pair of sideband
frequencies, where a sideband frequency is defined as
fsB = fc r fm

When there is no modulation, the amplitude of the carrier is equal to its

unmodulated value. When modulation is present, the amplitude of carrier is
varied by its instantaneous value.

x Representation of AM (single tone modulation)

Frequency spectrum of AM wave is as shown below
C

LSB USB

fm fm
fc  fm fc fc + fm

Carrier has the highest amplitude and other two are symmetrically placed.

GATE/EC/Comm/SLP/Module_7/Ch.1_Notes/Pg.18
 Basics of Analog Communication Systems & Amplitude Modulation

A. Spectral representation of AM (General)

M(f)

M(0)

W 0 W Zo

AC AC
G(f  f C ) S(f) G(f  f C )
2 2
mA C
M(0)
2
Upper Lower Upper
Lower sideband
sideband sideband sideband

fC  W fC fC + W 0 fC  W fC fC + W Zo

B. Phasor representation of AM

Vusf = voltage of the upper side frequency

Vlst = voltage of the lower side frequency
Vc = voltage of the carrier
Phasor
addition
+Vmax = Vc + Vusf + Vlsf
Zlsf Zusf
+Vmin = VcVusf Vlsf
Zc

(a

Vmin = Vc + Vusf + Vlsf

Vmax = Vc  Vusf  Vlsf

GATE/EC/Comm/SLP/Module_7/Ch.1_Notes/Pg.19
Vidyalankar : GATE – EC

x Amplitude Modulated Wave (Diagrammatic Representation)

Vc + Vm sin Zmt Vm
Let
Ac = Vc
Vc
Vmax Am = Vm
Vm
Vmin

0
t

Vc

(Vc+Vm sin Zmt)

Fig. Amplitude Modulated Wave

x Modulation Index (m) Calculation

By definition, m is the ratio of maximum amplitude of modulating signal to the
maximum carrier amplitude.
Above Waveform reveals :
Vmax  Vmin
Vm
2
Vmax  Vmin
and Vc Vmax  Vm Vmax 
2
Vmax  Vmin
Vc
2
Now modulation index is given by,

Vm Vmax  Vmin / 2
m
Vc Vmax  Vmin / 2

Vmax  Vmin
m=
Vmax  Vmin

Modulation index can be calculated from above formula from waveform as seen on
oscilloscope.

GATE/EC/Comm/SLP/Module_7/Ch.1_Notes/Pg.20
 Basics of Analog Communication Systems & Amplitude Modulation

• Modulation by several Sine Waves

Under such circumstances, the effective modulation index is given by.

V1, V2, V3, … etc be simultaneous modulation voltages then the total modulating
voltage Vt will be

Vt V12  V22  V23  .....

Divide both sides by Vc

Vt V12 V22 V32

?    .....
Vc Vc2 Vc2 Vc2

? mt m12  m22  m23  .....

Note : Value of m always lies between 0 and 1.

x Trapezoidal Patterns
Trapezoidal patterns are used for observing the modulation characteristics of AM
transmitters (that is, coefficient of modulation and modulation symmetry). The figure
below shows the basic test setup for producing a trapezoidal pattern on the CRT of a
standard oscilloscope. The AM wave is applied to the vertical input of the
oscilloscope, and the modulating signal is applied to the external horizontal input with
the internal horizontal sweep disabled.

Trapezoidal patterns are used for observing the modulation characteristics of AM

transmitters.

Oscilloscop

CRT

Horizontal Vertical
input input
Modulating
AM signal
signal input
input

GATE/EC/Comm/SLP/Module_7/Ch.1_Notes/Pg.21
Vidyalankar : GATE – EC

Producing a trapezoidal pattern

t t0 t1 t2 t3
Modulating +
Signal
Horizontal 0
input


AM
Signal 0
Vertical
input

Folds
back

Trapezoidal 0 Folds
pattern back

The horizontal sweep rate is determined by the modulating signal frequency, and the
magnitude of the horizontal deflection proportional to the amplitude of the modulating
signal.

Percent modulation and modulation symmetry are more easily observed with a
trapezoidal pattern than with a standard oscilloscope display of the modulated signal.
(as shown in the figure next page)

GATE/EC/Comm/SLP/Module_7/Ch.1_Notes/Pg.22
 Basics of Analog Communication Systems & Amplitude Modulation

Different Trapezoidal Patterns

Vmax  Vmin Vmax  0

% Modulation = u 100 % Modulation = 100
Vmax  Vmin Vmax  0

Null
Vmin 
Vmin Vmax Vmax

(b) (c)
(a)

+Vp
Vp > +Vp

Vp

(d)
(e)
Fig.(a): Symmetrical modulation i.e. top half of modulated signal is a mirror image of
the bottom half.
Fig.(b): 100% modulation i.e. m = 1
Fig.(c): Over modulation
Fig.(d): Modulating signal and modulated signal are out of phase.
Fig.(e): Magnitude of the positive and negative alternations of the modulated signal
are not equal

If the phase of the modulating signal is shifted 180q (inverted) trapezoidal

patterns would simply point in the opposite direction.

x Carrier Shift
Carrier shift is sometimes called upward or downward modulation and has absolutely
nothing to do with the frequency of the carrier. Carrier shift is a form of amplitude
distortion introduced when the positive and negative alternations in the AM
modulated signal are not equal (i.e. non symmetrical modulation).

x Carrier shift may be either positive or negative.

x If positive alternations are larger than negative alternations, positive
carrier shift results and viceversa.

x Power Relation of AM Wave

The modulated wave consists of two sideband components along with carrier
component.

GATE/EC/Comm/SLP/Module_7/Ch.1_Notes/Pg.23
Vidyalankar : GATE – EC

Note: The carrier component of the modulated wave has same amplitude as the
unmodulated carrier.

The modulated wave contains more power than the carrier and the total power
depends on the modulation index.
2
Vcarrier V2 V2
Pt  LSB  USB
R R R

All the three voltages are the rms value and R is the antenna resistance.

2
2
Vcarrier Vc / 2 Vc2
Pc
R R 2R
2 2
VSB ⎛ mVc / 2 ⎞ m2 Vc2
PLSB PUSB ⎜ ⎟ yR
R ⎝ 2 ⎠ 8R
⎛ m2 ⎞
? Pt ⎜1 ⎟ Pc
⎝ 2 ⎠
This equation related the total power in the unmodulated carrier to the total power in
modulated wave. For 100% modulation, m = 1, Pt max = 1.5 PC

Relevant amplifier should be capable of handling maximum power of 1.5Pc

without distortion.

x Current Calculation
In normal performance, modulated and unmodulated currents are easily measured.
So it is necessary to calculate the modulation index from currents.
Let, Ic = unmodulated carrier current
It = modulated or total current
R = Resistance of passage through which current flows.

The current values are the RMS values.

2
Pt I2t R ⎛ It ⎞ m2
⎜ ⎟ 1
Pc I2c R ⎝ Ic ⎠ 2

It m2
? 1
Ic 2

m2
? It Ic 1 
2

GATE/EC/Comm/SLP/Module_7/Ch.1_Notes/Pg.24
 Basics of Analog Communication Systems & Amplitude Modulation

m2
P
PS 2 C m2 / 2 m2
x Efficiency K = = =
Pt ⎡ m2 ⎤ ⎡ m2 ⎤ 2  m2
⎢1  ⎥P ⎢1  ⎥
⎣ 2 ⎦ C ⎣ 2 ⎦
m2
K =
2  m2

For 100% Modulation K = 1/3 ⇒ 33.33%

Note : The greatest virtue of AM is the simplicity of implementation.

AM BANDWIDTH

C
1
1
0.2 Lower Upper
Vp(V)

Sideband Sideband
LSB USB
0.25
0.1
0.99 1.00 1.00 0.99 0.999 1.000 1.001 1.002
f(MHz) f(MHz)
(a) fc = 1MHz fm = 1kHz m = 0.5 Ec = 1V (b) fc = 1MHz Ec=1V f m1 = 1kHz m1= 0.5
f m2 = 2kHz m2 = 0.2

Signal bandwidth is one of the most important parameter to be considered while

modulating the carrier. Normally narrow bandwidth signal is preferred over wideband
signal. Since thermal noise is evenly distributed over the frequency domain. Hence
narrower bandwidth will include less noise. This increases the signal to noise ratio.
However the receiver must have wide bandwidth enough to pass the complete signal
including sidebands. The signal extends from lower side frequency to upper side
frequency at the carrier frequency plus modulation frequency. The difference between
these is simply twice the modulation frequency.
B = 2 fm
where, B = Bandwidth in hertz
fm = highest modulating frequency in hertz

The bandwidth required for amplitude Modulation is twice the highest

frequency of modulating signal.

GATE/EC/Comm/SLP/Module_7/Ch.1_Notes/Pg.25
Vidyalankar : GATE – EC

GENERATION OF AMFC
AM GENERATION

Low level modulation High level modulation

Base modulation Collector modulation

Grid modulation Plate modulation

x Low output power x High output power

x Large bandwidth (used for x Small bandwidth (Used for
TV signal broadcasting) Radio Signal broadcasting)

Flywheel Effect
For AM generation it is necessary to apply the series of current pulses to a tuned
(resonant) circuit. Each pulse would initiate a damped oscillation in the tuned circuit. The
oscillation would have an initial amplitude proportional to the size of the current pulse and
a decay rate dependent on the time constant of the circuit. Thus each pulse will cause a
complete sine wave proportional in amplitude to the size of this pulse. This will be
followed by a next sine wave and so on. Now if the original current pulses are made
proportional to the modulating voltage then an extremely good approximation of AM wave
will result. This process is known as flywheel effect in a tuned circuit.

Both low and high level modulation techniques make use of fly wheel effect.

Comparison of Low Level and High

Level Modulators

Low Level Modulator High Level Modulator

1. Mixing of signals takes place at low 1. Mixing of signals takes place at
voltage and power levels high voltage and power levels
2. Low output power hence need for power 2. High output power hence no
modulator before feeding the signal to need for power modulator, can
antenna directly feed the antenna
3. Large bandwidth 3. Small bandwidth
4. The nonlinear characteristics
4. The nonlinear characteristics affect the
will not affect the performance
performance of the circuit.
of the circuit.
5. Used for TV broadcasting. 5. Used for Radio broadcasting

GATE/EC/Comm/SLP/Module_7/Ch.1_Notes/Pg.26
 Basics of Analog Communication Systems & Amplitude Modulation

LOW LEVEL MODULATION

(i) Grid modulated class C amplifier

(a) Circuit diagram

Amplifier

RL

RF in CB (RF)
CN
VB

VC

AF in
(b) Operation
A class C amplifier may be modulated by the introduction of a modulating voltage
in series with the grid bias. The modulating voltage is superimposed on a fixed
negative bias (VC) as shown, hence the amplitude of the total bias is made
proportional to amplitude of the modulating signal and it varies at the rate equal
to the modulating frequency. The input signal is superimposed on the total bias
and hence a resulting plate current flows in a form of pulses and amplitude of
each pulse being proportional to the instantaneous bias, thus proportional to
modulating signal amplitude. The application of these pulses to a tuned circuit
gives amplitude modulation due to fly wheel effect.

(c) Waveform
ip

Total
Fixed
VCO
vg VC
t

RF input voltage

GATE/EC/Comm/SLP/Module_7/Ch.1_Notes/Pg.27
Vidyalankar : GATE – EC

(d) Drawbacks
x The system will operate without distortion only if transfer characteristics is
linear but is not possible to have a perfectly linear characteristics and this
causes distortion in output waveform.
x The plate efficiency is less, provides maximum efficiency only when the grid
bias is driven to maximum limit.
Because of the above limitations the output from the grid modulated class C
amplifier drops and hence the circuit is not used for AM generation (i.e. for TV
transmission).

Block Diagram of Low Level Transmitter

RF carrier Buffer Carrier

oscillator amplifier driver Antenna

Linear Linear final

Modulator intermediate Coupling
power network
power amplifier
amplifier
Modulating Preamplifier Modulating
signal source signal driver

HIGH LEVEL MODULATION

Plate Modulated Class C Amplifier (Anode B  Modulation)
(a) Circuit Diagram
Coupling capacitor Output
Power
tank
modulator
RF driver CC
transformer

RF in
CN

Neutralizing
VC capacitor CB
RFC
AF driver (RF)
transformer

AF in Modulating
transformer

+VBB
Class B bias

GATE/EC/Comm/SLP/Module_7/Ch.1_Notes/Pg.28
 Basics of Analog Communication Systems & Amplitude Modulation

(b) Operation
The circuit diagram of a plate modulated class C amplifier is as shown. It consists of
Class B power modulator whose output is superimposed on supply voltage VBB
through a modulating transformer. The modulating voltage can vary between r VBB,
but to keep distortion minimum the peak modulating voltage is limited to 0.7 VBB
hence the total swing is 1.4 VBB. A high frequency carrier is applied to grid of power
modulator.

In the absence of modulating signal the plate current of modulator flows in the form of
pulses which is applied to a tank circuit tuned to centre frequency fc. The response of
modulator is improved by the addition of neutralization capacitor CN connected
between output and input. The presence of RFC and CB form a low pass circuit which
prevents interference of high frequency carrier at the AF modulating transformer
output. It can be seen that plate current flows in the form of pulses whose magnitude
is proportional to the modulating voltage and is applied to the tank circuit after
blocking the dc by the coupling capacitor. Due to flywheel effect we get amplitude
modulated signal at output. Modulation is done at the anode.

(c) Waveform
Ib +
Vb
(RF)
0
t


(a) Resulting Plate Current (b) Plate RF-(modulated) Voltage

High Level Transmitter

Modulating Modulating
Modulating signal power
signal source Preamplifier signal driver Antenna
amplifier amplifier

AM modulator and
Matching
output power
network
amplifier

RF carrier Buffer Carrier Carrier power

oscillator amplifier driver amplifier

In low level transmitter, final power amplification is done after modulation

whereas in high level transmitter power amplification is done prior to
modulation.

GATE/EC/Comm/SLP/Module_7/Ch.1_Notes/Pg.29
Vidyalankar : GATE – EC

AM RECEIVER

(i) Tuned Radio Frequency Receiver (TRF)

Two or three RF amplifiers, all tuned together were employed to select and amplify
the incoming frequency and simultaneously reject all other.

Power
antenna amplifier

st
1 RF 2nd RF Audio
amplifier amplifier Detector amplifier

Ganged
Features TRF Receiver
x It is simple
x It has high sensitivity

Drawbacks
x Bandwidth is inconsistent and varies with centre frequency when tuned over a
wide range of input frequencies.
x Adjacent channel interference is present.
x TRF receivers are unstable because they employ multistage RF amplifiers tuned
to the same centre frequency which are highly susceptible to oscillation.
x Gain is not uniform over a very wide frequency range, due to non uniform L/C
ratios of the transformer coupled tank circuits in the RF amplifiers.

(ii) Superheterodyne Receiver

Basic block diagram of superheterodyne is as shown :

A constant frequency difference is maintained between local oscillator and RF

circuits, normally through capacitance tuning. These are the ganged capacitors. IF
amplifier provides most of the gain and bandwidth requirement of the receiver.

Note: IF amplifiers are independent of frequency to which the receiver is tuned.

Therefore the selectively and sensitivity are fairly uniform.

The RF circuits are mainly used to select the wanted frequency and to reject
interference.

GATE/EC/Comm/SLP/Module_7/Ch.1_Notes/Pg.30
 Basics of Analog Communication Systems & Amplitude Modulation

Audio
Antenna and power
amplifier
(fo  fs)

fs IF
RF stage Mixer Detector
amplifier

AGC
fo

Local
oscillator

Ganged tuning
Superheterodyne Receiver

Features
x Greater gain, thus better sensitivity.
x Improved image frequency rejection.
x Better signaltonoise ratio
x Better selectivity

PARAMETERS OF AM RECEIVER
A. Sensitivity (PV)
x The sensitivity of a ratio receiver is its ability to amplify weak signals.
• For AM, 30% modulation by a 400-Hz sine wave is used, and the signal is
applied to the receiver through a standard coupling network known as a dummy
antenna. The standard output is 50 milliwatts (50 mW), and for all types of
receivers the loudspeaker is replaced by a load resistance of equal value.
• The most important factors determining the sensitivity of a superheterodyne
receiver are the gain of the IF amplifier (s) and that of the RF amplifier, below
figure shows the sensitivity plot of a rather good domestic or car radio.
16
15
14
Sensitivity, PV

13
12
11
10

60 100 160
Frequency, kHz

GATE/EC/Comm/SLP/Module_7/Ch.1_Notes/Pg.31
Vidyalankar : GATE – EC

B. Selectivity
x It is the ability of receiver to reject unwanted signals.
x Conditions for measuring selectivity are same as that used for sensitivity.
x It determines the adjacent channel rejection of receiver.
x It is influenced by the response of IF section, mixer and RF section.
• Selectivity varies with receiving frequency if ordinary tuned circuits are used in
the IF section, and becomes somewhat worse when the receiving frequency is
raised.
Receiver tuned to 950 kHz
10
0
80
Attenuation, dB

60

40

20

0
40 30 20 10 0 +10 +20 +30 +40
Generator detuning, kHz
Selectivity Curve
C. Image Frequency Rejection
• In a standard broadcast receiver the local oscillator frequency, fo is made higher
than the incoming signal frequency.
• It is made equal at all times to the signal frequency plus the intermediate frequency.
Thus f0 = fs + fi, or fs = fo  fi , no matter what the signal frequency may be.
• If a frequency fsi manages to reach the mixer, such that fsi = fo + fi, that is,
fsi = fs + 2fi, then this frequency will also produce fi when mixed with fo. This
spurious intermediate-frequency signal will also be amplified by the IF stage and
will therefore provide interference having the effect of two stations being received
simultaneously. This frequency fsi is called the image frequency given by
fsi fs  2fi
Note: Image rejection depends on the frontend selectivity of the receiver and must
be achieved before the IF stage. Once the spurious frequency enters the first
IF amplifier, it becomes impossible to remove it from the wanted signal.
The image frequency rejection ratio is given by
gain at signal frequency
D =
gain at image frequency

D = 1  Q 2 U2

fsi fs
where U=  , Q = loaded Q of tuned circuit.
fs fsi

GATE/EC/Comm/SLP/Module_7/Ch.1_Notes/Pg.32
 Basics of Analog Communication Systems & Amplitude Modulation

Example :
In a broadcast superheterodyne receiver having no RF amplifier, the loaded Q of the
antenna coupling circuit (at the input to the mixer) is 100. If the intermediate frequency is
455 kHz, calculate (a) the image frequency and its rejection ratio at 1000 kHz and (b) the
image frequency and its rejection ratio at 25 MHz.

Solution :
(a) fsi 1000  2 u 455 1910kHz
1910 1000
U  1.910  0.524 1.386
1000 1910
D 1  1002 u 1.3862 1  138.62 138.6
This is 42 dB and is considered adequate for domestic receivers in the MF band.

(b) fsi 25  2 u 0.455 25.91 MHz

25.91 25
U  1.0364  0.9649 0.0715
25 25.91
D 1  1002 u 0.07152 1  7.152 7.22
It is obvious that this rejection will be insufficient for a practical receiver in the HF
band.

D. Choice of IF Frequency
The intermediate frequency (IF) of a receiving system is usually a compromise since
there are reasons why it should be neither low nor high, nor in a certain range
between the two. The following are the major factors influencing the choice of the
intermediate frequency in any particular system :
1. If the intermediate frequency is too high, poor selectivity and poor adjacent-
channel rejection result unless sharp cutoff (e.g., crystal or mechanical) filters are
used in the IF stages.

2. A high value of intermediate frequency increases tracking difficulties.

3. As the intermediate frequency is lowered, image-frequency rejection becomes

poorer. It is seen that image-frequency rejection becomes worse as signal
frequency is raised.

4. A very low intermediate frequency can make the selectivity too sharp, cutting off
the sidebands.

5. If the IF is very low, the frequency stability of the local oscillator must be made
correspondingly higher.

6. The intermediate frequency must not fall within the tuning range of the receiver,
or else instability will occur and heterodyne whistles will be heard, making it
impossible to tune to the frequency band immediately adjacent to the
intermediate frequency.

GATE/EC/Comm/SLP/Module_7/Ch.1_Notes/Pg.33
Vidyalankar : GATE – EC

DEMODULATION OF AM SIGNALS
The baseband message signal x(t) can be recovered from the AM signal mr(t) by using
the simple circuit shown below :
D

mr(t) R C Z(t)

(a) Envelope detector

x As long as | m(t) | < 1, the envelope of the received signal never goes through zero
and the positive portion of the envelope approximates the message signal m(t).

Envelope
z(t)
Carrier
a

t
(b) Correct demodulation
Envelope
z(t)
Carrier

t
(c) RC too large
Envelope

z(t)

Carrier
t
(d) RC too small

Envelope demodulation of AM signals

x The positive portion of the envelope is recovered by rectifying m(t) and smoothing the
rectified waveform using an RC network.

For best operation : The carrier frequency should be much higher than fm,
and the discharge time constant RC should be adjusted so that the
maximum negative rate of the envelope will never exceed the exponential
discharge rate.

GATE/EC/Comm/SLP/Module_7/Ch.1_Notes/Pg.34
 Basics of Analog Communication Systems & Amplitude Modulation

x Output of demodulator :
Z(t) = K1  K 2m(t)

K1 : DC offset due to the carrier

K 2 : gain of demodulator circuit

The AM signal can also be demodulated by passing m(t) through a square law device
(or any other type of nonlinearity not having odd function symmetry) and filtering the
squared output.

The envelope and square law demodulators for AM signals do not require a
synchronized (or coherent) local oscillator signal.

AM DEMODULATORS
AM Demodulators

Linear demodulation (Based NonLinear demodulation (Based

on linear time variant system on non-linear time variant system
e.g. : rectifier detector) e.g. : envelope detector)

(i) Rectifier Detector (Linear detector)

C2

D R1
AM R C1 RL
signal

Rectifier Low pass filters DC biasing circuit

Mathematical model of rectifier detector

AM Wave
Low pass
m(t)
filter

Pulse carrier

The rectifier detector operation is similar to that of multiplication of the AM signal by

high frequency carrier followed by a low pass filter.

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Vidyalankar : GATE – EC

(ii) Envelope detector ( Nonlinear detector) :

It consists of diode detector followed by two low pass filters and a dc blocking
capacitor.
C2
R1

f(t) R C1 R2
C

Detector Low pass filters DC blocking circuit

x Initially the capacitor C is uncharged.

x When an AM signal is applied at input, during the 1st positive half, the diode is
forward biased and charges the capacitor C.

x The capacitor voltage follows the input waveform and when the input waveform
reaches the 1st peak, the capacitor voltage also reaches the peak value. Thereafter
the input voltage decays at a rate determined by the carrier frequency Zc.

x Since the input voltage is less than capacitor voltage the diode is reverse biased, the
capacitor voltage decays slowly at a rate determined by the time constant W = RC.

1
x If W >> , the voltage lost by the capacitor during that time is small. During the
ZC
next positive half cycle, when the input voltage becomes greater than the
capacitor voltage the diode is forward biased and hence the capacitor recharges
to the new peak value. Thereafter the input voltage again decreases below the
capacitor voltage. The diode turns off.

With proper selection of R and C it is possible to make a capacitor voltage to

follow the envelope of the AM signal. Hence the required condition for RC is

1 1
<< RC <<
ZC Zm

Optimum value of RC is given as

1
RC =
Zm ZC

GATE/EC/Comm/SLP/Module_7/Ch.1_Notes/Pg.36
 Basics of Analog Communication Systems & Amplitude Modulation

(iii) Practical Diode Detector

IF in

A
To AGC
C3
R3
R1
C2
D AF o/p
C C1 R2 R4

The diode D is connected to act as negative clipper. The negative dc voltage

obtained at point A is used for AGC purpose. Here Resistance R is split up into a
series combination of R1 and R2. It provides a dc path for diode D to conduct.
x Voltage across the capacitor C contains on RF ripple at IF frequency. The ripple
can be eliminated using a low pass filter consisting of R1C1.
x The voltage across resistance R2 contains dc negative value and AF super
imposed on that dc. The dc signal at output can be removed by using a
decoupling capacitor C2.
x The dc voltage across R4 can be separated out from the AF signal by using R3C3
low pass filter.
x Voltage across C3 is a negative feedback voltage which can be fed back to the
bias control of RF and IF amplifier for automatic gain control.

The diode used for detector is cat whisker diode which is a germanium diode
(OA series).

Distortion in Diode Detectors

Two types of distortion may arise in diode detectors. One is caused by the ac and dc
diode load impedances being unequal and the other by the fact that the ac load
impedance acquires a reactive component at the highest audio frequencies.

The modulation index in the demodulated wave is

I
md m
Ic
The two currents are shown in figure below and it is to be noted that the definition is in
terms of currents because the diode is a current-operated device.

GATE/EC/Comm/SLP/Module_7/Ch.1_Notes/Pg.37
Vidyalankar : GATE – EC

Negative Peak Clipping

ID ID

t t
(a) Small transmitted modultion index; (b) Large transmitted modulation index;
no clipping negative peak clipping
Fig. Detector Diode Currents
We see that
Vm Vc
Im and Ic
Zm Rc
where Zm = audio diode load impedance (resistive).
Rc = dc diode load resistance
The audio load resistance is smaller than the dc resistance. Hence it follows that the AF
current Im will be larger, in proportion to the dc current. This is another way of saying that
the modulation index in the demodulated wave is higher than it was in the modulated
wave applied to the detector. This, in turn, suggests that it is possible for over-modulation
to exist in the output of the detector, despite a modulation index of the applied voltage of
less than 100 percent. Thus when the input modulation index is too high for a given
detector, then it exhibits negative peak clipping (as shown in above figure).
The maximum value of applied modulation index which a diode detector will handle
without negative peak clipping is calculated as follows :
The modulation index in the demodulated wave will be
Im Vm / Zm Rc
md m
Ic Vc / Rc Zm

Since the maximum tolerable modulation index in the diode output is unity, the maximum
permissible transmitted modulation index will be
Zm Zm
mmax md, max
Rc Rc

Disadvantages of AM
x The efficiency of AM is very poor because carrier carries 66.66% power which is of
no use. Hence AM is wastage of power.
x Since AM requires a large bandwidth, the number of channels in the given frequency
spectrum decreases. Hence AM is a wastage of bandwidth.
To overcome the above limitations, we have to suppress the carrier and modify the
sidebands of the AM wave, which results in system complexity.

GATE/EC/Comm/SLP/Module_7/Ch.1_Notes/Pg.38
 Basics of Analog Communication Systems & Amplitude Modulation

LINEAR MODULATION SCHEMES

AMPLITUDE MODULATION  SUPPRESSED CARRIER

Linear modulated wave is defined by

s(t) = sI (t) cos (2Sfc t)  sQ (t)sin(2Sfc t)

where sI (t) : inphase component of the modulated wave s(t).

sQ (t) : quadrature component of the modulated wave s(t).

In linear modulation, both sI (t) and sQ (t) are lowpass signals that are
linearly related to the message signal m(t).

InPhase Quadrature
Type of Modulation Component Component Comments
S1(t) SQ(t)
DSBSC SSB: m(t) 0 m(t) = message signal
(a) Upper sideband 1 1
transmitted m(t) m̂(t) m̂(t) Hibert transform of m(t)
2 2
(b) Lower sideband 1 1
transmitted m(t)  m̂(t)
2 2
VSB:
(a) Vestige of lower
1 1
sideband m(t) mc(t) mc(t) output of the filter
transmitted 2 2
(b) Vestige of upper
1 1
sideband m(t)  mc(t)
transmitted 2 2

Depending on how the 2 components of s(t) are defined, we may identify 3 types of linear
modulation involving a single message signal :

x Double sideband suppressed carrier (DSBSC) modulation, where only upper and
lower sidebands are transmitted.

x Single Sideband (SSB) modulation, where only one sideband (lower or upper) is
transmitted.

x Vestigial Sideband (VSB) modulation, where only a vestige (i.e. trace) of one of the
sidebands and a correspondingly modified version of the other sideband are
transmitted.

GATE/EC/Comm/SLP/Module_7/Ch.1_Notes/Pg.39
Vidyalankar : GATE – EC

There are two important points to note :

1) The inphase component sI (t) is solely dependent on the message signal m(t).
2) The quadrature component sQ (t) is a filtered version of m(t).
The spectral modification of the modulated wave s(t) is solely due to sQ (t) .

The role of the quadrature component (if present) is merely to interfere with the inphase
component, so as to reduce or eliminate power in one of the sidebands of the modulated
signal s(t), depending on how the quadrature component is defined.

DOUBLE SIDE BAND  SUPPRESSED CARRIER (DSBSC)

The spectrum of amplitude modulated signal contains the carrier and two sidebands.
The information is carried by the two sidebands.

If you suppress the carrier, large amount of power can be saved, efficiency
of transmission increases.

But at the same time both the sidebands carry the same amount of information. This
type of transmission is called DSB  SC or AM  SC.
In DSBSC there is no quadrature component since both the sidebands are transmitted.

? s(t) = A c m(t)cos(2Sfc t)

where, m(t) : message signal

Ac : carrier amplitude
s(t) : DSBSC modulated wave

A
fig. (a)

S(t)
fig. (b) t

Carrier phase is reversed Sinusoidal modulating signal

when x(t) goes negative

fig. (c) t
xc(t)
Overmodulated signal
| x(t) |

fig. (d)

GATE/EC/Comm/SLP/Module_7/Ch.1_Notes/Pg.40
 Basics of Analog Communication Systems & Amplitude Modulation

x From fig(c) and (d) we observe that the envelope of DSBSC is | x(t) |
which is different than of modulating signal, m(t).
x As seen from fig. (c), the modulated signal s(t) undergoes a phase
reversal whenever the message signal x(t) crosses zero.
x The transmission bandwidth required by DSBSC modulation is the
same as that for amplitude modulation, namely 2W.

x Spectrum of DSBSC
Fourier transform of s(t) is obtained as
1
S(f) = A c >M(f  fc )  M(f  fc )@
2

M(Z)

M(0)

W 0 W Zo
(a) Spectrum of baseband signal

S(Z)
1
AcM(0)
2

USB LSB LSB USB

Zc 0 Zc
Zo
2W 2W
(b) Spectrum of DSBSC modulated wave

GENERATION OF DSBSC

There are four methods to generate DSBSC

(a) Balanced Modulator
One possible scheme for generating a DSBSC wave is to use two AM modulators
arranged in a balanced configuration so as to suppress the carrier wave, as shown in
the block diagram.

GATE/EC/Comm/SLP/Module_7/Ch.1_Notes/Pg.41
Vidyalankar : GATE – EC

Thus the output of the two AM modulators may be expressed as follows:

s1(t) A c [1  k a m(t)]cos(2Sfc t)
s2 (t) A c [1  k a m(t)]cos(2Sfc t)

Substracting s2(t) from s1(t), we obtain

s(t) s1(t)  s2 (t)

2k a A c cos(2Sfc t) m(t)

Hence except for the scaling factor 2ka, the balanced modulator output is equal to the
product of the modulating wave and the carrier, as required to generate DSBSC.

AM s1(t)
m(t)
Modulator

6 s(t)
Ac cos 2Sfct

m(t) AM
Modulator s2(t)

Block diagram of a Balanced Modulator

(b) Diode Balanced Modulator

D1
(v1 + v2)

vo
CB i d1

AF in Load

v2 CB id2

RF carrier v1

AF transformer (v1  v2)

D2 RF transformer
Working Principle
Circuits of the balanced modulator are shown in above figure. Each utilizes the non-
linear principles. The modulation voltage v2 is fed in push-pull, and the carrier voltage
v1 in parallel, to a pair of identical diodes. The carrier voltage is thus applied to the
two diodes in phase; whereas the modulating voltage appears 180q out of phase at
the anode of diodes, since they are at the opposite ends of a center-tapped
transformer. The modulated output current of the two diodes are combined in the
center-tapped primary of the push-pull output transformer. They therefore subtract
( as opposite in direction), as indicated by the direction of the arrows in figure.

GATE/EC/Comm/SLP/Module_7/Ch.1_Notes/Pg.42
 Basics of Analog Communication Systems & Amplitude Modulation

If this system is made completely symmetrical, the carrier frequency will be

completely cancelled. The output of the balanced modulator contains the two
sidebands and some of the miscellaneous components which are taken care of by
the tuning of the output transformer’s secondary winding. The final output consists
only of sidebands.
Mathematical Analysis
The input voltage will be (v1 + v2) at the anode of D1 and (v1  v2) at the anode of D2.
If perfect symmetry is assumed, then the proportionality constants will be the same
for both diodes and may be called a, b, c as before. The two diode currents, will be
id 1 a  b(v1  v 2 )  c(v1  v 2 )2

id 2 a  b(v1  v 2 )  c(v1  v 2 )2
Thus current at the primary of output transformer, i1 is given by
i1 id 1  id 2 2bv 2  4cv1v 2
Now we may represent the carrier voltage v1 by vcsin(Zct) and the modulating voltage
v2 by Vmsin(Zmt). Substituting these into above equation of i1, gives
1
i1 2bVm sin Zm t  4cVm Vc [cos(Zc  Zm )t  cos(Zc  Zm )t]
2
The output voltage v0 is proportional to this primary current. Let the constant of
proportionality be D, then
v 0 Di1
Substituting value of i1 and simplifying, we get
vo P sin Zm t  Q cos(Zc  Zm )t  Q cos(Zc  Zm )t … (P = 2DbVm and Q = 2DcVmVc)
The above equation shows that (under ideally symmetrical conditions) the carrier has
been canceled out, leaving only the two sidebands and the modulating frequencies. The
tuning of the output transformer will remove the modulating frequencies from the output.
Note : • The nonlinear device used can be diode or JFET/BJT. Semiconductor
diodes are ideally suited for use in balanced modulator circuits because
they are stable, require no external power source, have a long life, and
require virtually no maintenance.
• For the balanced modulator to operate properly, the amplitude of the
carrier must be sufficiently greater than the amplitude of the modulating
signal (approximately six to seven times greater).
(c) Balanced Ring Modulator
T1 D1 T2

Modulating D3 Output
signalinput D4 signal

D2
Carrier
input
(a)
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Vidyalankar : GATE – EC

T1 T2
+ + D1 + +
Modulating “On”  Output Signal
+
signalinput “On” (modulating signal)
D2
   

+ 
Carrier
input
(b)
T1 T2
+ + D3 “On”  
Output Signal
Modulating  +
signalinput
(modulating signal
reversed)
  D4 “On” + +

(c)

The balanced ring modulator is sometimes called a balanced lattice

modulator or simply balanced modulator.

Operation
Essentially, diodes D1 to D4 are electronic switches that control whether the
modulating signal is passed from input transformer T1 to output transformer T2 as it is
or with a 180q phase shift. With the carrier polarity as shown in figure (b), diode
switches D1 and D2 are forward biased and so switched on, while diode switches D3
and D4 are reverse biased and off. Consequently, the modulating signal is transferred
across the closed switches to T2 without a phase reversal. When the polarity of the
carrier reverses, as shown in figure (c), diode switches D1 and D2 are reverse biased
and off, while diode switches D3 and D4 are forward biased and on. Consequently,
the modulating signal undergoes a 180q phase reversal before reaching T2.

Carrier current flows from its source to the center taps of T1 and T2, where it splits
and goes in opposite directions through the upper and lower halves of the
transformers. Thus, their magnetic fields cancel in the secondary windings of the
transformer T2 and the carrier is suppressed. If the diodes are not perfectly matched
or if the transformers are not exactly center tapped, the circuit is out of balance and
the carrier is not totally suppressed. It is virtually impossible to achieve perfect
balance; thus, a small carrier component is always present in the output signal. This
is commonly called carrier leak. The amount of carrier suppression is typically
between 40 dB and 60 dB.

GATE/EC/Comm/SLP/Module_7/Ch.1_Notes/Pg.44
 Basics of Analog Communication Systems & Amplitude Modulation

(a

(b)

D1 and D2 “on”
(c)

D3 and D4 “on”

(d)

Balanced Ring modulator waveforms : (a) modulating signal; (b) carrier signal;
(c) output waveform before filtering; (d) output waveform after filtering
The figure above shows the input and output waveforms associated with a balanced
modulator for a single frequency modulating signal. It can be seen that D1 and D2
conduct only during the positive half cycles of the carrier input signal, and D3 and D4
conduct only during the negative half cycles. The output from a balanced modulator
consists of a series of RF pulses whose repetition rate is determined by the RF
carrier switching frequency, and amplitude is controlled by the level of the modulating
signal.

The output waveform takes the shape of the modulating signal, except with
alternating positive and negative polarities that correspond to the polarity
of the carrier signal.

The operation of the ring modulator may be described mathematically as a multiplier

of m(t) by the square wave carrier c(t).

v 0 (t) m(t) c(t)

Since c(t) is a periodic function, it is represented by Fourier series.

4 f (1)n1
c(t) = ∑ cos > 2Sfc (2n  1)t @
S n 1 2n  1

GATE/EC/Comm/SLP/Module_7/Ch.1_Notes/Pg.45
Vidyalankar : GATE – EC

The desired DSBSC AM signal u(t) is obtained by passing v 0 (t) through a

bandpass filter with center frequency fc and bandwidth 2W, where W is the bandwidth
of baseband signal.
V0(f)

3fc fc fc 3fc fo

2W 2W 2W 2W
Spectrum of Ring modulator output

(d) Switching Modulator

x(t) v(t)
Tank V + Nx(t)
Active device circuit
1:N
fc v(t) t
V

(a)
(b)
x For efficient high level modulation, switching modulators are used.
x The active device, a vacuum tube or transistor, serves as a switch driven at the
carrier frequency, closing briefly every 1/fc seconds.
x Adding the message to the supply, say via transformer, gives

v(t) = [V + N x(t)] cos Zct

where V is the peak voltage of carrier

N is the transformer turns ratio.
x If V & N are correctly proportioned, the desired modulation has been
accomplished without appreciable generation of undesired components.

DEMODULATION OF DSB-SC
(a) Coherent detection of DSB-SC
The base band signal m(t) can be uniquely recovered from a DSBSC wave s(t) by
first multiplying s(t) with a locally generated sine-wave and then low-pass filtering the
product, as shown in below figure. It is assumed that the local oscillator signal is
exactly coherent or synchronized, in both frequency and phase, with the carrier wave
c(t) used in the product modulator to generate s(t). This method of demodulation is
known as coherent detection or synchronous detection.

GATE/EC/Comm/SLP/Module_7/Ch.1_Notes/Pg.46
 Basics of Analog Communication Systems & Amplitude Modulation

Product v(t)
s(t) Low pass filter v0(t)
Demodulator

Acccos(2Sfct + I)

Local Oscillator

Block diagram for Synchronous DSBSC Detector

Mathematical Analysis
v(t) = A c ' cos(2Sfc t  I)s(t) ∵ s(t) = A c m(t)cos 2Sfc t

v(t) = A c A c ' cos(2Sfc t  I)cos(2Sfc t)m(t)

Ac Ac '
v(t) = >cos(4Sfc t  I)  cos I@ m(t)
2
1 A A '
? v(t) = A c A c ' cos(4Sfc t  I)m(t)  c c m(t)cos I …(1)
2 2

V(f)
1
A c Acc M(0) cos I
2
1
A c Acc M(0)
4

2fc 0 2fc f
2W 2W 2W

Illustrating the spectrum of a product modulator output with a DSBSC wave as input

• The first term in equation (1) represents a DSBSC wave with a carrier frequency
2fc, whereas the second term is proportional to the baseband signal m(t).

• It is therefore apparent that the first term in equation (1) is removed by the low-
pass filter in above block diagram.

• At the filter output we then obtain a signal given by

⎛1 ⎞
v o (t) ⎜ A c Acc cos I ⎟ m(t)
⎝2 ⎠
Thus, the demodulated signal vo(t) is therefore proportional to m(t) when the
phase error I is a constant.

• The amplitude of this demodulated signal is maximum when I = 0, and it is

minimum (zero) when I = r S/2.

GATE/EC/Comm/SLP/Module_7/Ch.1_Notes/Pg.47
Vidyalankar : GATE – EC

• We usually find that the phase error I varies randomly with time. The result is
that at the detector output, the multiplying factor cos I also varies randomly with
time.

• Therefore, circuitry must be provided in the receiver to maintain the local

oscillator in perfect synchronism, in both frequency and phase, with the carrier
wave used to generate the DSBSC wave in the transmitter.

The zero demodulated signal occurs for I = rS/2 and it is called quadrature
null effect of coherent detection.

(b) Costas Receiver

fchannel
1
Ac cos I m(t)
Product Lowpass 2 Demodulated
Modulator filter signal

Voltage Phase
Controlled discriminated
oscillator
DSBSC signal
Ac cos (2Sfct) m(t)
90q
phaseshifte
r
Sin(2Sfct+I)

Product Lowpass
modulator filter 1
Ac sin I m(t)
2
Qchannel
Costas receiver is one of the efficient method for demodulating DSBSC wave. The
receiver consists of two coherent detector having same input but different local
oscillator signals. These signals are in phase quadrature with respect of each other.
The frequency of oscillator is same as the carrier frequency. The coherent detector in
the upper half is called as inphase coherent detector or Ichannel. The lower half is
called as quadrature phase coherent detector or Qchannel.

The two detectors acts as feedback for the voltage controlled oscillator.

Operation
Suppose carrier wave Ac cos(2Sfct) is used to generate the DSBSC wave. Under
normal conditions, the Ichannel output contains the desired demodulated signal;
whereas Qchannel output will be zero because of quardrature null effect of
Qchannel.

GATE/EC/Comm/SLP/Module_7/Ch.1_Notes/Pg.48
 Basics of Analog Communication Systems & Amplitude Modulation

Suppose the phase of local oscillator drifts by small phase I such that sinI # I. This
Q channel will have same polarity as Ichannel for one direction of drift and opposite
for opposite drift. By combining the output a DC control signal is obtained that
provides the feedback to the local oscillator.

The costas (feed back) loop produces the same effect as squaring circuit
followed by an ordinary PLL.

Quadrature-Carrier Multiplexing
The quadrature-carrier multiplexing or quadrature-amplitude modulation (QAM) scheme
enables two DSBSC modulated waves (resulting from the application of two independent
message signals) to occupy the same transmission bandwidth, and yet it allows for the
separation of the two message signals at the receiver output. It is therefore a bandwidth-
conservation scheme.
A block diagram of the quadrature-carrier multiplexing system is shown in below figure.

Product + Product Low-pass

Σ modulator filter 1
m1(t) modulator A c m1(t)
+ Multiplexed 2
signal s(t)
Accos(2Sfct) cos(2Sfct)

90q-phase 90q-phase
Multiplexed shifter
shifter signal s(t)

Product Product Low-pass

modulator modulator filter 1
m2(t) A c m 2 (t)
2

(a) Transmitter (b) Receiver

Quadrature-carrier multiplexing system
• The transmitted signal s(t) shown given by
s(t) = Acm1(t) cos(2Sfct) + Acm2(t) sin(2Sfct) …(1)
• Thus s(t) occupies a transmission bandwidth of 2W, centered at the carrier frequency
fc, where W is the message bandwidth of m1(t) or m2(t). According to equation (1).
Note : Here Acm1(t) is in-phase component and Acm2(t) is quadrature component.
• The receiver part of the system is shown in above figure (b). The multiplexed signal
s(t) is applied simultaneously to two separate coherent detectors that are supplied
with two local carriers of the same frequency, but differing in phase by 90 degrees.
1
• The output of one detector is A c m1(t), whereas the output of the second detector is
2
1
A c m2 (t)
2

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Vidyalankar : GATE – EC

• For the system to operate satisfactorily it is important to maintain the correct phase
and frequency relationships between the local oscillators used in the transmitter and
receiver parts of the system.

HILBERT TRANSFORM

When the phase signals of all components of a given signal wave are shifted by 90q, the
resulting function of time is known as the Hilbert Transform of the signal.
Consider a signal g(t) with Fourier Transform as G(f). The Hilbert transform of g(t) is
f
1 g(W)
ĝ(t) ∫ t  W dW where ĝ(t) is Hilbert transform of g(t).
S f
Thus Hilbert transform is a linear operation.
The inverse Hilbert transform is
f
1 g(t)ˆ
g(t) =  ∫
S f t  W
dW

The functions g(t) and ĝ(t) are said to constitute a Hilbert-transform pair. We note from
the definition of the Hilbert transform the ĝ(t) may be interpreted as the convolution of g(t)
1
with the time function .
St
The Fourier transform of 1/(St) is equal to j sgn(f), where sgn(f) is the signum function
defined by
⎧ 1, f!0
⎪
sgn(f) ⎨ 0, f 0
⎪ 1, f!0
⎩
It follows therefore that the Fourier transform Ĝ(f) of ĝ(t) is given by
Ĝ(f)  jsgn(f)G(f)
Phase
Above equation states that given a signal g(t), of H(f)
we may obtain its Hilbert transform ĝ(t) by
passing g(t) through a linear two-port device the
+90q
transfer function of which is equal to
jsgn(f). This device may be considered as one
that produces a phase shift of 90 degrees for f
all positive frequencies of the input signal and 0
+90 degrees for all negative frequencies, as
90q
shown in the figure. The amplitudes of all
frequency components in the signal, however,
are unaffected by transmission through the
device. Such an ideal device is referred to as a Phase characteristics
Hilbert transformer.

GATE/EC/Comm/SLP/Module_7/Ch.1_Notes/Pg.50
 Basics of Analog Communication Systems & Amplitude Modulation

Example :

Find Hilbert transform of cos(2Sfct)

g(t) = cos(2Sfct)
1
? G(f) = [G(f  fc )  G(f  fc )]
2
Now by definition of Hilbert transform
Ĝ(f)  j sgn (f)G(f)
1
[G(f  fc )  G(f  fc )],
2j
which represents the Fourier transform of sin(2Sfct)
? ĝ(t) sin(2Sfc t)

Table of Hilbert Transform Pairs :

Time Function Hilbert Transform

m(t)cos(2Sfct) m(t)sin(2Sfct)
m(t)sin(2Sfct) m(t)cos(2Sfct)
cos(2Sfct) sin(2Sfct)
sin(2Sfct)  cos(2Sfct)
sint 1  cos t
t t
1
t
1 2
rect(t)  ln
S 1
t
2
1
G(t)
St
1 1
1 t2 1 t2
1
SG(t)
t

Properties of Hilbert Transform

1. g(t) and ĝ(t) have the same energy spectral density.

2. g(t) and ĝ(t) have some autocorrelation function.
3. g(t) and ĝ(t) are orthogonal
f
i.e. ∫ g(t) g(t)dt
f
ˆ 0

4. If g(t) has Hilbert transform ĝ(t) then ĝ(t) has Hilbert transform g(t).

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Vidyalankar : GATE – EC

PreEnvelope
Consider a real-valued signal g(t). We define the pre-envelope of the signal g(t) as the
complex-valued function.
g (t) g(t)  jg(t)
ˆ

where ĝ(t) is the Hilbert transform of g(t). We note that the given signal g(t) is the real
part of the pre-envelope g+(t), and the Hilbert transform of the signal is the imaginary part
of the pre-envelope.

One of the important features of the pre-envelope g+(t) is the behavior of its Fourier
transform. Let G+(f) denote the Fourier transform of g+(t). Then, we may write
G (f) G(f)  j [  j sgn(f)]G(f)

Using the definition of the signum function, sgn(f), we therefore have

⎧2G(f), f ! 0
⎪
G (f) ⎨ G(0), f 0
⎪ 0, f0
⎩
where G(0) is the value of G(f) at frequency f = 0. This means that the pre-envelope of a
signal has no frequency content (i.e., its Fourier transform vanishes) for all negative
frequencies, as illustrated in following figure.
|G+(f)|
|G(f)| 2G(0)

G(0)

f f
W 0 W 0 W
(a) (b)
(a) Amplitude spectrum of low-pass signal g(t). (b) Amplitude spectrum of pre-envelope g+(t)

For the purpose of illustration in above figure, we have used a low-pass signal with its
spectrum limited to the band W d f d W and centered at the origin. Nevertheless, it
should be emphasized that the pre-envelope can be defined for any signal that
possesses a spectrum.

Note : We find that the pre-envelope is useful in handling band-pass signals and
systems.

Complex envelope
Let the pre-envelope of a narrow-band signal g(t), with its Fourier transform G(f) centered
about some frequency r fc, be expressed in the form

g (t) 
g(t)e j2 Sfc t
…(1)

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 Basics of Analog Communication Systems & Amplitude Modulation

 as the complex envelope of the signal. Equation (1) may be viewed as

We refer to g(t)
 in terms of the pre-envelope g+(t).
the basis of a definition for the complex envelope g(t)
The spectrum of g+(t) is limited to the frequency band fc  W d f d fc + W, as in following
figure.

(a) |G(f)| (b) |G+(f)| (c) |G(f)|

2 |G(fc)|

|G(fc)|

f f f
fc 0 fc 0 W 0 W
fc  W fc fc + W
2W 2W

(a) Amplitude spectrum of band-pass signal g(t) (b) Amplitude spectrum of pre-envelope g+(t).

(c) Amplitude spectrum of complex envelope g(t)

Applying the frequency-shifting property of the Fourier transform to equation (1), we find
that the spectrum of the complex envelope g(t)  is limited to the band W d f d W and
 is a low-
centered at the origin, as in above figure (c). That is, the complex envelope g(t)
pass signal.
By definition, the given signal g(t) is the real part of the pre-envelope g+(t). We may thus
express g(t) in terms of the complex envelope g(t) as follows
g(t) 
Re[g(t)e j2 Sfc t
]
 is a complex-valued quantity, and so we may express it in the form
In general, g(t)

g(t) gc (t)  jgs (t)

where gc(t) and gs(t) are both real-valued low-pass functions. We may therefore express
the band-pass signal g(t) in the canonical form :
g(t) gc (t)cos(2Sfc t)  gs (t)sin(2Sfc t)

We refer to gc(t) as the in-phase component of the band-pass signal g(t) and gs(t) as the
quadrature component of the signal, both with respect to the carrier cos(2Sfct).
Thus, complex envelope help to analyze bandpass signal and systems in terms of low
pass signals.

SINGLE SIDEBAND (SSB)

(Single Sideband  Suppressed Carrier) (A3J)

(a) Need for SSB  SC
The major drawback of AM transmission is, it has poor efficiency ( Kmax 33.33% )
and large bandwidth ( 2Zm ). We can improve the K by suppressing the carrier, we
get DSBSC. But the bandwidth required to transmit DSBSC is 2Zm .

GATE/EC/Comm/SLP/Module_7/Ch.1_Notes/Pg.53
Vidyalankar : GATE – EC

If we observe the spectrum of AM signal, it can be seen that both sidebands carry the
same amount of information. Hence there is no point in transmitting both the
sidebands. Therefore we suppress one of the sideband using sideband suppression
filter to get SSBSC.

The bandwidth required for the transmission SSBSC is ωm . This increases

the number of channels that can be operated simultaneously.

Using the theory of complex envelope we may express time-domain description of an

SSB wave, s(t) as given below.

x For transmitting USB of SSB signal,

Ac
s(t) = ⎡m(t)cos 2Sfc t  m(t)sin2
ˆ Sfc t ⎤⎦
2 ⎣
x For transmitting LSB of SSB signal,
Ac
s(t) = ⎡m(t)cos 2Sfc t  m(t)sin2
ˆ Sfc t ⎤⎦
2 ⎣

GENERATION OF SSB  SC

SSBSC can be generated by three methods

(i) Filter method
(ii) Phase shift method
(iii) The third method (Weaver's Method)

(i) Filter Method

(a) Block Diagram

Crystal
Oscillator
DSBSC SSB Frequency Translator

Sideband Linear
Balanced Balanced Power
Buffer Modulator suppressio mixer
n filter amp. class

Audio Filter for Crystal

AF in other oscillator and
amplifier
sideband synthesizer

GATE/EC/Comm/SLP/Module_7/Ch.1_Notes/Pg.54
 Basics of Analog Communication Systems & Amplitude Modulation

(b) Operation
The block diagram of SSB generator using filter method is as shown above.
It consists of balanced modulator followed by sideband separation filter. To the
balanced modulator we apply the modulating signal and a low frequency carrier
(f0 = 100 KHz). The output of the balanced modulator contains sum and
difference frequencies (DSB-SC). If f(t) is an AF signal whose frequency range is
from 300 Hz to 3 KHz we get at the output of the balanced modulator frequency
in the range of 97 to 99.7 KHz (LSB) and 100.3 to 103 KHz (USB). Assume that
we want to transmit only USB. We should have a sideband separation filter
working in that frequency range. The lowest frequency the sideband separation
filter should pass without attenuation is 100.3 KHz whereas the highest
frequency sideband separation filter should attenuate is 99.7 KHz.

Therefore, the response of filter should change from stopband to passband within
600 Hz frequency range and is practically not possible to design a filter having a
sharp cut off characteristics and the situation becomes worse when we want to
modulate low frequency signal in the range of 50 Hz.

The sideband filter can be made up of crystal, ceramic or mechanical. Since

crystal and ceramic filters are used only in the frequency range of 1 MHz to 10
MHz, they do not have the required passband characteristics for sideband
separation. Hence we use mechanical filters which can be used up to 500 KHz
maximum, they have good passband characteristics, small in size and good
attenuation outside the passband.

When f0 increases the required Q of the filter circuit also increases, at

high values of f0 it is not practically possible to achieve the required Q.

Using the sideband separation filter we select USB or LSB depending upon filter
characteristics. But this frequency range is not sufficient for transmission. Hence
the sideband selection is done at low frequency. The SSB output is frequency
translated on the high frequency side by using a balanced mixer. Here we
generate a high frequency carrier Fcl using a crystal oscillator followed by a
frequency synthesizer and this carrier frequency is added to SSB output. Hence
the output frequency of balanced mixer is Fcl + F0 + fm.
The presence of balanced makes it possible to tune the transmitter to the centre
frequency fc. Hence large number of stations can be operated simultaneously.
The output of this balanced mixer continuously varies with respect to time. To
increase the output and prevent the harmonic generation class B power amplifier
is required.

x Here class B amplifier is used at the output stage.

x Class C amplifier cannot be used at the output stage because its
output contains harmonic frequencies. Hence, we cannot separate out
the required sidebands.

GATE/EC/Comm/SLP/Module_7/Ch.1_Notes/Pg.55
Vidyalankar : GATE – EC

(c) Types of Filters

(1) Crystal Filters
X1
Minimum
attenuation
T1 T2 0

Attenuation (db)
X3 X4
Input C1 L L C2
spectrum
C2 L L C1 output Maximum Maximum
spectrum attenuation
attenuation
X2
60
Lower Upper
(a) cutoff frequency cutoff frequency
(b)
Fig. Crystal lattice (a) schematic diagram; (b) characteristic curve

x The crystal lattice filter is commonly used in SSB systems

• Crystals X1 and X2 are series connected, whereas X3 and X4 are connected
in parallel.
x X1 and X2 operate at filter lower cutoff frequency, and X3 and X4 operate at
upper cutoff frequency.
• The input and output transformers are tuned to the center of the desired
passband.
• C1 and C2 are used to correct for any overspreading of frequency difference
under matched crystal conditions.
• The operation of the crystal filter is similar to the operation of a bridge circuit.
x At the frequency where the reactances have equal magnitudes and opposite
signs, the signal is propagated through the network with maximum amplitude.
• Above figure (b) shows a typical characteristics curve for a crystal lattice
bandpass filter. Crystal filters are available with a Q as high as 100,000, with
typical insertion loss is between 1.5 dB and 3 dB.

(2) Ceramic Filters

• Ceramic filters are made from lead zirconate-titanate, which exhibits the
piezoelectric effect.
• Ceramic filters do not have as high a Q-factor. Typical Q values for ceramic
filters go up to about 2000.
• Ceramic filters are less expensive, smaller, and more rugged than their
crystal lattice counterparts.
• Ceramic filters have more loss typically between 2 dB and 4 dB.
• They have excellent immunity to variations in environmental conditions with
minimum variation in operating characteristics.

GATE/EC/Comm/SLP/Module_7/Ch.1_Notes/Pg.56
 Basics of Analog Communication Systems & Amplitude Modulation

(3) Mechanical Filters

L C L C L C L C

Input R R Output
C1 C1 C1

Mechanical filter equivalent circuit

x A mechanical filter is a mechanically resonant transducer.
x Essentially, 4 elements comprise a mechanical filter
i) an input transducer
ii) a series of mechanical resonant metal diodes
iii) a coupling rod
iv) output transducer
• The resonant frequency of the filter is determined by the series LC disks, and
C1 determines the bandwidth.
x Mechanical filters are more rugged than either ceramic or crystal filters and
have comparable frequency response characteristics.
• However, mechanical filters are larger and heavier and, therefore, are
impractical for mobile communications equipment.

(4) Surface Acoustic Wave Filters : (SAW Filters)

x SAW filters trap or guide acoustical wave along a surface.
x They can operate at centre frequencies up to several GHz and bandwidths
upto 50 MHz.
x SAW filters have extremely steep rolloff characteristics and typically
attenuate frequencies outside their passband between 30 dB and 50 dB
more than the signals within their passband.
• The predominant disadvantage of SAW filters is their extremely high insertion
loss, which is typically between 25 dB and 35 dB.
• SAW filters also exhibit a much longer delay time than their electronic
counterparts (approximately 20,000 times as long).

(ii) Phase Shift Method

(a) Block Diagram Balanced cos[(ωc  ω m )t  90]  cos[(ωc  ω m )t  90]
Modulator
M1
AF in Audio
amplifier 2 cos[(Z c  Z m ) t  90]
Carrier
90q phase Adder SSB To
shifter (USB o/p) power
amplifier
Carrier
source
AF Balanced
(Wide-band) modulator
90q phase M2
shifter
cos[(ωc  ω m )t  90]  cos[(ωc  ω m )t  90]

GATE/EC/Comm/SLP/Module_7/Ch.1_Notes/Pg.57
Vidyalankar : GATE – EC

(b) Operation
• The circuit consists of two identical balanced modulator. To balanced
modulator 1 we apply the signal f(t) directly along with the carrier which is
phase shifted by 90q. Output of balanced modulator 1 :
cos[(ωc  ωm )t  90]  cos[(ωc  ωm )t  90]

• To the balanced modulator 2 we apply the signal f(t) which is phase shifted
by 90q along with carrier. The output of balanced modulator 2 :
cos[(ωc  ωm )t  90]  cos[(ωc  ωm )t  90]

Hence the output of the two balanced modulators contain DSBSC.

• But it is seen that the upper sidebands are in phase and LSB's are out of
phase. One of the LSB lead or lag by 90q with respect to the reference phase
zero. Then the output of balanced modulators are combined in an adder, it
can be seen that two LSB's cancel each other and output contains only USB.
2 cos[(Zc  Zm )t  90]

This is SSBSC output.

• This SSBSC is fed to linear power amplifier such as class B to increase the
power output.

• In practice, it is difficult to design such a phase shift-network over a wide

enough frequency range of the modulation wave m(t) to be useful for most
applications. The above drawback can be avoided by the Third method.

Note : A similar analysis shows that SSB with the lower sideband present will
be obtained if both signals are fed (Phase-shifted) to the one balanced
modulator.

Phase shift method is used in HAM radio.

GATE/EC/Comm/SLP/Module_7/Ch.1_Notes/Pg.58
 Basics of Analog Communication Systems & Amplitude Modulation

(iii) Third Method (Weaver’s Method)

(a) Block Diagram

DSBSC
Balanced B C Balanced
low-pass
Modulator Modulator
filter
M1 M3
cos Z0t cos Zct

90q phase 90q phase

shifter shifter

sin Z0t A D
AF in Adder
SSB out
sin Z0t sin Zct
AF carrier RF carrier
generator generator

Balanced E F Balanced
Modulator low-pass Modulator
M2 filter M4
DSBSC
(b) Operation
The drawback of phase shift method is that we need a wide band phase shifter
for the modulation signal, which can cause distortion in output waveform, but it is
simple in construction. Hence the phase shift method is modified to generate
SSB using Weaver's method.

Here the signal f(t) is directly applied to BM1 and BM2. To BM1 a low
frequency RF carrier is applied after providing the 90q phase shift. To BM2 the
RF of carrier f0 is directly applied. Hence output contains sum and difference
frequency. The outputs of both the modulators are passed through low pass filter.
Hence the input to BM3 is the low frequency cos[(Z0  Zm )t  90] and input at
BM4 is cos[(ω0  ωm )t] .
These two signals are mixed with the high frequency RF carrier fc. 90q phase
shift is provided to carrier which is applied to BM3 and the carrier fc is directly
applied to BM4. The output of both the modulators contains sum and difference
frequency i.e. DSBSC. It is seen that the LSB's are out of phase where as the
USB's are in phase. The LSB cancel out in the adder, we get only USB output.
cos[(Zc - ω0 )  ωm ]t

Note: The circuit is very complex.

GATE/EC/Comm/SLP/Module_7/Ch.1_Notes/Pg.59
Vidyalankar : GATE – EC

COMPARISON OF SSB GENERATORS

Filter Method
Advantages :
x It gives adequate sideband suppression (50 dB)
x The sideband filter also helps to attenuate the carrier, adding a safety feature which
is not present in the other 2 methods.
x The bandwidth is sufficiently flat and wide enough.
Disadvantages:
x It cannot be used for low frequency audio modulation.
x Too expensive, used for suppressing one of the sideband depending on the required
sideband.
x The main drawback of the system is its inability to generate SSB at very high radio
frequency so that repeated mixing is required along with highly stable local
oscillators.
x The big disadvantage of this system is size (bulky) which can be avoided by using
crystal filters and small mechanical filters of good quality.

Filter method is an excellent method to generate SSB for commercial

purpose and is used in radio communication.

Phase Shift Method

Advantages :
x The phase cancellation system is introduced to overcome the bulk size of the LC filters.
x There is an ease of switching from one sideband to other and this method has the
ability to generate SSB at any frequency and hence mixing is not required.
x Very low audio frequency can be modulated using this method.
Disadvantages
x In the circuit there is a critical AF phase shifting network, where as the RF phase
shifting network operates only at one frequency. It can be a simple RC network but
the audio phase shift network is much more complex network as it works over a large
frequency range. If the phase shift provided to the signal is other than 90q at any
frequency, then that particular frequency will not be removed from the unwanted
sideband. Hence great care in adjustment is required.
x The system have two balanced modulators which will produce exactly the same
output otherwise phase cancellation will not be complete.
x System layout is quite critical in the phase shift system.

The phase shift method is not used for commercial application. But it is used
for amateur radio where circuit requires filters which are less expensive.

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 Basics of Analog Communication Systems & Amplitude Modulation

Third Method
Advantages
x The third method requires no sideband separation filter or wideband audio phase
shift network.
x The sidebands can be switched easily but it requires an extra crystal oscillator.
Disadvantage
x Direct coupling is required to avoid loss of signal components at low frequency.
x The system is more complex of the 3 methods.

The biggest disadvantage of the system is that the filter method works so well for
meeting the present day requirement.

SSB DEMODULATION
To recover the baseband signal m(t) from the SSB wave s(t), can be accomplished by
using coherent detection, which involves applying the SSB wave s(t), together with a
locally generated sine wave Acc cos(2Sfct), to a product modulator and then low-pass
filtering the modulator output, as shown in the following figure.

SSB wave Product v(t) Low-pass

s(t) vo(t)
modulator filter

Acc cos (2Sfct)

Block diagram of Coherent detector for SSB wave

Product modulator output is given by,
1
v(t) = A c Acc cos(2Sfc t)[m(t)cos(2Sfc t)  m(t)sin(2
ˆ Sfc t)]
2
1 1
= A c Acc m(t)  A c Acc [m(t)cos(4Sfc t)  m(t)sin(4
ˆ Sfc t)] …(1)
4 4
The first term in equation (1) is the desired demodulated signal, whereas the second term
represents an SSB wave corresponding to a carrier frequency 2fc. The frequency
translations involved in equation (1) are illustrated in the below figure.
V(f) 1
A c A cc M ( 0 )
4

2fc W 2fc W 0 W 2fc 2fc +W f

Spectrum of the product modulator output v(t) in the coherent detector

GATE/EC/Comm/SLP/Module_7/Ch.1_Notes/Pg.61
Vidyalankar : GATE – EC

The high-frequency components in equation (1) are removed by the low-pass filter shown
in block diagram, thereby yielding the desired base-band signal.

Any error in the frequency or the phase of the local oscillator signal in the receiver, with
respect to the carrier wave, gives rise to distortion in the demodulated signal.

The effect of frequency error 'f in the local oscillator may be interpreted as follows:
• If the incoming SSB wave s(t) contains the lower sideband and the frequency error 'f
is positive, or equivalently if s(t) contains the upper sideband and 'f is negative, then
the frequency components of the demodulated signal vo(t) are shifted outward by the
amount 'f, compared with the base-band signal m(t). This is illustrated in below
figure (b).
• If the incoming SSB wave s(t) contains the upper sideband and the frequency error 'f is
positive, or equivalently if s(t) contains the lower sideband and 'f negative, then the
frequency components of the demodulated signal vo(t) are shifted inward by the amount
'f, compared with the baseband signal m(t). This is illustrated in below figure (c).
M(f)

M(fa)

f
fb fa 0 fa fb
(a) Spectrum of base-band signal
Vo(f)

1 c
Ac AcM(fa )
4

f
fb  'f fa  'f 0 fa + 'f fa + 'f
(b)

Vo(f)

1 c
Ac AcM(fa )
4

fb + 'f fa + 'f 0 fa  'f fa  'f

(c)

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 Basics of Analog Communication Systems & Amplitude Modulation

Consider next the effect of a phase error I in the local oscillator signal with reference to
the carrier wave used to generate the incoming SSB wave s(t).

We find that the resulting demodulated signal is given by (for the case when the upper
sideband only is transmitted)
1
v o (t) A c Acc ⎡⎣m(t)cos I  m(t)sin
ˆ I⎤⎦
4
It is evident that the demodulated signal vo(t) contains an unwanted component
proportional to m̂(t)sin I, which cannot be removed by filtering. This distortion appears as
a phase distortion.

Thus the error in the phase of the local oscillator signal results in phase distortion, where
each frequency component of m(t) undergoes a constant phase shift at the demodulator
output. This gives rise to a Donald Duck voice effect. In the transmission of music and
video signals, on the other hand, phase distortion in the form of a constant phase
difference in all components can be intolerable.

SSB RECEIVERS
(i) BFO Receiver : (Non Coherent) (Beat Frequency Oscillator)

Receive
antenna

RF amplifier IF amp. and Second

Demodulated
and RF mixer bandpass Product
information
preselector filter detector

RF local BFO
osc.

Above figure shows the block diagram for a simple noncoherent single-sideband BFO
receiver. The selected radio-frequency spectrum is amplified and then mixed down to
intermediate frequencies for further amplification and band reduction. The output from the
IF amplifier stage is heterodyned (beat) with the output from a beat frequency oscillator
(BFO). The BFO frequency is equal to the IF carrier frequency; thus, the difference
between the IF and the BFO frequencies is the information signal.

Consequently, any difference between the transmitter and receiver local oscillator
frequencies produces a frequency offset error in the demodulated information signal. For
example, if the receive local oscillator is 100 Hz above its designated frequency and the
BFO is 50 Hz above its designated frequency, the restored information is offset 150 Hz
from its original frequency spectrum. Fifty hertz or more offset is distinguishable by a
normal listener as a tonal variation.

GATE/EC/Comm/SLP/Module_7/Ch.1_Notes/Pg.63
Vidyalankar : GATE – EC

A product modulator and product detector are essentially the same circuit. The only
difference is that the input to a product modulator is tuned to a low-frequency modulating
signal and the output is tuned to a high-frequency modulated carrier, whereas with a
product detector, the input is tuned to a high-frequency modulated carrier and the output
is tuned to a low-frequency information signal.

Example :
For the BFO receiver shown in above figure, a received RF frequency band of 30 MHz to
30.005 MHz, an RF local oscillator frequency of 20 MHz, an IF frequency band of 10 MHz
to 10.005 MHz, and a BFO frequency of 10 MHz, determine
(a) Demodulated first IF frequency band and modulated information frequency band.
(b) Demodulated information frequency band if the RF local oscillator frequency drifts
down 0.001%.
Solution :
(a) The IF output from the RF mixer is the difference between the received signal
frequency and the RF local oscillator frequency or
fIF = (30 MHz to 30.005 MHz)  20 MHz = 10 MHz to 10.005 MHz
The demodulated information signal spectrum is the difference between the
intermediate frequency band and the BFO frequency or
Fm = (10 MHz to 10.005 MHz)  10 MHz = 0 kHz to 5 kHz

(b) A 0.001% drift would cause a decrease in the RF local oscillator frequency of
'f = (0.00001) (20 MHz) = 200 Hz
Thus, the RF local oscillator frequency would drift down to 19.9998 Hz, and the
output from the RF mixer is
FIF = (30 MHz to 30.005 MHz)  19.9998 MHz
= 10.0002 MHz to 10.0052 MHz
The demodulated information signal spectrum is the difference between the
intermediate frequency band and the BFO or
fm = (10.0002 MHz to 10.0052 MHz)  10 MHz
= 200 Hz to 5200 Hz
The 0.001 % drift in the RF local oscillator frequency caused a corresponding 200-Hz
error in the demodulated information signal spectrum.

(ii) SSB Envelope Detection Receiver (Coherent)

Receive Envelope
antenna

RF amplifier IF amp. and Linear Envelope

and RF mixer
bandpass summer (peak)
preselector filter detector Demodulated
information
LO

RF Carrier recovery IF
and frequency
synthesizer

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 Basics of Analog Communication Systems & Amplitude Modulation

The reduced carrier pilot is detected, separated from the demodulated spectrum, and
regenerated in the carrier recovery circuit.

The receive RF is mixed down to IF in the first detector. A regenerated IF carrier is added
to the IF spectrum in the last linear summer, which produces a SSB full-carrier envelope.
The envelope is demodulated in a conventional peak diode detector to produce the
original information signal spectrum. This type of receiver is often called an exalted
carrier receiver.

ADVANTAGES OF SSB TRANSMISSION

There are 4 advantages of SSB transmission
1. Bandwidth Conservation :
Since SSB requires only half the bandwidth as compare to DSB transmission, lot of
bandwidth is saved.

2. Power Conservation :
Since only one sideband is transmitted, the total power is less than the total power in
DSB.

3. Selective Conservation :
When only one sideband is transmitted, carrier phase shift and carrier fading cannot
occur and sideband fading only changes demodulated signal. These changes
generally do not produce much distortion to greatly effect the message signal.

4. Noise Reduction :
Since a SSB system utilizes half as much bandwidth of conventional AM, the thermal
noise power N = KB is reduced to half that of a DSB system.
Note : SSB systems enjoy approximately a 12 dB S/N ratio advantage over
conventional AM.

DISADVANTAGES OF SSB TRANSMISSION

There are two major disadvantages of single sideband reduced or suppressed carrier
transmission as compared to conventional double sideband full carrier transmission.
Complex Receivers
Single sideband systems require more complex and expensive receivers than
conventional AM transmission. This is because most single  sideband transmissions
include either a reduced or suppressed carrier; thus, envelope detection cannot be used
unless the carrier is regenerated at an exalted level. Single sideband receivers require a
carrier recovery and synchronization circuit, such as a PLL frequency synthesizer, which
adds to their cost, complexity and size.
Tuning Difficulties
Single sideband receivers require more complex and precise tuning than conventional
AM receivers. This is undesirable for the average user. This disadvantage can be
overcome by using more accurate, complex and expensive tuning circuits.

GATE/EC/Comm/SLP/Module_7/Ch.1_Notes/Pg.65
Vidyalankar : GATE – EC

VESTIGIAL SIDEBAND (VBS)

The major advantage of the SSBSC modulation is that it reduces the bandwidth
requirement to half as compared to DSBSC modulation. But SSBSC signals are
relatively difficult to generate due to the difficulty in isolating the desired sideband. The
filter must have a very sharp cut off characteristics particularly when the baseband signal
contains very low frequencies eg : TV and Telegraph signals. This difficulty is overcomed
by VSB modulation, which is a compromise between SSBSC and DSBSC modulation.
x Modulation of VSB
In VSB modulation, the desired sideband is allowed to pass completely, where as a
part (trace/Vestige) of the undesired sideband is also allowed as shown. The
transmitted Vestige of the undesired sideband compensates for the loss of the
required sideband. It is seen from the fig. that the filter required need not have a
sharp cut off, which is the advantage of VSB system. But compared to SSBSC the
bandwidth of VSB is slightly larger, but less than that of DSBSC.

Sound carrier
(width = 50 KHz)
Relative amplitude

0.
video
lower
side video upper sideband
band
0 0.5 1.25 relative channel freq. 5.25 5.75 6
0.75 4 MHz
MHz 4.5 MHz

Picture carrier Sound carrier

frequency frequency
1
Relative response

Note : This portion of

upper sideband is
0. partly attenuated
frequency

0 1.25 2.5 video freq. 5.25 5.75 6

4 MHz
As per the CCIRB system followed in India, Video bandwidth is 7 MHz and for a
DSBSC system, the total BW = 10 MHz and in VHF band1, extending from 4068
MHz not even 3 channels can be located. By suppressing the other sideband
containing identical picture details, more channels can be accommodated.
The system is a compromise between DSB and SSB which requires a complex receiving
equipment. In the channel of 7 MHz bandwidth, the video carrier is 1.25 MHz from the
lower cut off frequency. The 1.25 MHz below the video carrier is called VSB.

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 Basics of Analog Communication Systems & Amplitude Modulation

x Demodulation of VSB
VSB signal can be demodulated using a synchronous demodulator. However, it turns
out that we can demodulate a VSB signal with a small amount of signal distortion
using envelope demodulation if a sufficiently large carrier component had been
added to the VSB signal at the transmitter.

VSB wave Product v(t) Low-pass

s(t) vo(t)
modulator filter

Acc cos (2Sfct)

Block diagram of Coherent detector for VSB wave

Commercial TV broadcast use VSB + carrier with a 30% vestigial sideband.

INDEPENDENT SIDEBAND TRANSMISSION (ISB)

In ISB transmission we consider two signals f1(t) and f2(t) having a bandwidth of Zm,
modulated by the same carrier frequency Zc. The modulation is done with the help of
balanced modulator as shown.

USB
LPF BM1 filter
f1(t)

Zc 6 ISB o/p

f2(t) LSB
LPF BM2 filter

The output of BM1 and BM2 contains the respective USB and LSB. We select the
USB of BM1 and LSB of BM2 by using the respective sideband filter and the two
signals are added in adder, whose output contains the two spectrum centred around Zc.

The USB carries information regarding f1(t) and LSB carries information regarding f2(t).
The required bandwidth to transmit both the messages equals 2Zm, thus we transmit two
messages simultaneously over a single line this type of modulation is called ISB or B8E.

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Complete block diagram for ISB system :

The ISB system is used for low or medium density traffic such as point to point
communication and carrier communication. The ISB consists of single sideband reduced
carrier with the 2 sideband channel added to form the 2 sideband and the carrier is
reduced by providing an attenuation of 26 dB. It can be seen that each sideband is quite
independent of the other.
The channel A and B takes the base band signal of 4 KHz bandwidth. The signals are
amplified by channel amplifiers and is given to the respective balanced modulator (BM).
ISB drive unit
3 MHz
Crystal
Channel BM 1 USB filter (100 104) KHz
Oscillator
A A Amp

4KHz

BM 3
Pilot Mixer
RF carrier
100 KHz 26 dB Carrier
crystal Attenuation 100 Adder
oscillator KHz
3.1 MHz
Amp &
filter
4KHz
B (96-100 KH3)
Channel B
BM 2 LSB filter
Amp

BM4
ISB Output Linear Mixer
fc power Crystal
Amp oscillator
synthesizer
7.1 o 26.9
MHz
LSB USB ISB Modulator Buffer
Transmitted signal

Each BM also receives a carrier of 100 KHz generated by a crystal oscillator. The output
of is passed through the respective sideband filter. The carrier is reduced by 26 dB and
the output of the filter alongwith a reduced carrier is given to an adder. The 100 KHz
reduced carrier will be the pilot carrier. The main purpose of the sideband filter is to
suppress one of the sidebands and is made of mechanical filters. The output of adder is
mixed with a 3 MHz crystal oscillator frequency in a balanced mixer. Hence output signal
frequency is translated to 3.1 MHz [centre frequency] and this is the output of the ISB
drive unit. For simultaneous operation of different stations we need the transmitters to be
tunable. This is done by using the ISB modulation. It consists of a high frequency crystal
oscillator synthesizer in the frequency range 7.1 to 26.9 MHz which is buffered and fed to
the balanced mixer alongwith the signal from ISB drive unit.

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 Basics of Analog Communication Systems & Amplitude Modulation

The output of balanced mixer contains the two sidebands at the

transmission frequency and is fed to linear power amplifier to increase the
power output.

Practical Block Diagram

A B
27 .8MHz
A 27.795 MHz 27.805 MHz
BPF A 95k 100k Transmit
Channel A A ~ antenna
Input ~ A B A B
0kHz5kHz Balanced
modulator ~ 95k 100k 105k 2795k 2800k 2805k

BPF BPF
Hybrid Linear 3 ~ 4 ~
100kHz ~ ~
network summer Balanced
LF osc Balanced ~ ~
modulator modulated
Crrier
Reinsert
switch
2.7MHz 25MHz
MF osc HF osc
BPF B
Channel B B ~
Input Balanced
~
0kHz5kHz Modulator
~
B
100k 105k

Fig. ISB transmitter : block diagram

The ISB system is used for low or medium density traffic such as point to
point communication.

MULTIPLEXING

Multiplexing is a technique whereby a number of independent signals can be combined

into a composite signal suitable for transmission over a common channel. This is
accomplished by separating the signals either in frequency or in time. The technique of
separating the signals in frequency is referred to as frequency-division multiplexing
(FDM), whereas the technique of separating the signals in time is called time-division
multiplexing (TDM, see chapter 4).

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Frequency-Division Multiplexing (FDM)

Message Low-pass Band-pass Band-pass Low-pass Message

Modulators Demodulators
Input filters filters filters filters Output

1 LP MOD BP BP MOD LP 1

2 LP MOD BP BP MOD LP 2
Common
Channel

N LP MOD BP BP MOD LP N

Carrier Carrier
Supply Supply

Transmitter Receiver

Block diagram of FDM system

A block diagram of an FDM system is shown in above figure.
• The incoming message signals are assumed to be of the low-pass type, but their
spectra do not necessarily have nonzero values all the way down to zero frequency.
• Following each signal input, we have shown a low-pass filter which is designed to
remove high-frequency components that do not contribute significantly to signal
representation but are capable of disturbing other message signals that share the
common channel.
• The filtered signals are applied to modulators which shift the frequency ranges of the
signals so as to occupy mutually exclusive frequency intervals. The necessary carrier
frequencies, to perform these frequency translations, are obtained from a carrier
supply.
• For the modulation, we may use any one of the process described in previous
sections of this chapter. However, the most widely used method of modulation in
frequency-divison multiplexing is single-sideband modulation.

The band-pass filters following the modulators are used restrict the band of each
modulated wave to its prescribed range. The resulting band-pass filter outputs are next
combined in parallel to form the input to the common channel. At the receiving terminal, a
bank of band-pass filters, with their inputs connected in parallel is used to separate the
message signals on a frequency-occupancy basis.

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 Basics of Analog Communication Systems & Amplitude Modulation

Finally, the original message signals are recovered by individual demodulators. Note that
the FDM system shown in above figure operates in only one direction. To provide for two-
way transmission, as in telephony for example, we have to completely duplicate the
multiplexing facilities, with the components connected in reverse order and with the signal
waves proceeding from right to left.

Example

The practical implementation of an FDM system usually involves many steps of

modulation and demodulation, as illustrated in following figure. The first multiplexing step
combines 12 voice inputs into a basic group; which is formed by having the nth input
modulate a carrier at frequency fc = 112  4n kHz, where n = 1, 2, …, 12.

The lower sidebands are then selected by band-pass filtering and combined to form a
group of 12 lower sidebands (one for each voice input). Thus the basic group occupies
the frequency band 60108 kHz.

The next step in the FDM hierarchy involves the combination of 5 basic groups into a
supergroup. This is accomplished by using the nth group to modulate a carrier at
frequency fc = 372 + 48n kHz, where n = 1, 2, … 5. Here again the lower sidebands are
selected by filtering and then combined to form a supergroup occupying the band
312552 kHz. Thus a supergroup is designed to accommodate 60 independent voice
inputs. The reason for forming the supergroup in this manner is that economical filters of
the required characteristics are available only over a limited frequency range. In a similar
manner, supergroups are combined into mastergroups, mastergroups are combined into
very large groups.

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LIST OF FORMULAE
x Expression of AM :

S t A c ⎡⎣1  k a m t ⎦⎤ cos 2Sfc t

x Modulation Index :
Vmax  Vmin
m =
Vmax  Vmin

⎛ m2 ⎞
x Pt Pc ⎜ 1  ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠

x meff m12  m2 2  m3 2  ...  mn2

x For proper working of diode detector

1 1
 RC 
Zc Zm

x Optimum value of RC
1
RC =
Zm Zc
x Demodulation index
I
md m
Ic

x The Hilbert transform of g(t) is

f
1 g(W)
ĝ(t) ∫ t  W dW
S f
where ĝ(t) is Hilbert transform of g(t).

x The inverse Hilbert transform is

f
1 g(t)ˆ
g(t) =  ∫ t  W dW
S f

x Preenvelope of a signal m(t) is defined as

mt (t) = m(t)  jm(t)

ˆ

where m̂(t) is Hilbert transform of m(t).

f
1 m(z)
m̂(t) = ∫ t  z dz
S f

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 Basics of Analog Communication Systems & Amplitude Modulation

x For transmitting USB of SSB signal,

A
s(t) = c ⎣⎡m(t)cos 2Sfc t  m(t)sin2
ˆ Sfc t ⎦⎤
2
x For transmitting LSB of SSB signal,
A
s(t) = c ⎡⎣m(t)cos 2Sfc t  m(t)sin2
ˆ Sfc t ⎤⎦
2
x s(t) = sI (t) cos (2Sfc t)  sQ (t)sin(2Sfc t)

x DSBSC : s(t) = A c m(t)cos(2Sfc t)

1
S(f) = A c >M(f  fc )  M(f  fc )@
2

LMR (LAST MINUTE REVISION)

x The term communication refers to sending, receiving and processing of information

by electric means.
x Any periodic signal f(t) having a fundamental period T0 can be represented as an
infinite sum of sinusoidal waveforms. This summation is called Fourier series. The
spectrum obtained here is a series of impulses.
x The concept of Fourier Transform is used for nonperiodic signals. The spectrum
obtained is a continuous spectrum.
x According to the modulation property, multiplication of any signal f(t) by cos Z0t or sin
Z0t results in frequency shifting of Fourier Transform of f(t); one shifted to the left by Z0
and the other shifted to the right by Z0, each part having half the amplitude of F(Z).
x No real information is conveyed by a redundant message or totally predictable
message.
x The Fourier series of a periodic function consists of summation of harmonics of
1
fundamental frequency f0 = . The coefficients Cn in the above expression are
T0
called spectral amplitudes.
x Amplitude modulation is defined as a process in which the amplitude of the carrier
wave c(t) is varied about a mean value, linearly with the base band signal m(t).
x Trapezoidal patterns are used for observing the modulation characteristics of AM
transmitters. Modulating signal is applied to the horizontal input of the oscilloscope
and AM signal is applied to the vertical input.
x Carrier shift is a form of amplitude distortion introduced when the positive and
negative alternations in the AM modulated signal are not equal (i.e. non symmetrical
modulation).
x For AM generation, the concept of flywheel effect is used.

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x The rectifier detector operation is similar to that of multiplication of the AM signal by

high frequency carrier.
x Sensitivity is the ability of radio receiver to amplify weak signals. It is measured at
30% modulation by a 400 Hz sine wave. The standard output is 50 mV.
x Selectivity is the ability of receiver to reject unwanted signals. Conditions for
measuring selectivity are same as that used for sensitivity.
x In linear modulation, both sI (t) and sQ (t) are lowpass signals that are linearly
related to the message signal m(t).
x The role of the quadrature component (if present) is merely to interfere with the
inphase component, so as to reduce or eliminate power in one of the sidebands of
the modulated signal s(t), depending on how the quadrature component is defined.
x In DSBSC, the modulated signal s(t) undergoes a phase reversal whenever the
message signal x(t) crosses zero.
x The desired DSBSC AM signal u(t) is obtained by passing v 0 (t) through a
bandpass filter with center frequency fc and bandwidth 2W, where W is the bandwidth
of baseband signal.
x The zero demodulated signal occurs for I = rS/2 and it is called quadrature null effect
of coherent detection.
x In generation of SSB using filter method class B amplifier is used at the output stage.
Class C amplifier cannot be used at the output stage because its output contains
harmonic frequencies. Hence, we cannot separate out the required sidebands
x The system performance of phase shift method becomes poor because of the phase
shift introduced in the signal f(t).
x There are 4 advantages of SSB transmission are Bandwidth Conservation, Power
Conservation, Selective Conservation & Noise Reduction.
x The SSB Envelope Detection Receiver is often called an exalted receiver.
x A modulation scheme that offers the best compromise between bandwidth
conservation, improved low frequency response and improved power efficiency is
vestigial sideband modulation (VSB).
x The ISB system is used for low or medium density traffic such as point to point
communication
x Notations
1. Double side bandfull carrier o A3E
2. Single side bandsuppressed carrier o A3J
3. Vestigial side band o C3F.

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 Basics of Analog Communication Systems & Amplitude Modulation

ASSIGNMENT  1

Duration : 45 mins Marks : 30

Q 1 to Q 6 carry one mark each

1. The efficiency of AM for modulation index m = 0.8 is

(A) 0.28 (B) 0.32
(C) 0.4 (D) 0.24

2. Practically, a trapezoidal display of AM can be obtained on oscilloscope if the

modulated carrier is fed to _____ plates and modulating signal to _______
plates.
(A) horizontal, vertical
(B) vertical, horizontal
(C) a or b
(D) trapezoidal display cannot be obtained

3. In an AM modulator, the peak to peak value of unmodulated carrier is 6V. If the

modulation index is 35% then the root mean square value of the total voltage is
(A) 2.25 (B) 2.18
(C) 3.09 (D) None of the above

4. The percentage reduction in the transmitted power when modulation index is

changed from 1 to 0 is
(A) 50% (B) 33%
(C) 67% (D) 0%

5. For _______ transmission through a system its magnitude function should be

constant and phase function should be linear function for all frequencies
(A) distortionless (B) lossless
(C) (A) and (B) both (D) None of the above

6. Consider the following :

v(t)ejZc t mo V(f  fc ) Zc 2Sfc

The above operation is called

(A) Frequency translation (B) Complex modulation
(C) Both (A) & (B) (D) None of the above

Q7 to Q18 carry two marks each

7. In an AM wave, the maximum amplitude is 0.75 V and minimum amplitude is

0.25 V. The modulation index is
(A) 0.5 (B) 0.33
(C) 0.66 (D) 1

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8 The amplitude of a carrier varies in accordance with the amplitudes of 2 signals

having modulation indices 0.6 and 0.8. If power in unmodulated carrier is P C, the
total sideband power is
(A) PC/4 (B) PC
(C) PC/2 (D) 0.7 PC

9. DSBFC is also known as

(A) J3E (B) R3E
(C) H3E (D) None of these

10. The Column-1 lists the attributes and the column-2 lists the modulation
systems. Match the attribute to the modulation system that best meets it.
Column-1 Column-2
P. Power efficient transmission of signals I. Conventional AM
Q. Most bandwidth efficient transmission of voice signals II. FM
R. Simplest receiver structure III. VSB
S. Bandwidth efficient transmission of signals with IV SSB-SC
significant dc component.
(A) P-IV, Q-II, R-I, S-III (B) P-II, Q-IV, R-I, S-III
(C) P-III, Q-II, R-I, S-IV (D) P-II, Q-IV, R-III, S-I

11. Quadrature null effect is a feature of

(A) Coherent detection (B) Non Coherent detection
(C) Both (A) and (B) (D) Square law demodulator

12. The concept of flywheel effect is used for

(A) Detection of AM (B) Generation of AM
(C) Reception of AM (D) All of the above

13. The zero crossings of an exponentially modulated wave are __________,

whereas they are __________ in linear modulation.
(A) always periodic, not periodic
(B) not periodic, sometimes periodic
(C) not periodic, always periodic
(D) sometimes not periodic, sometimes periodic

14. The signal m(t) as shown is applied both to a phase modulator (with kp as the
phase constant) and a frequency modulator (with kf as the frequency constant)
having the same carrier frequency.
The ratio k p k f (in rad/Hz) for the same
maximum phase deviation is
(A) 8S
(B) 4S
(C) 2S
(D) S

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 Basics of Analog Communication Systems & Amplitude Modulation

15. The trapezoidal display of AM wave as

seen on an oscilloscope is given below. 0.82
What is the modulation index.
(A) 0.95
(B) 0.55 0.75 0.20
(C) 0.58
(D) None of the above

0.82

16. The efficiency of an AM system for 60% modulation is

(A) 23.1 % (B) 33.33 %
(C) 8.25 % (D) 17 %

17. Quadrature component is absent in ______ modulation

(A) SSB (B) VSB
(C) DSB SC (D) Both (A) and (B)

18.
Type of Modulation Equipment complexity
(i) SSB (P) Minor
(ii) Baseband (Q) Moderate
(iii) DSB (R) Major
(iv) VSB
(v) VSB + Carrier

(i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v)

(A) Q P R Q R
(B) Q R P R Q
(C) R P Q R Q
(D) R P Q Q R

‰‰‰‰‰‰

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TEST PAPER  1

Duration : 30 mins Marks : 25

Q1 to Q5 carry one mark each

1. For an AM wave, the unit of amplitude sensitivity is

V
(A) V1 (B)
Hz
Hz
(C) (D) V
V

2. In AM, _______ is a feature of undermodulation and _______ is a feature of

overmodulation.
(A) Phase reversal, No phase reversal
(B) No phase reversal, Phase reversal
(C) No phase reversal, No phase reversal
(D) Phase reversal, Phase reversal

3. Consider an angle modulation signal

6
x(t) = 6 cos[2S u 10 t + 2 sin(8000St) + 4 cos(8000St)]V.
The average power of x(t) is
(A) 10 W (B) 18 W
(C) 20 W (D) 28 W

4. A 10 MHz carrier is frequency modulated by a sinusoidal signal of 500 Hz, the

maximum frequency deviation being 50 kHz. The bandwidth required as given by
the Carson’s rule is _______.

5. The input to a coherent detector is DSB-SC signal plus noise. The noise at the
detector output is
(A) the in-phase component (B) the quadrature-component
(C) zero (D) the envelope

Q6 to Q13 carry two marks each

6. For an AM transmitter, the total current is 9A when the current due to unmodulated
carrier is 8A. Find the modulation index if the antenna resistance is 60 :.
(A) 0.93 (B) 0.53
(C) 0.5 (D) None of these

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 Basics of Analog Communication Systems & Amplitude Modulation

7. In a square law demodulator with m(t) as modulating signal, the distortion can be
reduced when
(A) | m(t) | << 2 (B) | m(t) | = 2
(C) | m(t) | >> 2 (D) None of these

8. The spectrum of the baseband signal is as shown below

W 0 W o
For the above signal, the AM wave spectrum is as shown in figure.
(A)
1 mA
c
2

f
(fcW) fc (fc+W) 0 (fcW) fc (fc + W)

(B)
1 mA
c
2

f
(fcW) fc (fc+W) 0 (fcW) fc (fc + W)

(C)
mAc

f
(fcW) fc (fc+W) 0 (fcW) fc (fc + W)

(D)
mAc

f
(fcW) fc (fc+W) 0 (fcW) fc (fc + W)

9. The time constant of a practical envelope detector with carrier frequency 50 KHz
and modulating frequency 2 KHz should be
(A) 500 Ps (B) 200 Ps
(C) 10 Ps (D) 20 Ps

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10. In the AM wave given below,

Emax  Emin = 2V
E0 = 2V Emax
E0
Emi

Find the modulation index

(A) 0.5 (B) 1
(C) 0.25 (D) None of these

11. Carrier shift is an indication of

(A) average voltage of an AM signal
(B) shift in the carrier frequency
(C) shift in phase of the carrier
(D) average shift in the carrier frequency

12. ____ method is used for SSB generation in HAM radio

(A) Filter method (B) Phase shift method
(C) Weaver’s method (D) Third method
13. _____ is also known as exalted receiver
(A) SSB coherent receiver (B) SSB noncoherent receiver
(C) VSB coherent receiver (D) DSBSC receiver

Q14(a) & (b) carry two marks each

Linked Answer Question
14(a). The trapezoidal display of AM wave 0.82
as seen on an oscilloscope is given
below. What is the modulation index?

(A) 0.81 0.86 0.25

(B) 0.58
(C) 0.67
(D) None of these
0.82

14(b). What is the efficiency?

(A) 23.22% (B) 7.6 %
(C) 13.13% (D) 7.03%
‰‰‰‰‰‰

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