EDDY CURRENT BRAKING SYSTEM

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of degree of

DIPLOMA
IN
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
BY

Under the guidance of----------------------------

2006-2007

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

CERTIFICATE
 Register number:
_________________________

This is to certify that the project report EDDY CURRENT BRAKING

SYSTEMd “EDDY CURRENT BRAKING SYSTEM” submitted by the
following students for the award of the degree of bachelor of engineering is
record of bonafide work carried out by them.

Done by

Mr. /Ms._______________________________

In partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of degree in

Diploma/Engineering in Mechanical Engineering

During the Year – (20__-20__)

_________________ _______________
Head of Department Guide

Coimbatore –641651.
Date:

Submitted for the university examination held on

___________

_________________ ________________
Internal Examiner External Examiner
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

At this pleasing moment of having successfully completed our

project, we wish to convey our sincere thanks and gratitude to the
management of our college and our beloved chairman
…………………………………………………, who provided all the
facilities to us.
We would like to express our sincere thanks to our principal
………………………………………, for forwarding us to do our
project and offering adequate duration in completing our project.
 We are also grateful to the Head of Department Prof.
…………………………………….., for her constructive suggestions
& encouragement during our project.

With deep sense of gratitude, we extend our earnest & sincere

thanks to our guide
…………………………………………………….., Department of
Mechanical for her kind guidance & encouragement during this
project.
We also express our indebt thanks to our TEACHING and
NON TEACHING staffs of MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT,……………………….(COLLEGE NAME).

CONTENTS
CHAPTER NO PARTICULAS PAGE NO.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

1. SYNOPSIS

2. INTRODUCTION

3. COMPONENTS AND DESCRIPTION

4. WORKING PRINCIPLE

5. DESIGN AND DRAWINGS

6. LIST OF MATERIAL

7. COST ESTIMATION

8. APPLICATIONS, ADVANTAGED AND

DISADVANTAGES

9. CONCLUSION

BIBLIOGRAPHY
PHOTOGRAPHY

CHAPTER-1
 SYNOPSIS

In the automotive industry, mechanical blocking has replaced several conventional braking
methods that were originally employed. Due to the vehicle's increased friction, it causes wear,
tears, and skidding. Furthermore, because of the vehicle's high speed, the brakes are unable to
provide the required amount of braking force, which will result in issues. A cheap and efficient
braking system known as "Eddy CurrentBrakes" can be used to address these drawbacks of
conventional brakes. It is a way of stopping vehicles—including trains—without using abrasion.
It utilises eddy currents' opposing tendencies. A conductor that experiences a change in magnetic
field will create an eddy current, which is a whirling current. Eddy currents waste energy
because of their inclination to be antagonistic. Conducting material makesup an eddy current
brake.

CHAPTER-2
INTRODUCTION

Considering the green technology movement, which emphasises the need of safeguarding the
environment, switching toa new braking system is important. The new technique brakes with
much less air pollution than the current braking system, which uses brake pads. Brake dust has
the potential to harm the environment. It has been demonstrated that a number of the debris'
hazardous compounds can cause cancer by interacting with the DNA of living things.
Eddy current braking has several advantages over conventional braking techniques. It is
environmentally benign, because it prevents brake pads from too vibrating and prematurely
wearing out.
Eddy current brakes are supposedly better for the environment since they reduce brake shoe
wear, a significant source of air pollution.
BRAKING SYSTEM
Actually, vehicle can be regard as energy conversion device, which
transfers the momentum into heat, in other words, which transfers the
kinetic energy into thermal energy. The brakes are used to reduce the
speed of the vehicle, and the speed of conversion determines the rate
of the vehicle slows down.

2.2 The basic physics principle used in brake system

As we know when we step the brake pedals or handbrakes, the cars transmit the force from our
feet or hands to the brakes. Actually the car commands a stopping force ten times as Powerful the
force that puts the cat in motion. Because the brakes need a much greater force than drivers could
apply with legs, the car must multiply the force of the foot.
How could it be achieves? These two physics principles could be used: Leverage and Hydraulic
system. And how do the brakes transmit the force to the tires? How do the tires transmit the force
to the road? Both answers are using friction.
Therefore, this part will introducce these three physics principle by first:
Leverage, Hydraulics, Friction.

2.2.1Leverage
As the picture below shows, there is a force applied on the left end of
the lever. The length of the left end is twice (2X) as long as the right
end (X). Therefore, there is a force 2F on the right end. And it acts via
the distance (Y), while the left end moves twice (2Y) as long as the
3 right end. Consequently, with the change of the relative lengths of the
left and right ends of the lever, the multipliers are also changing.
2.2.2Hydraulics system

In addition, a hydraulic system is applied the brakes. The hydraulic system connects the brake
pedal to the brake parts at each wheel. The basic hydraulic system principle is simple. We can
regard it as a process that force applied at one point is transmitted to another point
by using an impressible fluid, which almost always is an oil of some sort.
As the picture above shows, 2 pistons (shown in red) are fitted into two
oil-filled glass cylinders (shown in light blue) and connected to another
one with a pipe filled with oil. When a downward force is applied to a
piston, then the force is transferred to another piston via the oil in the
pipe. The oil is almost incompressible, so that the transfer efficiency is
high.
And one advantage of the hydraulic system is that the pipe can be any
length and shape, therefore it could snake through all sorts of
components separating the two pistons. The pipe can also fork, so that
one master cylinder can drive many slave cylinders if need.

In the figure above, the master cylinder drives two slave cylinder.
One of the advantages of the hydraulic system is that it is easy to
achieve force multiplication or fore division. In a hydraulic system, you
just need to change the size of one piston and cylinder relatively. As
shown here:
In order to make sure the multiplication factor in the figure above, start
by knowing the size of the pistons. It could be assumed that the piston
on the left is 2 inches (5.08 cm) in diameter (1-inch / 2.54 cm radius),
while the piston on the right is 6 inches (15.24 cm) in diameter (3-inch
/ 7.62 cm radius). The area of the two pistons is Pi * r2. Therefore, the
area of the left piston is 3.14, the right one is 28.26. The piston on the
right is nine times larger than the piston on the left. It means that any
force applied to the left hand piston will come out nine times greater on
the right-hand piston. When applying a 100 pound downward force to
the left piston, a 900pound upward force will appear on the right. The
only thing changed is that the left piston needs to be depressed by 9
inches (22.86 cm), in order to raise the right piston by 1 inch (2.54 cm)
Then it is easy to understand a simple brake system as shown above. It
can be seen that the distance from the pedal to the pivot is 4 times the
distance from the cylinder to the pivot, so that the force at the pedal
will be increased by a factor of 4 before it is transmitted to the cylinder.
And the diameter of the brake cylinder is 3 times the diameter of the
pedal cylinder. It means the fore is further multiplied by 9. In total, the
system increases the force from your foot by a factor of 36.
Specifically, when you put 1 ponds force on the pedal, 36 pounds
(about 16.2 kg) will be generated at the wheel squeezing the brake
pads.

2.2.3Friction
Friction is measured on how hard it is to slide one object over another.
In the figure blow, both of the blocks are made from the same material,
but one is heavier. Image which one will be harder for the bulldozer to push? The idea is the heavier
one.
To understand why this is, let's take a close look at one of the blocks
and the [Link] blocks look smooth to the naked eye, but actually they are quite
rough at the microscopic level. When the block is set down on the table, the little peaks and valleys get squished
together, and some of them may actually weld together. The weight of the heavier block causes it to squish
together more, so it is even harder to slide.

So the amount of force it takes to move the given block is proportional

to that block's weight. The more weight, the more force is required.
This concept applies for devices like brakes and clutches, where a pad
is pressed against a spinning disc. The more force that presses on the
pad, the greater the stopping force.

2.3 Basic components of the brake system

The brake system is composed of the following basic components: the energy-supplying device,
the control device, the transmission device, the brake and additional retarder device, rake line
(connectingdifferent devices), and ABS (Anti-lock Braking System)
2.3.1The energy-supplying device

The energy-supplying device means supplying and adjusting the necessary energy of braking.
According to the types of energysupplying, there are three types used in automobile braking system:
muscular energy braking system (non-power braking system)
When we step the brake pedals or the handbrakes, the cars transmit the force from our feet or hands
to the brakes. The force from driver supplies the basic energy to brakes. This is non-power braking;
it just uses the force from human. For example, the bicycle is only using the
no-power braking system to supply energy. energy assisted braking system (power assisted braking
system)
2.3.2The control device
The main two control devices of braking systems are the service braking system and the parking
braking system. They have separat control and transmission [Link] services braking system
is foo operated, while the parking braking system is hand-operated.
The service brake acts to slow, stop, or hold the vehicle during norm driving. They are foot
operated by the drivers pressing or releasing brake pedal. The primary purpose of the brake is to
hold the vehicle stationary while it is unattended. The parking brake is mechanically operated,
when a separate parking brake foot pedal or hand lever is set.

2.3.3The transmission device

The transmission device is used to transmit the brake energy to brake
actuator components. According to different transfer modes, the
transmission device includes mechanical braking system, hydraulic
braking system and pneumatic braking system

2.3.4The brake

According to the different functions of braking system, two types of brakes are used in modern
cars: drum brakes and disc brakes. All cars used disc brakes on the front wheels, most cars use
drum brakes on the rear wheels. In other words, the typical brake system consists of disc brakes in
front and either disc or drum brakes in the rear connected by
a system of tubes and hoses that link the brake at each wheel to the master cylinder. The basic
components of drum brakes include: brake drum, an expander, pull back springs, a stationary back
plate, two shoes with friction linings, and anchor pins.
When using brakes, the driver needs to push the pedal, then the
expander expands the shoes and presses them to the drum. So that the
friction will appear, between the brake drum and the friction linings.
Then the friction brakes the wheels, then the vehicle stops. When the
driver releases the pedal, the brakes are released, the pullback spring
will retract the shoes, thus the wheels will be rotating freedly.
Main types of drum brakes include: Simplex drum brake (Leading
trailing shoe brake), Duo-trailing shoe brake (Two trailing shoe brake),
Double leading shoe brake, Duo-duplex drum brake (Duo two leading
shoe brake), Uni-servo drum brake, Duo-servo drum brake.
Instead of a drum, the disc brake has a metal disc and a flat shoe or
disc-brake pad, which is located on each side of the disc.
When the drivers step the pedals, the shoes squeeze the rotating disk
to stop the car. The fluid from the master cylinder forces the pistons to
move in, toward the disc. This action pushes the friction pads tightly
against the disc. And then the friction between the shoes and disk slows
and stops it. This provides the braking action. Pistons are made of
either plastic or metal.
There are three general types of disc brakes: floating-caliper type, the
fixed-caliper type and the sliding-caliper type.

2.3.5Additional retarder device

Additional retarder device is used to make the vehicles slow or keep a speed on a range during driving. The
different types of retarders include: Exhaust retarder, Hydrodynamic retarder, Electromagnetic retarder,
Traction motor retarder, Aerodynamic retarder.

2.3.6Anti-lock Brake System

Anti-lock brake systems make braking safer and more convenient, Antilock brake systems modulate hydraulic
pressure of brake system to
prevent the brakes from locking and the tires from skidding on slippery
pavement or during a panic stop. So some sources predict that all cars
will offer anti-lock brakes to improve the safety of the car.
Anti-lock systems modulate brake application force several times per
second to hold the tires at a controlled amount of slip; all systems
accomplish this in basically the same way. One or more speed sensors
generate alternating current signal whose frequency increases with the
wheel rotational speed. An electronic control unit continuously monitors
these signals and if the frequency of a signal drops too rapidly
indicating that a wheel is about to lock, the control unit instructs a
modulating device to reduce hydraulic pressure to the brake at the
affected wheel. When sensor signals indicate the wheel is again rotating
normally, the control unit allows increased hydraulic pressure to the
brake. This release-apply cycle occurs several times per second to
“pump” the brakes like a driver might but at a much faster rate.
In addition to their basic operation, anti-lock systems have two other
things in common. First, they do not operate until the brakes are
applied with enough force to lock or nearly lock a wheel. At all other
times, the system stands ready to function but does not interfere with
normal braking. Second, if the anti-lock system fails in any way, the
brakes continue to operate without anti-lock capability. A warning light
on the instrument panel alerts the driver when a problem exists in the
anti-lock system. (Automobile Brake System, 2016)

3 THE IMPACT ON THE ENVIRONMENT

As we know, all automobile brakes are friction brakes. When drivers use brakes, the control device
forces brake shoes, or pads, against the rotating brake drum or disks at wheel. Friction between
the shoes or pads and the drums or discs then slows or stops the
wheel so that the car is braked. Because of the friction, there are some problems. The main
pollution made by automobile brake system can be divided into three groups.

3.1 Air pollution

Air pollution is mainly made by the brake wear particle emissions. Traffic-related sources have
been recognized as a significant contributor of particulate matter particularly within major cities.
Non-exhaust particles can be generated either from non-exhaust sources such as
brake, tier, clutch and road surface wear or already exist in the form of deposited material at the
roadside and become resuspended due to traffic-induced turbulence. Among non-exhaust sources,
brake wear can be a significant particulate matter (PM) contributor, particularly within areas with
high traffic density and braking frequency. (Environment
Science and Pollution Research, Febrary 2015, Volume 22, issue 4, pp 2491-2504)
Nowadays, the drakes are composites of many different and even unknown ingredients, so the
brake wear particle emissions are also complicated.
TABLE 1. Trace element concentrations found in emitted brake wear
dust (Values in brackets refer to PM10 brake wear, Hildemann et al.
1991)

Some brake wear particle emissions involve the respiratory function. In

addition, some particles form brake wear are harmful or potentially
harmful for human health.
3.2 The waste of resources
The biggest drawback of braking is that it will lead to an increase in fuel
consumption. If you use brakes, then the cars need to use gas to speed
up. If you don’t use brakes, the cars can run farther.
And because all car brakes are friction brakes, this will lead to many
problems. Such as the wear of tires, brake pads and shoes. So overuse
of brakes will lead to wear faster and have to change these component sections have to be changed.

3.3 Noise pollution

Although ideally a brake would convert all the kinetic energy into heat, in practice a significant amount may be
converted into acoustic energy instead, contributing to noise pollution. Brakes usually create some minor noise
when applied, but often create
squeal or grinding noises that are quite loud.
For road vehicles, the noise produced varies significantly with tire
construction, road surface, and the magnitude of the deceleration.
Noise can be caused by different things. These are signs that there may
be issues with brakes wearing out over time. ([Link] Hogan,
Analysis of highway noise, Journal of Water, Air, & Soil Pollution,
Volume 2, Number 3, Biomedical and Life Sciences and Earth and
Environmental Science Issue, Pages 387-392, September, 1973,
Springer Verlag, Netherlands ISSN 0049-6979)

4 MARKET

According to different components of brakes, there are disc brakes and drum brakes on the market.
According to different materials of brake pads, there are four most common types: non-asbestos
organic(NAO), ceramics, semi metallic and low metallic brake pads. This chapter will introduce
the market of different brakes and brake linings.
4.1 Disc brake and drum brake

The main disadvantage of drum brakes is that the friction area is almost entirely covered by a
lining, so most heat must be conducted through the drum to reach the outside air to cool. Because
of being exposed to the air, the disc brakes radiate the heat to air easier, the disc brakes have a
greater resistance to fade (fall-off in brake efficiency due to
heat) than drum brakes. It means the disc brake could be operated continuously for a long period.
And the disc brakes have better gradual braking efficiency. There are
also some other advantages of disc brakes, such as: equal wear of the
inboard and outboard brake pads, relatively constant brake factor
performance with lower susceptibility to fading.
But the disc brakes also have some disadvantages. For example, the
disc brake has short brake pad life when used on heavy-duty
commercial vehicles, it needs higher acquisition and operating costs, it
will cause brake noise easily.
Meanwhile, drum brakes have more parts than disc brakes and are
harder to service, but they are less expensive to manufacture, and they
easily incorporate an emergency brake mechanism. The effective brake
friction area of drum brakes is bigger than that of disc brakes, so that the drum brakes have higher
braking efficiency. It is necessary for the
heavy-duty commercial vehicles.
Since 1976, all cars have used disc brakes on the front wheels, most
cars use drum brakes on the rear wheels. Because of the car is center
of gravity will move forward when braking, the front brakes need higher
braking force and better gradual braking efficiency. With the
development of economy, even though the disc brake is more
expensive to manufacture and operate, in modern passenger vehicles
are usually disc front and rear brakes are used. For saving costs, many
cars still use drum brakes.
Disc brakes have been used in most passenger cars, and now they are
being adopoted to commercial vehicles too. Besides being used in fast
coaches, the occurent disc brakes used in commercial vehicles are
primarily limited to front-axle brakes. Because when the weight of
commercial vehicles is up to about 7.5 t, which are driven in a manner
similar to passenger cars.

4.2 Brake linings

Brake linings generally comprise five main components: binders, fibres, fillers, frictional additives
or lubricants and abrasives. (Boulter 2006) Binders hold the components of the brake pad together
and ensure the structural integrity of the lining under mechanical and thermal stress. They account
for 20–40 % of the lining material. Reinforcing fibers
provide mechanical strength and structure to the lining. They usually account for 6–35 % (by mass)
of the lining material. Fillers are used in order to improve thermal and noise pad properties and
also to reduce the manufacturing cost. They account between 15 and 70% (by mass) of the lining
material. Lubricants influence the wear characteristics of
the lining. They usually make up 5-29% (by mass) of the brake lining. Abrasives are used in order to
increase friction, maintain cleanliness between contact surfaces and limit the buildup of transfer films. They
typically account for up to 10% (by mass) of the lining.
According to different lining types, there are four most common lining types are usually found in passenger
vehicles: non-asbestos organic(NAO), ceramics, semi metallic and low metallic types.

4.2.1Asbestos and organic brake pads

For many years in the past, brake linings were composed of asbestos fibers. They could offer good strength,
temperature and chemical resistance, and are cheap compared to other materials that are used for the same
purpose. But at present, no asbestos is used anymore.
Because asbestos fibers will cause serious health concerns. As the linings wear, asbestos fibers are exposed and
released as dust into the air. Asbestos fibers are long, thin and extremely small. Exposed fibers easily shred into
thin needle like strands that can drift in the air and be inhaled. The size of the fibers is such that they are not
easily filtered
out by the mucus linings in the nose and lungs. Hence, the fibers lodge deep in the lungs where their sharp
needle like presence becomes a source of constant irritation. To make matters worse, the human body cannot
rid itself of these fibers because they are impervious to
biochemical assault. So over time, exposure to asbestos dust may result in lung disease or cancer. So many
countries have banned using asbestos fibers. Organic brake pads were developed as an alternative to asbestos.
The organic brake pads also known as NAO (non-asbestos organic) brake pads. This type of brake pads were
popular on pre-FWD (front-wheel
drive) vehicles. Some common materials are used as fibers in this type pads, such as glass, rubber, carbon, and
Kevlar. The materials and tools used to manufacture organic brake pads are still the least expensive today,
which is why the majority (roughly 70%) of new cars sold in the US still come with them from the factory.
These pads are softer, create less noise, are easy on brake rotors,
produce less dust than metallic pads, and have low manufacturing cost.
These pads are suitable for normal driving/ commuting across many
environments and perfect for every day vehicles and drivers.
But meanwhile, they wear faster and create more dust than ceramic
pads, only operate well within a relatively limited temperature range,
wear out quickly compared to other types of brake pads, and quickly
lose their coefficient of friction when overheated, they are not suitable
for performance driving at all.

4.2.2Semi-metallic and low metallic brake pads

Semi-metallic brake pads are currently the most widely used brake pads, especially in north
America, almost all cars use them. They contain about 30 to 65 percent metal, typically include
chopped steel wool or wire, iron powder, copper or graphite mixed with inorganic
fillers, and friction modifiers that bond all the ingredients together. Because of higher metallic content,
they are more durable and with excellent heat transfer. They can adapt to high performance requirements, or
extreme braking conditions. Therefore, they are
suitable for sports cars, ambulances, police cars. On the other hand, they tend to wear rotors down faster, can
be noisy, and may not perform optimally at low temperatures, and are more
expensive than organic pads (generally cheaper than ceramic pads).

Low metallic brake pad is one kind of semi-metallic brake pads, they are
made from an organic formula mixed with small amounts (10 to 30
percent) of copper or steel to help with heat transfer and provide better
braking. Similarly, with the added metal, there is more dust and they
are slightly noisier.

4.2.3Ceramics brake pads

Ceramics brake pads are composed of ceramic fibers, nonferrous filler
materials, bonding agents, and possibly small amount of metal. Since
the 1980s, ceramic pads were designed to replace organic and semimetallic brake pads, because
organic and semi-metallic brake pads will
produce more noise and dust.
The ceramic brake pads is quieter and cleaner than semi metallic pads.
It will make light colored brake dust which won’t even stick to wheels.
That means the wheels look more clear than other wheels with organic
and semi metallic brake pads. It will remain stable under a wide range
of temperatures for consistent performance, so that it has longer life
period than organic and semi metallic brake pads.
However, the ceramic brakes also are the most expensive brake pad
and in some ways they have some problems. Such as, they won’t
produce as much cold bite as semi metallic brake pads, and won’t
absorb heat as well as semi metallic brake pads which can increase brake system temperatures. That means
they may not be suitable for
using in an extremely cold environment.

4.2.4Choosing the suitable pads

As the above shown, metallic, organic and ceramic pads, these three types of brake pads have
different advantages and disadvantages. Therefore it can be saidd that there is no single brake pad
that can reign supreme in every single situation. We cannot easily say which type of pads are the
best. Nowadays, there is a wealth of offering to choose brake linings in aftermarket. Because of
different specific characteristics of each type pads, the drivers need to choose the most suitable pads to
match their own driving style. The semi metallic brake pads are most widely used in cars. They are more
versatile, more effective over a wider range of temperatures and have a much higher thermal threshold. They
provide better cold bite
than other type pads and maintain much more consistent friction characteristics throughout their operating
range. So they are more suitable for using on a racetrack or a spirited mountain run. But for every day driving,
in a casual city, highway driving and commuting, the ceramic and organic brake pads are a better choice.
Because they can offer enough stopping power with quieter, cleaner wheels, and longer life period.

4.3 International market situation and possible development in the future

At present, with the development of number of cars all over the word,
the demand forbrake linings is huge. In 2006, the world market
demand of brake linings was at 2.2 billion, including 170 million for new
cars, 2.03 billion brake pads for maintenance and replacement. It is
ssumed thst current amount of cars in the worldis about 1300 billion,
average annual per vehicle need four sets of brake pads annually, the
annual demand will reach 5200 billion units of brake pads.
The brake industries in some developed countries are in a leading
position in the aspect of process technology and quality management.
For the current worldwide development of brake pads, the research and
application of semi-metallic formulations is most successful in North
America, that of low-metallic pads is most successful in Europe, and
that of NAO (non-asbestos organic) is most successful in Japan.
Throughout the market trend of the whole world, although each type of
pads have their own market share, the low-metallic and NAO brake
pads have been guiding the development trend of friction materials.
Now the NAO materials have occupied more than a 60% market share in North America. Although in
Europe, the low-metallic materials still
occupy the main pads materials market, there have been a quite
number of demands about NAO pads in new cars and aftermarket.
The demand of brake pads is close to car production and sales. In
2013, 70% of global car production was made in North America (18%),
Japan (16%) and Europe (27%). These three areas also have the
highest number of car population all over the world. So the demand of
brake pads is mainly concentrated in these three areas.

With the development of the number of global cars, the

automobile brakes make more pollution. In the future, the brake
pads will be more environmentally friendly. May be new materials
are found which will be less noisy, less wear particles.
4.4 SWOT analysis of brakes on market
Because the automobile brake system has a long period history, the
technology of manufacturing and maintenance is mature enough nowadays. With the development of
car demand, the demand of brakes
is higher and higher. Therefore, the market value of brake system is
huge, and the prospects of application are broad.
On the other hand, the technology does not have no a lot of room for
technical improvement. And all the brakes have their own defects, and
decreasing particle emission and less noise is a big challenge. Since
designing innovation and discovering new materials for brakes are
difficult.

5 MAINTENANCE AND REPLACEMENT

As we know, if the brake fail, the result will be disastrous. In order to

make sure the brake is in good condition, the drivers need to check the
brake system regularly, and replace the broken and badly worn parts of
the brake.

5.1 Brake calipers, pads and rotors

The braking effect of a car depends on how brake calipers, pads and
rotors work together. Keeping them in good condition is the most
important and direct way of maintenance. When the calipers squeeze,
the brake pads clamp down on the rotors. If the brake pads are worn,
they can’t connect with the rotors smoothly and this can damage the
rotors with rough spots and uneven grooves. Actually the rotor repairs
are expansive. Because of the wear of brake pads, the drivers need to
review them regularly. Which are sized to specification, they won’t wear
down. There are wear indicators of brake pads in most modern cars.
There will be squealing sound when the brake pads need to be
replaced. Of course it is better that you often check them before there
is irregular wear or damage or you hear the warning tone. The average
working life of brake pads is about 25 thousand kilometers, but the
specific situation depends on the usage of cars. In suggestion, drivers
could check the wear of brake pads every 10 thousand kilometers.
It is estimated that front brakes have to provide approximately 70% of
total braking power and therefore the components of front brakes have
to be replaced more frequently than the rear ones.
5.2 Brake fluid

The brake fluid is hygroscopic; it will absorb water. In order to keep the
high quality of brake fluid, the driver needs to check and change the brake fluid regularly and keep
the indicated level of brake fluid. By
changing it every 24 thousand kilometers or every 2 years, may double
or triple the life cycle of modern automatic transmissions. If the cars
are often driven in wet areas, the replacement period is shorter.
5.3 The leak of hydraulic system
The hydraulic system is used in both drum and disc brakes, there is an
eventuality of a leak. If it is a slow leak, there may not be enough fluid
left to fill the brake cylinder, and the brakes may not function. If it is a
major leak, then the first time you apply the brakes all of the fluid will
squirt out the leak and you will have a complete brake failure. So it is
necessary to regular check the system regularly whether there is a leak.

6 CONCLUSION

Nowadays, most people have realized the necessity and significance of the existence of brakes in
vehicles. Besides the cars, the brake system
is also used in many ways, such as in airplanes, bicycles. The
technology of brake system will be better in the future. So it is good for
drivers to know some basic principles and composition, structure of
automobile brake system.
But meanwhile, because of using brakes, there is more pollution, for
example, the brakes will emit more particles, noise and waste resource.
For better environment, we need to avoid the overuse the brakes.
Different brakes and different brake pads have different advantages
and disadvantages. When the drivers choose these parts, they need to
think carefully of the actual driving conditions, and find the most
suitable ones.
In the future, there will be new materials which can decrease wear
particles and noise. Maybe the electric car will occupy a bigger portion
in automobile market.
For drivers’ safe, they also need to know the basic knowledge about
daily maintenance of the brakes, and need to inspect the brakes
regularly. In order to make sure the brakes are in good condition, it is
necessary to check and replace the broken and badly worn parts of the
brakes.
7 REFERENCE

Asbestos brake dust still a hazard, 24th, May, 2016, [Link]/library/[Link]

Automobile brake system, 24th, May, 2016, [Link]/view/[Link]
Automobile Brake System, 24th, May, 2016, [Link]
91KVBZ_dD51qQiRmcW5fhY1yBUHl8m51XKUPDUzsOpqb1DanyGvXR8gyfZ90_EkQH4O
Hi1JVTk0X4-6-8NndE3WC Boulter 2006; Chan and Stachowiak 2004; Kukutschová et
al.2011;Thorpe and Harrison 2008; Wahlström 2009; Wahlström 2011 [Link] Hogan,
Analysis of highway noise, Journal of Water, Air, &
Soil Pollution, Volume 2, Number 3, Biomedical and Life Sciences and
Earth and Environmental Science Issue, Pages 387-392, September,
1973, Springer Verlag, Netherlands ISSN 0049-6979 Environment Science and Pollution Research,
February 2015, Volume
22, issue 4, pp 2491-2504
What are the best brake pads, 24th, May, 2016,
[Link]
Values in brackets refer to PM10 brake wear (Hildemann et al. 1991;
Garg et al. 2000; Kennedy et al. 2002; Westerlund and Johansson
2002; Kennedy and Gadd 2003; Sanders et al. 2003; Von Uexküll et al.
2005; Schauer et al. 2006; Iijima et al. 2008
 CHAPTER-3

COMPONENTS AND DESCRIPTION

The components used in this project are:

1. Ac motor
2. Chain drive
3. Shaft
4. Bearing
5. Braking disc
6. Neodymium magnets

Bearings:
A bearing is a machine element that constrains relative motion to only the desired motion,
and reduces friction between moving parts. The design of the bearing may, for example, provide
for free linear movement of the moving part or for free rotation around a fixed axis; or, it
may prevent a motion by controlling the vectors of normal forces that bear on the moving parts.
Most bearings facilitate the desired motion by minimizing friction. Bearings are classified broadly
according to the type of operation, the motions allowed, or to the directions of the loads (forces)
applied to the parts.
 Rotary bearings hold rotating components such as shafts or axles within mechanical
systems, and transfer axial and radial loads from the source of the load to the structure supporting
it. The simplest form of bearing, the plain bearing, consists of a shaft rotating in a
hole. Lubrication is used to reduce friction. In the ball bearing and roller bearing, to reduce sliding
friction, rolling elements such as rollers or balls with a circular cross-section are located between
the races or journals of the bearing assembly. A wide variety of bearing designs exists to allow the
demands of the application to be correctly met for maximum efficiency, reliability, durability and
performance.
The term "bearing" is derived from the verb "to bear";a bearing being a machine element
that allows one part to bear (i.e., to support) another. The simplest bearings are bearing surfaces,
cut or formed into a part, with varying degrees of control over the form, size, roughness and
location of the surface. Other bearings are separate devices installed into a machine or machine
part. The most sophisticated bearings for the most demanding applications are very precise devices;
their manufacture requires some of the highest standards of current technology.

TYPES OF BEARINGS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS

1. BALL BEARINGS:

A ball bearing is a type of rolling-element bearing which uses balls to maintain the
separation between the moving parts of the bearing.

The purpose of a ball bearing is to reduce rotational friction and support radial and axial
loads. It achieves this by using at least two races to contain the balls and transmit the loads
through the balls. Usually one of the races is held fixed. As one of the bearing races rotates it
causes the balls to rotate as well. Because the balls are rolling they have a much lower
coefficient of friction than if two flat surfaces were rotating on each other.

Ball bearings tend to have lower load capacity for their size than other kinds of rolling-
element bearings due to the smaller contact area between the balls and races. However, they
can tolerate some misalignment of the inner and outer races.

Compared to other rolling-element bearings, the ball bearing is the least expensive,
primarily because of the low cost of producing the balls used in the bearing. There are several
common designs of ball bearing, each offering various trade-offs. They can be made from
many different materials, including: stainless steel, chrome steel, and ceramic. A hybrid ball
bearing is a bearing with ceramic balls and races of metal.

1.1. Single-row ball bearing:

a) General:

The rigid bearing with a row of balls is a bearing presenting a very good
performance/price ratio; it is relatively universal.

b) Aptitudes:

It has a good capacity to support the radial loads and also the axial loads in the two
directions. It presents a swivelling and exists in an instrumented version making it possible in
particular to determine the rotational speed of the shaft.

c) Uses:

This type of bearing is used in all the fields of mechanical engineering in general (flaps,
bearings of jet engines, transmissions of helicopters, on-board equipment...). It is available
with a segment which allows an axial immobilization without any retaining wall in the
housing.
1.2. Double-row ball bearing:

a) General:

These bearings require a good coaxiality between the shaft and the housing.

b) Aptitudes:

This type of bearing allows strong radial and axial loads in the two directions.

A preferential way is sometimes noticed, in case of filling notches. This bearing can be
installed alone or together with another bearing (where alignment is necessary).

c) Uses

This type of bearing is used in pumps, reducers (wheel and screw), equipment...
1.3. Double-row self-aligning ball bearing:

a) General:

The self-aligning ball bearing has two rows of balls and a common concave sphered
raceway in the outer ring. The bearing is consequently self-aligning and insensitive to angular
misalignments of the shaft relative to the housing.

b) Aptitudes:

Self-aligning ball bearings with extended inner ring are designed for less demanding
applications using commercial grade shafting. The special bore tolerance allows easy
mounting and dismounting.

c) Uses

It is particularly suitable for applications where considerable shaft deflections or

misalignment are to be expected.

Additionally, the self-aligning ball bearing has the lowest friction of all rolling bearings,
which allows it to run cooler even at high speeds.
Self-aligning ball bearings with extended inner ring are axially located on the shaft by means
of a pin or shouldered screw, which engages in a slot at one side of the inner ring and also
prevents the inner ring from turning on the shaft.

When two self-aligning ball bearings with extended inner ring are used to support a shaft,
they should be positioned so that the inner ring slots either face each other, or are at the
outboard positions of the bearings.

If this is not the case, the shaft is axially located in one direction only.

1.4. Single and double -row angular contact bearing:

a) General:

Angular contact ball bearings have raceways in the inner and outer rings that are
displaced with respect to each other in the direction of the bearing axis. This means that they
are designed to accommodate combined loads, i.e. simultaneously acting radial and axial
loads.

b) Aptitudes:

The axial load carrying capacity of angular contact ball bearings increases with
increasing contact angle.
 The contact angle is defined as the angle between the line joining the points of contact
of the ball and the raceways in the radial plane, along which the load is transmitted from one
raceway to another, and a line perpendicular to the bearing axis.

The contact angle varies from 15° to 40° and is measured relative to a line running
perpendicular to the bearing axis. Angular contact bearings are unidirectional thrust bearings
that can withstand heavy thrust loads and moderate radial loads.

See below: Single angular contact bearing.

c) Uses:

Angular contact bearings can have a number of different styles of seals or

shielding. Seals and shields provide protection from contamination and as a retainer for
lubricant.

Seals provide better protection and lubricant containment than shields, but have
lower maximum speed capabilities.

Bearings with ball screw support are specially designed for use in ball screw or lead
screw applications.
 Some bearings may also be flanged. Angular contact bearings may have a variety of
lubrication options.

See below: Double-row angular contact bearing.

2. ROLLER BEARINGS:

Roller bearings are one of the most widely used industrial bearings. They are called as
roller bearings because they are able to carry a load by placing round elements between the
two pieces. With the movement of the two pieces, these round elements roll, thereby helping
to carry the load.

Most roller bearings use cylinder whose length is slightly greater than its diameter. Roller
bearings have higher radial load capacity compared to ball bearings but higher friction and a
low axial capacity under axial loads.

2.1. Applications of roller bearings:

Roller bearings are used in rotary applications to replace sliding movement with low
friction, rolling.

Automated roller bearing setting techniques offer many advantages like reduced setting
time, assembly cost, and and reliable setting. To select the right roller bearing, one must
determine the desired bearing life and a sufficient basic dynamic load rating to meet that life
requirement.

Roller bearings are used in power generation, wind turbines, gear drives, rolling mills,
machine tool spindles, gear reduction units etc.

Roller bearings are the earliest known type of rolling-element-bearing.

2.2. One row, two row cylindrical bearings:

a) General:

This type of bearing supports axial loads only in one direction. They are thus generally
used in pairs, opposing each other. Their play must be regulated in order to obtain a good
rigidity for the connection. They can also be installed side by side.

Conical tapered roller bearings:

a) General:

These bearings consist of an internal ring (the cone), conical rollers spaced by a cage and
an external ring (the basin) separated from the rest. They support the axial loads only in one
direction and are generally installed in pairs, opposing each other. Their play must be adjusted.

b) Aptitudes:
 They are bearings adapted to the high axial and radial loads, but they do not support high
rotational speeds. For high axial loads, a bearing with a significant contact angle, which can
vary from 10° to 30°, is used.

c) Uses:

They are installed in reducers, wheels of the landing gear, etc

Chain drive
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Roller chain and sprocket

Chain drive is a way of transmitting mechanical power from one place to another. It is often used
to convey power to the wheels of a vehicle, particularly bicycles and motorcycles. It is also used
in a wide variety of machines besides vehicles.

Most often, the power is conveyed by a roller chain, known as the drive chain or transmission
chain,[1] passing over a sprocket gear, with the teeth of the gear meshing with the holes in the links
of the chain. The gear is turned, and this pulls the chain putting mechanical force into the system.
Another type of drive chain is the Morse chain, invented by the Morse Chain Company of Ithaca,
New York, United States. This has inverted teeth.[2]

Sometimes the power is output by simply rotating the chain, which can be used to lift or drag
objects. In other situations, a second gear is placed and the power is recovered by attaching shafts
or hubs to this gear. Though drive chains are often simple oval loops, they can also go around
corners by placing more than two gears along the chain; gears that do not put power into the system
or transmit it out are generally known as idler-wheels. By varying the diameter of the input and
output gears with respect to each other, the gear ratio can be altered. For example, when the bicycle
pedals' gear rotate once, it causes the gear that drives the wheels to rotate more than one revolution.

History

The oldest known illustration of an endless power-transmitting chain drive, from Su Song's book
of 1092 AD, describing his clock tower of Kaifeng

The oldest known application of a chain drive appears in the Polybolos, a repeating
crossbow described by the Greek engineer Philon of Byzantium (3rd century BC). Two flat-linked
chains were connected to a windlass, which by winding back and forth would automatically fire
the machine's arrows until its magazine was empty.[3] Although the device did not transmit power
continuously since the chains "did not transmit power from shaft to shaft, and hence they were not
in the direct line of ancestry of the chain-drive proper",[4] the Greek design marks the beginning of
the history of the chain drive since "no earlier instance of such a cam is known, and none as
complex is known until the 16th century."[3] It is here that the flat-link chain, often attributed
to Leonardo da Vinci, actually made its first appearance."[3]

The first continuous and endless power-transmitting chain drive was depicted in the written
horological treatise of the Song Dynasty by the medieval Chinese polymath mathematician and
astronomer Su Song (1020-1101 AD), who used it to operate the armillary sphere of
his astronomical clock tower as well as the clock jack figurines presenting the time of day by
mechanically banging gongs and drums.[5] The chain drive itself converted rotary to reclinear
motion and was given power via the hydraulic works of Su's water clock tank and waterwheel, the
latter which acted as a large gear.[6]

Chains versus belts

Roller chain and sprockets is a very efficient method of power transmission compared to (friction-
drive) belts, with far less frictional loss.

Although chains can be made stronger than belts, their greater mass increases drive train inertia.

Drive chains are most often made of metal, while belts are often rubber, plastic, urethane, or other
substances.

Drive belts can slip unless they have teeth, which means that the output side may not rotate at a
precise speed, and some work gets lost to the friction of the belt as it bends around the pulleys.
Wear on rubber or plastic belts and their teeth is often easier to observe, and chains wear out faster
than belts if not properly lubricated.

One problem with roller chains is "the variation in speed, or surging, caused by the acceleration
and deceleration of the chain as it goes around the sprocket link by link. It starts as soon as the
pitch line of the chain contacts the first tooth of the sprocket. This contact occurs at a point below
the pitch circle of the sprocket. As the sprocket rotates, the chain is raised up to the pitch circle
and is then dropped down again as sprocket rotation continues. Because of the fixed pitch length,
the pitch line of the link cuts across the chord between two pitch points on the sprocket, remaining
in this position relative to the sprocket until the link exits the sprocket. This rising and falling of
the pitch line is what causes chordal effect or speed variation."[7]

In other words, conventional roller chain drives suffer the potential for vibration, as the effective
radius of action in a chain and sprocket combination constantly changes during revolution
("Chordal action"). If the chain moves at constant speed, then the shafts must accelerate and
decelerate constantly. If one sprocket rotates at a constant speed, then the chain (and probably all
other sprockets that it drives) must accelerate and decelerate constantly. This is usually not an issue
with many drive systems; however, most motorcycles are fitted with a rubber bushed rear wheel
hub to virtually eliminate this vibration issue. Toothed belt drives are designed to avoid this issue
by operating at a constant pitch radius.

Chains are often narrower than belts, and this can make it easier to shift them to larger or smaller
gears in order to vary the gear ratio. Multi-speed bicycles with derailleurs make use of this. Also,
the more positive meshing of a chain can make it easier to build gears that can increase or shrink
in diameter, again altering the gear ratio. However, some newer synchronous belts claim to have
"equivalent capacity to roller chain drives in the same width". [8]

Both can be used to move objects by attaching pockets, buckets, or frames to them; chains are
often used to move things vertically by holding them in frames, as in industrial toasters, while belts
are good at moving things horizontally in the form of conveyor belts. It is not unusual for the
systems to be used in combination; for example the rollers that drive conveyor belts are themselves
often driven by drive chains.

Drive shafts are another common method used to move mechanical power around that is
sometimes evaluated in comparison to chain drive; in particular belt drive vs chain drive vs shaft
drive is a key design decision for most motorcycles. Drive shafts tend to be tougher and more
reliable than chain drive, but the bevel gears have far more friction than a chain. For this reason
virtually all high-performance motorcycles use chain drive, with shaft-driven arrangements
generally used for non-sporting machines. Toothed-belt drives are used for some (non-sporting)
models.
Sketch of roller chain by Leonardo da Vinci

Use in vehicles

Bicycles

Main article: Bicycle chain

Chain drive was the main feature which differentiated the safety bicycle introduced in 1885, with
its two equal-sized wheels, from the direct-drive penny-farthing or "high wheeler" type of bicycle.
The popularity of the chain-driven safety bicycle brought about the demise of the penny-farthing,
and is still a basic feature of bicycle design today.

Automobiles

Transmitting power to the wheels

Chain final drive, 1912 illustration

Mack AC delivery truck at the Petersen Automotive Museum with chain drive visible
Austin 1906 plan view

Austin 1906 elevation

French Gladiator car, 1902, with chain drive

Chain drive was a popular power transmission system from the earliest days of the automobile. It
gained prominence as an alternative to the Système Panhard with its
rigid Hotchkiss driveshaft and universal joints.

A chain-drive system uses one or more roller chains to transmit power from a differential to the
rear axle. This system allowed for a great deal of vertical axle movement (for example, over
bumps), and was simpler to design and build than a rigid driveshaft in a workable suspension.
Also, it had less unsprung weight at the rear wheels than the Hotchkiss drive, which would have
had half the weight of the driveshaft, and differential to carry as well. This meant that the vehicle
would have a smoother ride. The lighter unsprung mass would allow the suspension to react to
bumps more effectively.

Frazer Nash were strong proponents of this system using one chain per gear selected by dog
clutches. The Frazer Nash chain drive system, (designed for the GN Cyclecar
Company by Archibald Frazer-Nash and Henry Ronald Godfrey) was very effective, allowing
extremely fast gear selections. The Frazer Nash (or GN) transmission system provided the basis
for many "special" racing cars of the 1920s and 1930s, the most famous being Basil Davenport's
Spider which held the outright record at the Shelsley Walsh Speed Hill Climb in the 1920s.

The last popular chain drive automobile was the Honda S600 of the 1960s.[9]
In engines
Internal combustion engines often use a timing chain to drive the camshaft(s). This is an area in
which chain drives frequently compete directly with timing belt drive systems, particularly when
the engine has one or more overhead camshafts, and provides an excellent example of some of the
differences and similarities between the two approaches. For this application, chains last longer,
but are often harder to replace, as they must be enclosed in a space into which lubricating oil can
be introduced. Being heavier, the chain robs more power,[dubious – discuss] but is also less likely to fail.
The camshaft of a four stroke engine rotates at half crankshaft speed, so the camshaft sprocket has
twice as many teeth as the crankshaft sprocket. Less common alternatives to timing chain drives
include spur gears or bevel gears combined with a shaft.

Transfer cases

'Silent chain' drives inside a 1912 gearbox

Today, inverted tooth drive chains are commonly used in passenger car and light truck transfer
cases.

Motorcycles
Chain drive versus belt drive or use of a driveshaft is a fundamental design decision in motorcycle
design; nearly all motorcycles use one of these three designs. See Motorcycle construction § Final
drive for more details.
Magnet
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about objects and devices that produce magnetic fields. For a description of
magnetic materials, see Magnetism. For other uses, see Magnet (disambiguation).

A "horseshoe magnet" made of alnico, an iron alloy. The magnet, made in the shape of
a horseshoe, has the two magnetic poles close together. This shape creates a strong magnetic field
between the poles, allowing the magnet to pick up a heavy piece of iron.

Magnetic field lines of a solenoid electromagnet, which are similar to a bar magnet as illustrated
below with the iron filings

Part of a series of articles about

 Electromagnetism

 Electricity
 Magnetism

Electrostatics[show]

Magnetostatics[show]

Electrodynamics[show]

Electrical network[show]

Covariant formulation[show]

Scientists[show]

 v
 t
 e

A magnet is a material or object that produces a magnetic field. This magnetic field is invisible
but is responsible for the most notable property of a magnet: a force that pulls on
other ferromagnetic materials, such as iron, and attracts or repels other magnets.

A permanent magnet is an object made from a material that is magnetized and creates its own
persistent magnetic field. An everyday example is a refrigerator magnet used to hold notes on a
refrigerator door. Materials that can be magnetized, which are also the ones that are strongly
attracted to a magnet, are called ferromagnetic (or ferrimagnetic). These include the
elements iron, nickel and cobalt and their alloys, some alloys of rare-earth metals, and some
naturally occurring minerals such as lodestone. Although ferromagnetic (and ferrimagnetic)
materials are the only ones attracted to a magnet strongly enough to be commonly considered
magnetic, all other substances respond weakly to a magnetic field, by one of several other types
of magnetism.
Ferromagnetic materials can be divided into magnetically "soft" materials like annealed iron,
which can be magnetized but do not tend to stay magnetized, and magnetically "hard" materials,
which do. Permanent magnets are made from "hard" ferromagnetic materials such
as alnico and ferrite that are subjected to special processing in a strong magnetic field during
manufacture to align their internal microcrystalline structure, making them very hard to
demagnetize. To demagnetize a saturated magnet, a certain magnetic field must be applied, and
this threshold depends on coercivity of the respective material. "Hard" materials have high
coercivity, whereas "soft" materials have low coercivity. The overall strength of a magnet is
measured by its magnetic moment or, alternatively, the total magnetic flux it produces. The local
strength of magnetism in a material is measured by its magnetization.

An electromagnet is made from a coil of wire that acts as a magnet when an electric current passes
through it but stops being a magnet when the current stops. Often, the coil is wrapped around
a core of "soft" ferromagnetic material such as mild steel, which greatly enhances the magnetic
field produced by the coil.

Discovery and development

Main article: History of electromagnetism

Ancient people learned about magnetism from lodestones (or magnetite) which are naturally
magnetized pieces of iron ore. The word magnet was adopted in Middle
English from Latin magnetum "lodestone", ultimately from Greek μαγνῆτις [λίθος] (magnētis
[lithos])[1] meaning "[stone] from Magnesia",[2] a part of ancient Greece where lodestones were
found. Lodestones, suspended so they could turn, were the first magnetic compasses. The earliest
known surviving descriptions of magnets and their properties are from Greece, India, and China
around 2500 years ago.[3][4][5] The properties of lodestones and their affinity for iron were written
of by Pliny the Elder in his encyclopedia Naturalis Historia.[6]

By the 12th to 13th centuries AD, magnetic compasses were used in navigation in China, Europe,
the Arabian Peninsula and elsewhere. [7

Physics

Magnetic field
Iron filings that have oriented in the magnetic field produced by a bar magnet

Detecting magnetic field with compass and with iron filings

Main article: Magnetic field

The magnetic flux density (also called magnetic B field or just magnetic field, usually denoted B)
is a vector field. The magnetic B field vector at a given point in space is specified by two
properties:

1. Its direction, which is along the orientation of a compass needle.

2. Its magnitude (also called strength), which is proportional to how strongly the compass
needle orients along that direction.

In SI units, the strength of the magnetic B field is given in teslas.[8]

Magnetic moment

Main article: Magnetic moment

A magnet's magnetic moment (also called magnetic dipole moment and usually denoted μ) is
a vector that characterizes the magnet's overall magnetic properties. For a bar magnet, the direction
of the magnetic moment points from the magnet's south pole to its north pole, [9] and the magnitude
relates to how strong and how far apart these poles are. In SI units, the magnetic moment is
specified in terms of A·m2 (amperes times meters squared).
A magnet both produces its own magnetic field and responds to magnetic fields. The strength of
the magnetic field it produces is at any given point proportional to the magnitude of its magnetic
moment. In addition, when the magnet is put into an external magnetic field, produced by a
different source, it is subject to a torque tending to orient the magnetic moment parallel to the
field.[10] The amount of this torque is proportional both to the magnetic moment and the external
field. A magnet may also be subject to a force driving it in one direction or another, according to
the positions and orientations of the magnet and source. If the field is uniform in space, the magnet
is subject to no net force, although it is subject to a torque. [11]

A wire in the shape of a circle with area A and carrying current I has a magnetic moment of
magnitude equal to IA.

Magnetization
Main article: Magnetization

The magnetization of a magnetized material is the local value of its magnetic moment per unit
volume, usually denoted M, with units A/m.[12] It is a vector field, rather than just a vector (like
the magnetic moment), because different areas in a magnet can be magnetized with different
directions and strengths (for example, because of domains, see below). A good bar magnet may
have a magnetic moment of magnitude 0.1 A•m2 and a volume of 1 cm3, or 1×10−6 m3, and
therefore an average magnetization magnitude is 100,000 A/m. Iron can have a magnetization of
around a million amperes per meter. Such a large value explains why iron magnets are so effective
at producing magnetic fields.

Modelling magnets

Field of a cylindrical bar magnet computed accurately

See also: Two definitions of moment

Two different models exist for magnets: magnetic poles and atomic currents.

Although for many purposes it is convenient to think of a magnet as having distinct north and
south magnetic poles, the concept of poles should not be taken literally: it is merely a way of
referring to the two different ends of a magnet. The magnet does not have distinct north or south
particles on opposing sides. If a bar magnet is broken into two pieces, in an attempt to separate the
north and south poles, the result will be two bar magnets, each of which has both a north and south
pole. However, a version of the magnetic-pole approach is used by professional magneticians to
design permanent magnets.[citation needed]

In this approach, the divergence of the magnetization ∇·M inside a magnet and the surface normal
component M·n are treated as a distribution of magnetic monopoles. This is a mathematical
convenience and does not imply that there are actually monopoles in the magnet. If the magnetic-
pole distribution is known, then the pole model gives the magnetic field H. Outside the magnet,
the field B is proportional to H, while inside the magnetization must be added to H. An extension
of this method that allows for internal magnetic charges is used in theories of ferromagnetism.

Another model is the Ampère model, where all magnetization is due to the effect of microscopic,
or atomic, circular bound currents, also called Ampèrian currents, throughout the material. For a
uniformly magnetized cylindrical bar magnet, the net effect of the microscopic bound currents is
to make the magnet behave as if there is a macroscopic sheet of electric current flowing around
the surface, with local flow direction normal to the cylinder axis.[13] Microscopic currents in atoms
inside the material are generally canceled by currents in neighboring atoms, so only the surface
makes a net contribution; shaving off the outer layer of a magnet will not destroy its magnetic
field, but will leave a new surface of uncancelled currents from the circular currents throughout
the material.[14] The right-hand rule tells which direction positively-charged current flows.
However, current due to negatively-charged electricity is far more prevalent in practice. [citation needed]

Polarity
The north pole of a magnet is defined as the pole that, when the magnet is freely suspended, points
towards the Earth's North Magnetic Pole in the Arctic (the magnetic and geographic poles do not
coincide, see magnetic declination). Since opposite poles (north and south) attract, the North
Magnetic Pole is actually the south pole of the Earth's magnetic field.[15][16][17][18] As a practical
matter, to tell which pole of a magnet is north and which is south, it is not necessary to use the
Earth's magnetic field at all. For example, one method would be to compare it to an electromagnet,
whose poles can be identified by the right-hand rule. The magnetic field lines of a magnet are
considered by convention to emerge from the magnet's north pole and reenter at the south pole. [18]

Magnetic materials

Main article: Magnetism

The term magnet is typically reserved for objects that produce their own persistent magnetic field
even in the absence of an applied magnetic field. Only certain classes of materials can do this.
Most materials, however, produce a magnetic field in response to an applied magnetic field – a
phenomenon known as magnetism. There are several types of magnetism, and all materials exhibit
at least one of them.

The overall magnetic behavior of a material can vary widely, depending on the structure of the
material, particularly on its electron configuration. Several forms of magnetic behavior have been
observed in different materials, including:

 Ferromagnetic and ferrimagnetic materials are the ones normally thought of as magnetic; they
are attracted to a magnet strongly enough that the attraction can be felt. These materials are
the only ones that can retain magnetization and become magnets; a common example is a
traditional refrigerator magnet. Ferrimagnetic materials, which include ferrites and the oldest
magnetic materials magnetite and lodestone, are similar to but weaker than ferromagnetics.
The difference between ferro- and ferrimagnetic materials is related to their microscopic
structure, as explained in Magnetism.
 Paramagnetic substances, such as platinum, aluminum, and oxygen, are weakly attracted to
either pole of a magnet. This attraction is hundreds of thousands of times weaker than that of
ferromagnetic materials, so it can only be detected by using sensitive instruments or using
extremely strong magnets. Magnetic ferrofluids, although they are made of tiny ferromagnetic
particles suspended in liquid, are sometimes considered paramagnetic since they cannot be
magnetized.
 Diamagnetic means repelled by both poles. Compared to paramagnetic and ferromagnetic
substances, diamagnetic substances, such as carbon, copper, water, and plastic, are even more
weakly repelled by a magnet. The permeability of diamagnetic materials is less than
the permeability of a vacuum. All substances not possessing one of the other types of
magnetism are diamagnetic; this includes most substances. Although force on a diamagnetic
object from an ordinary magnet is far too weak to be felt, using extremely
strong superconducting magnets, diamagnetic objects such as pieces of lead and even
mice[19] can be levitated, so they float in mid-air. Superconductors repel magnetic fields from
their interior and are strongly diamagnetic.

There are various other types of magnetism, such as spin

glass, superparamagnetism, superdiamagnetism, and metamagnetism.

Common uses

Hard disk drives record data on a thin magnetic coating

Magnetic hand separator for heavy minerals

 Magnetic recording media: VHS tapes contain a reel of magnetic tape. The information that
makes up the video and sound is encoded on the magnetic coating on the tape. Common audio
 cassettes also rely on magnetic tape. Similarly, in computers, floppy disks and hard
disks record data on a thin magnetic coating.[20]
 Credit, debit, and automatic teller machine cards: All of these cards have a magnetic strip on
one side. This strip encodes the information to contact an individual's financial institution and
connect with their account(s). [21]
 Older types of televisions (non flat screen) and older large computer monitors: TV and
computer screens containing a cathode ray tube employ an electromagnet to guide electrons to
the screen.[22]
 Speakers and microphones: Most speakers employ a permanent magnet and a current-carrying
coil to convert electric energy (the signal) into mechanical energy (movement that creates the
sound). The coil is wrapped around a bobbin attached to the speaker cone and carries the signal
as changing current that interacts with the field of the permanent magnet. The voice coil feels
a magnetic force and in response, moves the cone and pressurizes the neighboring air, thus
generating sound. Dynamic microphones employ the same concept, but in reverse. A
microphone has a diaphragm or membrane attached to a coil of wire. The coil rests inside a
specially shaped magnet. When sound vibrates the membrane, the coil is vibrated as well. As
the coil moves through the magnetic field, a voltage is induced across the coil. This voltage
drives a current in the wire that is characteristic of the original sound.
 Electric guitars use magnetic pickups to transduce the vibration of guitar strings into electric
current that can then be amplified. This is different from the principle behind the speaker and
dynamic microphone because the vibrations are sensed directly by the magnet, and a
diaphragm is not employed. The Hammond organ used a similar principle, with
rotating tonewheels instead of strings.
 Electric motors and generators: Some electric motors rely upon a combination of an
electromagnet and a permanent magnet, and, much like loudspeakers, they convert electric
energy into mechanical energy. A generator is the reverse: it converts mechanical energy into
electric energy by moving a conductor through a magnetic field.
 Medicine: Hospitals use magnetic resonance imaging to spot problems in a patient's organs
without invasive surgery.
 Chemistry: Chemists use nuclear magnetic resonance to characterize synthesized compounds.
 Chucks are used in the metalworking field to hold objects. Magnets are also used in other types
of fastening devices, such as the magnetic base, the magnetic clamp and the refrigerator
magnet.
 Compasses: A compass (or mariner's compass) is a magnetized pointer free to align itself with
a magnetic field, most commonly Earth's magnetic field.
 Art: Vinyl magnet sheets may be attached to paintings, photographs, and other ornamental
articles, allowing them to be attached to refrigerators and other metal surfaces. Objects and
paint can be applied directly to the magnet surface to create collage pieces of art. Magnetic art
is portable, inexpensive and easy to create. Vinyl magnetic art is not for the refrigerator
anymore. Colorful metal magnetic boards, strips, doors, microwave ovens, dishwashers, cars,
metal I beams, and any metal surface can be receptive of magnetic vinyl art. Being a relatively
new media for art, the creative uses for this material is just beginning.
 Science projects: Many topic questions are based on magnets, including the repulsion of
current-carrying wires, the effect of temperature, and motors involving magnets. [23]

Magnets have many uses in toys. M-tic uses magnetic rods connected to metal spheres
for construction. Note the geodesic tetrahedron

 Toys: Given their ability to counteract the force of gravity at close range, magnets are often
employed in children's toys, such as the Magnet Space Wheel and Levitron, to amusing effect.
 Refrigerator magnets are used to adorn kitchens, as a souvenir, or simply to hold a note or
photo to the refrigerator door.
 Magnets can be used to make jewelry. Necklaces and bracelets can have a magnetic clasp, or
may be constructed entirely from a linked series of magnets and ferrous beads.
 Magnets can pick up magnetic items (iron nails, staples, tacks, paper clips) that are either too
small, too hard to reach, or too thin for fingers to hold. Some screwdrivers are magnetized for
this purpose.
 Magnets can be used in scrap and salvage operations to separate magnetic metals (iron, cobalt,
and nickel) from non-magnetic metals (aluminum, non-ferrous alloys, etc.). The same idea can
be used in the so-called "magnet test", in which an auto body is inspected with a magnet to
detect areas repaired using fiberglass or plastic putty.
 Magnets are found in process industries, food manufacturing especially, in order to remove
metal foreign bodies from materials entering the process (raw materials) or to detect a possible
contamination at the end of the process and prior to packaging. They constitute an important
layer of protection for the process equipment and for the final consumer. [24]
 Magnetic levitation transport, or maglev, is a form of transportation that suspends, guides and
propels vehicles (especially trains) through electromagnetic force. Eliminating rolling
resistance increases efficiency. The maximum recorded speed of a maglev train is 581
kilometers per hour (361 mph).
 Magnets may be used to serve as a fail-safe device for some cable connections. For example,
the power cords of some laptops are magnetic to prevent accidental damage to the port when
tripped over. The MagSafe power connection to the Apple MacBook is one such example.

Medical issues and safety

Because human tissues have a very low level of susceptibility to static magnetic fields, there is
little mainstream scientific evidence showing a health effect associated with exposure to static
fields. Dynamic magnetic fields may be a different issue, however; correlations between
electromagnetic radiation and cancer rates have been postulated due to demographic correlations
(see Electromagnetic radiation and health).

If a ferromagnetic foreign body is present in human tissue, an external magnetic field interacting
with it can pose a serious safety risk. [25]

A different type of indirect magnetic health risk exists involving pacemakers. If a pacemaker has
been embedded in a patient's chest (usually for the purpose of monitoring and regulating the heart
for steady electrically induced beats), care should be taken to keep it away from magnetic fields.
It is for this reason that a patient with the device installed cannot be tested with the use of a
magnetic resonance imaging device.

Children sometimes swallow small magnets from toys, and this can be hazardous if two or more
magnets are swallowed, as the magnets can pinch or puncture internal tissues.[26]

Magnetic imaging devices (e.g. MRIs) generate enormous magnetic fields, and therefore rooms
intended to hold them exclude ferrous metals. Bringing objects made of ferrous metals (such as
oxygen canisters) into such a room creates a severe safety risk, as those objects may be powerfully
thrown about by the intense magnetic fields.

Magnetizing ferromagnets

See also: Remanence

Ferromagnetic materials can be magnetized in the following ways:

 Heating the object higher than its Curie temperature, allowing it to cool in a magnetic field
and hammering it as it cools. This is the most effective method and is similar to the industrial
processes used to create permanent magnets.
 Placing the item in an external magnetic field will result in the item retaining some of the
magnetism on removal. Vibration has been shown to increase the effect. Ferrous materials
aligned with the Earth's magnetic field that are subject to vibration (e.g., frame of a conveyor)
have been shown to acquire significant residual magnetism. Likewise, striking a steel nail held
by fingers in a N-S direction with a hammer will temporarily magnetize the nail.
 Stroking: An existing magnet is moved from one end of the item to the other repeatedly in the
same direction (single touch method) or two magnets are moved outwards from the center of
a third (double touch method).[27]
 Electric Current: The magnetic field produced by passing an electric current through a coil can
get domains to line up. Once all of the domains are lined up, increasing the current will not
increase the magnetization.[28]

Demagnetizing ferromagnets

Magnetized ferromagnetic materials can be demagnetized (or degaussed) in the following ways:
 Heating a magnet past its Curie temperature; the molecular motion destroys the alignment of
the magnetic domains. This always removes all magnetization.
 Placing the magnet in an alternating magnetic field with intensity above the material's
coercivity and then either slowly drawing the magnet out or slowly decreasing the magnetic
field to zero. This is the principle used in commercial demagnetizers to demagnetize tools,
erase credit cards, hard disks, and degaussing coils used to demagnetize CRTs.
 Some demagnetization or reverse magnetization will occur if any part of the magnet is
subjected to a reverse field above the magnetic material's coercivity.
 Demagnetization progressively occurs if the magnet is subjected to cyclic fields sufficient to
move the magnet away from the linear part on the second quadrant of the B-H curve of the
magnetic material (the demagnetization curve).
 Hammering or jarring: mechanical disturbance tends to randomize the magnetic domains and
reduce magnetization of an object, but may cause unacceptable damage.

Types of permanent magnets

A stack of ferrite magnets

Magnetic metallic elements

Many materials have unpaired electron spins, and the majority of these materials are paramagnetic.
When the spins interact with each other in such a way that the spins align spontaneously, the
materials are called ferromagnetic (what is often loosely termed as magnetic). Because of the way
their regular crystalline atomic structure causes their spins to interact, some metals are
ferromagnetic when found in their natural states, as ores. These include iron
ore (magnetite or lodestone), cobalt and nickel, as well as the rare earth
metals gadolinium and dysprosium (when at a very low temperature). Such naturally occurring
ferromagnets were used in the first experiments with magnetism. Technology has since expanded
the availability of magnetic materials to include various man-made products, all based, however,
on naturally magnetic elements.

Composites

Ceramic, or ferrite, magnets are made of a sintered composite of powdered iron oxide and
barium/strontium carbonate ceramic. Given the low cost of the materials and manufacturing
methods, inexpensive magnets (or non-magnetized ferromagnetic cores, for use in electronic
components such as portable AM radio antennas) of various shapes can be easily mass-produced.
The resulting magnets are non-corroding but brittle and must be treated like other ceramics.

Alnico magnets are made by casting or sintering a combination

of aluminium, nickel and cobalt with iron and small amounts of other elements added to enhance
the properties of the magnet. Sintering offers superior mechanical characteristics, whereas casting
delivers higher magnetic fields and allows for the design of intricate shapes. Alnico magnets resist
corrosion and have physical properties more forgiving than ferrite, but not quite as desirable as a
metal. Trade names for alloys in this family include: Alni, Alcomax, Hycomax, Columax,
and Ticonal.[29]

Injection-molded magnets are a composite of various types of resin and magnetic powders,
allowing parts of complex shapes to be manufactured by injection molding. The physical and
magnetic properties of the product depend on the raw materials, but are generally lower in
magnetic strength and resemble plastics in their physical properties.

Flexible magnets are composed of a high-coercivity ferromagnetic compound (usually ferric

oxide) mixed with a plastic binder. This is extruded as a sheet and passed over a line of powerful
cylindrical permanent magnets. These magnets are arranged in a stack with alternating magnetic
poles facing up (N, S, N, S...) on a rotating shaft. This impresses the plastic sheet with the magnetic
poles in an alternating line format. No electromagnetism is used to generate the magnets. The pole-
to-pole distance is on the order of 5 mm, but varies with manufacturer. These magnets are lower
in magnetic strength but can be very flexible, depending on the binder used. [30]
Rare-earth magnets

Ovoid-shaped magnets (possibly Hematine), one hanging from another

Main article: Rare-earth magnet

Rare earth (lanthanoid) elements have a partially occupied f electron shell (which can
accommodate up to 14 electrons). The spin of these electrons can be aligned, resulting in very
strong magnetic fields, and therefore, these elements are used in compact high-strength magnets
where their higher price is not a concern. The most common types of rare-earth magnets
are samarium-cobalt and neodymium-iron-boron (NIB) magnets.

Single-molecule magnets (SMMs) and single-chain magnets (SCMs)

Main article: Single-molecule magnet

In the 1990s, it was discovered that certain molecules containing paramagnetic metal ions are
capable of storing a magnetic moment at very low temperatures. These are very different from
conventional magnets that store information at a magnetic domain level and theoretically could
provide a far denser storage medium than conventional magnets. In this direction, research on
monolayers of SMMs is currently under way. Very briefly, the two main attributes of an SMM
are:
 1. a large ground state spin value (S), which is provided by ferromagnetic or ferrimagnetic
coupling between the paramagnetic metal centres
2. a negative value of the anisotropy of the zero field splitting (D)

Most SMMs contain manganese but can also be found with vanadium, iron, nickel and cobalt
clusters. More recently, it has been found that some chain systems can also display a magnetization
that persists for long times at higher temperatures. These systems have been called single-chain
magnets.

Nano-structured magnets
Some nano-structured materials exhibit energy waves, called magnons, that coalesce into a
common ground state in the manner of a Bose–Einstein condensate.[31][32]

Rare-earth-free permanent magnets

The United States Department of Energy has identified a need to find substitutes for rare-earth
metals in permanent-magnet technology, and has begun funding such research. The Advanced
Research Projects Agency-Energy (ARPA-E) has sponsored a Rare Earth Alternatives in Critical
Technologies (REACT) program to develop alternative materials. In 2011, ARPA-E awarded 31.6
million dollars to fund Rare-Earth Substitute projects.[33]

Costs
The current cheapest permanent magnets, allowing for field strengths, are flexible and ceramic
magnets, but these are also among the weakest types. The ferrite magnets are mainly low-cost
magnets since they are made from cheap raw materials: iron oxide and Ba- or Sr-carbonate.
However, a new low cost magnet, Mn-Al alloy,[34] has been developed and is now dominating the
low-cost magnets field. It has a higher saturation magnetization than the ferrite magnets. It also
has more favorable temperature coefficients, although it can be thermally unstable. Neodymium-
iron-boron (NIB) magnets are among the strongest. These cost more per kilogram than most other
magnetic materials but, owing to their intense field, are smaller and cheaper in many
applications.[35]

Temperature
Temperature sensitivity varies, but when a magnet is heated to a temperature known as the Curie
point, it loses all of its magnetism, even after cooling below that temperature. The magnets can
often be remagnetized, however.

Additionally, some magnets are brittle and can fracture at high temperatures.

The maximum usable temperature is highest for alnico magnets at over 540 °C (1,000 °F), around
300 °C (570 °F) for ferrite and SmCo, about 140 °C (280 °F) for NIB and lower for flexible
ceramics, but the exact numbers depend on the grade of material.

Electromagnets

Main article: Electromagnet

An electromagnet, in its simplest form, is a wire that has been coiled into one or more loops, known
as a solenoid. When electric current flows through the wire, a magnetic field is generated. It is
concentrated near (and especially inside) the coil, and its field lines are very similar to those of a
magnet. The orientation of this effective magnet is determined by the right hand rule. The magnetic
moment and the magnetic field of the electromagnet are proportional to the number of loops of
wire, to the cross-section of each loop, and to the current passing through the wire. [36]

If the coil of wire is wrapped around a material with no special magnetic properties (e.g.,
cardboard), it will tend to generate a very weak field. However, if it is wrapped around a soft
ferromagnetic material, such as an iron nail, then the net field produced can result in a several
hundred- to thousandfold increase of field strength.

Uses for electromagnets include particle accelerators, electric motors, junkyard cranes,
and magnetic resonance imaging machines. Some applications involve configurations more than
a simple magnetic dipole; for example, quadrupole and sextupole magnets are used
to focus particle beams.

Units and calculations

Main article: Magnetostatics

For most engineering applications, MKS (rationalized) or SI (Système International) units are
commonly used. Two other sets of units, Gaussian and CGS-EMU, are the same for magnetic
properties and are commonly used in physics. [citation needed]

In all units, it is convenient to employ two types of magnetic field, B and H, as well as
the magnetization M, defined as the magnetic moment per unit volume.

1. The magnetic induction field B is given in SI units of teslas (T). B is the magnetic field
whose time variation produces, by Faraday's Law, circulating electric fields (which the
power companies sell). B also produces a deflection force on moving charged particles (as
in TV tubes). The tesla is equivalent to the magnetic flux (in webers) per unit area (in
meters squared), thus giving B the unit of a flux density. In CGS, the unit of B is the gauss
(G). One tesla equals 104 G.
2. The magnetic field H is given in SI units of ampere-turns per meter (A-turn/m).
The turns appear because when H is produced by a current-carrying wire, its value is
proportional to the number of turns of that wire. In CGS, the unit of H is the oersted (Oe).
One A-turn/m equals 4π×10−3 Oe.
3. The magnetization M is given in SI units of amperes per meter (A/m). In CGS, the unit
of M is the oersted (Oe). One A/m equals 10−3 emu/cm3. A good permanent magnet can
have a magnetization as large as a million amperes per meter.
4. In SI units, the relation B = μ0(H + M) holds, where μ0 is the permeability of space, which
equals 4π×10−7 T•m/A. In CGS, it is written as B = H + 4πM. (The pole approach
gives μ0H in SI units. A μ0M term in SI must then supplement this μ0H to give the correct
field within B, the magnet. It will agree with the field B calculated using Ampèrian
currents).

Materials that are not permanent magnets usually satisfy the relation M = χH in SI, where χ is the
(dimensionless) magnetic susceptibility. Most non-magnetic materials have a relatively
small χ (on the order of a millionth), but soft magnets can have χ on the order of hundreds or
thousands. For materials satisfying M = χH, we can also write B = μ0(1 + χ)H = μ0μrH = μH,
where μr = 1 + χ is the (dimensionless) relative permeability and μ =μ0μr is the magnetic
permeability. Both hard and soft magnets have a more complex, history-dependent, behavior
described by what are called hysteresis loops, which give either B vs. H or M vs. H. In
CGS, M = χH, but χSI = 4πχCGS, and μ = μr.

Caution: in part because there are not enough Roman and Greek symbols, there is no commonly
agreed-upon symbol for magnetic pole strength and magnetic moment. The symbol m has been
used for both pole strength (unit A•m, where here the upright m is for meter) and for magnetic
moment (unit A•m2). The symbol μ has been used in some texts for magnetic permeability and in
other texts for magnetic moment. We will use μ for magnetic permeability and m for magnetic
moment. For pole strength, we will employ qm. For a bar magnet of cross-section A with uniform
magnetization M along its axis, the pole strength is given by qm = MA, so that M can be thought of
as a pole strength per unit area.

Fields of a magnet

Field lines of cylindrical magnets with various aspect ratios

Far away from a magnet, the magnetic field created by that magnet is almost always described (to
a good approximation) by a dipole field characterized by its total magnetic moment. This is true
regardless of the shape of the magnet, so long as the magnetic moment is non-zero. One
characteristic of a dipole field is that the strength of the field falls off inversely with the cube of
the distance from the magnet's center.

Closer to the magnet, the magnetic field becomes more complicated and more dependent on the
detailed shape and magnetization of the magnet. Formally, the field can be expressed as
a multipole expansion: A dipole field, plus a quadrupole field, plus an octupole field, etc.
At close range, many different fields are possible. For example, for a long, skinny bar magnet with
its north pole at one end and south pole at the other, the magnetic field near either end falls off
inversely with the square of the distance from that pole.

Calculating the magnetic force

Main article: force between magnets

Pull force of a single magnet

The strength of a given magnet is sometimes given in terms of its pull force — its ability to
pull ferromagnetic objects[37]. The pull force exerted by either an electromagnet or a permanent
magnet with no air gap (i.e., the ferromagnetic object is in direct contact with the pole of the
magnet[38]) is given by the Maxwell equation:[39]

where
F is force (SI unit: newton)
A is the cross section of the area of the pole in square meters
B is the magnetic induction exerted by the magnet
This result can be easily derived using Gilbert model, which assumes that the pole of magnet is
charged with magnetic monopoles that induces the same in the ferromagnetic object.
If a magnet is acting vertically, it can lift a mass m in kilograms given by the simple equation:

where g is the gravitational acceleration.

Force between two magnetic poles
Further information: Magnetic moment § Forces between two magnetic dipoles
Classically, the force between two magnetic poles is given by:[40]

where
F is force (SI unit: newton)
qm1 and qm2 are the magnitudes of magnetic poles (SI unit: ampere-meter)
μ is the permeability of the intervening medium (SI unit: tesla meter per ampere, henry per meter or
newton per ampere squared)
r is the separation (SI unit: meter).
The pole description is useful to the engineers designing real-world magnets, but real magnets have
a pole distribution more complex than a single north and south. Therefore, implementation of the
pole idea is not simple. In some cases, one of the more complex formulae given below will be more
useful.
Force between two nearby magnetized surfaces of area A
The mechanical force between two nearby magnetized surfaces can be calculated with the following
equation. The equation is valid only for cases in which the effect of fringing is negligible and the
volume of the air gap is much smaller than that of the magnetized material: [41][42]

where:
A is the area of each surface, in m 2
H is their magnetizing field, in A/m
μ0 is the permeability of space, which equals 4π×10−7 T•m/A
B is the flux density, in T.
Force between two bar magnets
The force between two identical cylindrical bar magnets placed end to end at large distance

where:
B0 is the magnetic flux density very close to each pole, in T,
A is the area of each pole, in m 2,
L is the length of each magnet, in m,
R is the radius of each magnet, in m, and
z is the separation between the two magnets, in m.

Note that all these formulations are based on Gilbert's model, which is usable in relatively great
distances. In other models (e.g., Ampère's model), a more complicated formulation is used that
sometimes cannot be solved analytically. In these cases, numerical methods must be used.
Force between two cylindrical magnets

For two cylindrical magnets with radius and length , with their magnetic dipole aligned, the

force can be asymptotically

Motor
Electric motors are so much a part of everyday life that we seldom give them a second
thought. When we switch on an electric drill, for example, we conWdently expect it to run rapidly
up to the correc speed, and we do not question how it knows what speed to run at, or how it is that
once enough energy has been drawn from the supply to bring it up to speed, the power drawn falls
to a very low level. When we put the drill to work it draws more power, and when we Wnish the
power drawn from the mains reduces automatically, without intervention on our part. The humble
motor, consisting of nothing more than an arrangement of copper coils and steel laminations, is
clearly rather a clever energy converter, which warrants serious consideration. By gaining a basic
understanding of how the motor works, we will be able to appreciate its potential and its limitations,
and (in later chapters) see how its already remarkable performance can be further enhanced by the
addition of external electronic controls. This chapter deals with the basic mechanisms of motor
operation, so readers who are already familiar with such matters as magnetic Xux, magnetic and
electric circuits, torque, and motional e.m.f can probably aVord to skim over much of it. In the
course of the discussion, however, several very important general principles and guidelines emerge.
These apply to all types of motors and are summarised in Section 1.8. Experience shows that
anyone who has a good grasp of these basic principles will be well equipped to weigh the pros and
cons of the diVerent types of motor, so all readers are urged to absorb them before tackling other
parts of the book.
PRODUCING ROTATION
Nearly all motors exploit the force which is exerted on a currentcarrying conductor placed in a
magnetic Weld. The force can be demonstrated by placing a bar magnet near a wire carrying
current , but anyone trying the experiment will probably be disappointed to discover how feeble
the force is, and will doubtless be left wondering how such an unpromising eVect can be used to
make eVective motors. We will see that in order to make the most of the mechanism, we need to
arrange a very strong magnetic Weld, and make it interact with many
conductors, each carrying as much current as possible. We will also see later that although the
magnetic Weld (or ‘excitation’) is essential to the working of the motor, it acts only as a catalyst,
and all of the mechanical output power comes from the electrical supply to the conductors on
which the force is developed. It will emerge later that in some motors the
parts of the machine responsible for the excitation and for the energy converting functions are
distinct and self-evident. In the d.c. motor, for example, the excitation is provided either by
permanent magnets or by Weld coils wrapped around clearly deWned projecting Weld poles on
the stationary part, while the conductors on which force is developed are on the rotor and supplied
with current via sliding brushes. In many motors, however, there is no such clear-cut physical
distinction between the ‘excitation’ and the ‘energy-converting’ parts of the machine, and a single
stationary winding serves both purposes. Nevertheless, we will
Wnd that identifying and separating the excitation and energy-converting
functions is always helpful in understanding how motors of all types operate.
Returning to the matter of force on a single conductor, we will Wrst look at what determines the
magnitude and direction of the force,

before turning to ways in which the mechanism is exploited to produce rotation. The concept of the magnetic
circuit will have to be explored, since this is central to understanding why motors have the shapes the do. A
brief introduction to magnetic Weld, magnetic Xux, and Xux density is included before that for those who are
not familiar with the ideas involved.
Magnetic field and magnetic flux
When a current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic Weld, it experiences a force.
Experiment shows that the magnitude of the force depends directly on the current in the wire, and
the strength of the magnetic Weld, andthat the forceis greatestwhen themagnetic Weld
isperpendicular to the conductor. In the set-up shown in Figure, the source of the magnetic Weld
is a bar magnet, which produces a magnetic Weld as shown in Figure . The notion of a ‘magnetic
Weld’ surrounding a magnet is an abstract idea that helps us to come to grips with the mysterious
phenomenon of
magnetism: it not only provides us with a convenient pictorial way of picturing the directional
eVects, but it also allows us to quantify the ‘strength’ of the magnetism and hence permits us to
predict the various eVects produced by it.
The dotted lines in Figure are referred to as magnetic Xux lines, or simply Xux lines. They indicate
the direction along which iron Wlings (or small steel pins) would align themselves when placed in
the Weld of the bar magnet. Steel pins have no initial magnetic Weld of their own, so there is no
reason why one end or the other of the pins should point to a particular pole of the bar magnet.
However, when we put a compass needle (which is itself a permanent magnet) in the Weld we
Wnd that it aligns itself as shown in Figure. In the upper half of the Wgure, the S end of the
diamond- haped compass settles closest to the N pole of the magnet, while in the lower half of
the Wgure, the N end of the compass seeks the S of the magnet. This immediately suggests that
there is a direction associated with the lines of Xux, as shown by the arrows on the Xux lines,
which conventionally are taken as positively directed from the N to the S pole of the bar magnet.
The sketch in Figure 1.2 might suggest that there is a ‘source’ near the top of the bar magnet, from
which Xux lines emanate before making their way to a corresponding ‘sink’ at the bottom.
However, if we were to look at the Xux lines inside the magnet, we would Wnd that they were
continuous, with no ‘start’ or ‘Wnish’. (In Figure 1.2 the internal Xux lines have been omitted for
the sake of clarity, but a very similar Weld pattern is produced by a circular coil of wire carrying
a d.c. See Figure
1.6 where the continuity of the Xux lines is clear.). Magnetic Xux lines always form closed paths,
as we will see when we look at the ‘magnetic circuit’, and draw a parallel with the electric circuit,
in which the current is also a continuous quantity. (There must be a ‘cause’ of the magnetic Xux,
of course, and in a permanent magnet this is usually pictured in terms of atomic-level circulating
currents within the magnet material. Fortunately, discussion at this physical level is not necessary
for our purpose.)
GENERAL PROPERTIES OF ELECTRIC MOTORS
All electric motors are governed by the laws of electromagnetism, and are subject to essentially
the same constraints imposed by the materials (copper and iron) from which they are made. We
should therefore not be surprised to Wnd that at the fundamental level all motors – regardless of
type – have a great deal in common. These common properties, most of which have been touched
on in this chapter, are not usually given prominence. Books tend to concentrate on the diVerences
between types of motors, and manufacturers are usually interested in promoting the virtues of their
particular motor at the expense of the competition. This divisive emphasis causes the underlying
unity to be obscured, leaving users with little opportunity to absorb the sort of knowledge which
will equip them to make informed
judgements.
The most useful ideas worth bearing in mind are therefore given below, with brief notes
accompanying each. Experience indicates that users who have these basic ideas Wrmly in mind
will find themselves able to understand why one motor seems better than another, and will feel
much more conWdent when faced with the diYcult task of weighing the
pros and cons of competing types.
Operating temperature and cooling
The cooling arrangement is the single most important factor in determining the output from any
given motor. Any motor will give out more power if its electric circuit is worked harder (i.e. if the
current is allowed to increase). The limiting factor is normally the allowable temperature rise of
the windings, which depends on the class of insulation.
For class F insulation (the most widely used) the permissible temperature rise is 100 K, whereas
for class H it is 125 K. Thus if the cooling remains the same, more output can be obtained simply
by using the higher-grade insulation. Alternatively, with a given insulation the output can be
increased if the cooling system is improved. A throughventilated motor, for example, might give
perhaps twice the output power of an otherwise identical but totally enclosed machine. Torque per
unit volume For motors with similar cooling systems, the rated torque is approximately
proportional to the rotor volume, which in turn is roughly
proportional to the overall motor volume. This stems from the fact that for a given cooling
arrangement, the speciWc and magnetic loadings of machines of diVerent types will be more or
less the same. The torque per unit length therefore depends Wrst and foremost on the square of the
diameter, so motors of roughly the same diameter and length can be expected to produce roughly
the same torque. Power per unit volume – importance of speed
Output power per unit volume is directly proportional to speed. Low-speed motors are unattractive
because they are large, and therefore expensive. It is usually much better to use a high-speed motor
with a mechanical speed reduction. For example, a direct drive motor for a
portable electric screw driver would be an absurd proposition. Size effects – specific torque and
efficiency
Large motors have a higher speciWc torque (torque per unit volume) and are more eYcient than
small ones. In large motors the speciWc electric loading is normally much higher
than in small ones, and the speciWc magnetic loading is somewhat higher. These two factors
combine to give the higher speciWc torque. Very small motors are inherently very ineYcient (e.g.
1% in a wristwatch), whereas motors of over say 100 kW have eYciencies above 95%.
The reasons for this scale eVect are complex, but stem from the fact that the resistance volt-drop
term can be made relatively small in large electromagnetic devices, whereas in small ones the
resistance becomes the dominant term. Efficiency and speed The eYciency of a motor improves
with speed.
For a given torque, power output rises in direct proportion to speed, while electrical losses are –
broadly speaking – constant. Under these conditions, eYciency rises with speed.
Rated voltage
A motor can be provided to suit any voltage. Within limits it is always possible to rewind a motor
for a diVerent voltage without aVecting its performance. A 200 V, 10 A motor could
be rewound for 100 V, 20 A simply by using half as many turns per coil of wire having twice the
cross-sectional area. The total amounts of active material, and hence the performance, would be
the same. Short-term overload Most motors can be overloaded for short periods without damage.
The continuous electric loading (i.e. the current) cannot be exceeded
without damaging the insulation, but if the motor has been running with reduced current for some
time, it is permissible for the current (and hence the torque) to be much greater than normal for a
short period of time. The principal factors which inXuence the magnitude and duration of the
permissible overload are the thermal time-constant (which governs the rate of rise of temperature)
and the previous pattern of operation. Thermal time constants range from a few seconds for small
motors to many minutes or even hours for large ones. Operating patterns are obviously very
variable, so rather than rely on a particular pattern being followed, it is usual for motors to be
provided with overtemperature protective devices (e.g. thermistors) which trigger an alarm and/or
trip the supply if the safe temperature is exceeded.

Shaft
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

A shaft is a rotating machine element, usually circular in cross section, which is used
to transmit power from one part to another, or from a machine which produces power to a machine
which absorbs power.[1] The various members such as pulleys and gears are mounted on it.

Shaft animation

Types

They are mainly classified into two types.

 Transmission shafts are used to transmit power between the source and the machine absorbing
power; e.g. counter shafts and line shafts.
 Machine shafts are the integral part of the machine itself; e.g. crankshaft.

Materials
The material used for ordinary shafts is mild steel. When high strength is required, an alloy
steel such as nickel, nickel-chromium or chromium-vanadium steel is used.

Shafts are generally formed by hot rolling and finished to size by cold
drawing or turning and grinding.

Standard sizes

Source:[2]

Machine shafts
 Up to 25 mm steps of 0.5 mm

Transmission shafts

 25 mm to 60 mm with 5 mm steps
 60 mm to 110 mm with 10 mm steps
 110 mm to 140 mm with 15 mm steps
 140 mm to 500 mm with 20 mm steps

The standard lengths of the shafts are 5 m, 6 m and 7 m.

Stresses

The following stresses are induced in the shafts.

1. Shear stresses due to the transmission of torque (due to torsional load).

2. Bending stresses (tensile or compressive) due to the forces acting upon the machine
elements like gears and pulleys as well as the self weight of the shaft.
3. Stresses due to combined torsional and bending loads.

Design stresses

The maximum permissible (design) stresses in bending (tension or compression) may be taken as:

1. 112 N/mm2 for shafts with allowance for keyways.

 2. 84 N/mm2 for shafts without allowance for keyways.

The maximum permissible (design) shear stresses may be taken as:

1. 56 N/mm2 for shafts with allowance for keyways.

2. 42 N/mm2 for shafts without allowance for keyways.
 CHAPTER-4
WORKING PRINCIPLE

According to Faraday's law of induction, a conductor's changing magnetic field would result in
current loops, or "eddy currents," as shown in Figure 1. Eddy currents will flow in a direction
that is perpendicular to the field when a magnetic field is applied to a conductor, creating closed
loops inside the conductor. A closed loop induced current in the conductor occurs when the
magnetic flux of a metallic conductor changes (Figure 1). Several different kinds of currents are
referred toas eddy currents. Eddy currents are created when the timevarying magnetic flux
interrupts a conductor. In a guide, swirl flows move in a plane cross over to the attractive field,
following shut circles. Lenz's regulation expresses that whirlpool flows respond to the wellspring
of the attractive field by delivering an attractive field that is opposite to the adjustment of the
attractive field that caused it. Within the conductor, these eddy currents produce a magnetic field
that is opposite to the externally applied field. The magnetic flux rate of change, loop area, and
intensity of the magnetic field all have an impact on the closed loop current, which is inversely
proportional to the material's resistivity. A force opposing changes in magnetic flux is produced
when two magnetic fields interact. A nearby conductive surface acts as a drag force against a
moving magnet when an eddy current is created by a moving magnetic field. A method that takes
advantage of this phenomenon is eddy current braking. For instance, a moving magnetic field
causes eddy currents in a nearby conductive surface to cause drag and, as a result, resistance to
the forward motion of the magnet. This phenomenon is utilised in eddy current braking. The
eddy current brakes immediately stop the power tool's motor when the power is turned off. Heat
is produced when electricity passes through a conductor's resistance.
 CHAPTER-5
DESIGN AND DRAWINGS
 CHAPTER-6

LIST OF MATERIALS

[Link]. PARTS Qty. Material

i. Neodymium Magnet 1 Neodymium

ii. AC motor 1 Electrical

iii. Chain Drive 1 Steel

iv. Shaft 1 Mild Steel

v Bearing - Steel

vi Disc - Aluminum

vii Frame 1 Mild Steel

 CHAPTER-7

COST ESTIMATION

MATERIAL COST:

[Link]. PARTS Qty. Material Amount (Rs)

i. Neodymium Magnet 1 Neodymium

ii. AC motor 1 Electrical

iii. Chain Drive 1 Steel

iv. Shaft 1 Mild Steel

v Bearing - Steel

vi Disc - Aluminum

vii Frame 1 Mild Steel

Total = Rs.

2. LABOUR COST

LATHE, DRILLING, WELDING, GRINDING, POWER HACKSAW, GAS CUTTING:

 Cost = 1500/-

3. OVERHEAD CHARGES

The overhead charges are arrived by “Manufacturing cost”

Manufacturing Cost = Material Cost + Labour cost

= +1500
=

Overhead Charges = 20% of the manufacturing cost

=
TOTAL COST

Total cost = Material Cost + Labour cost + Overhead Charges

=
= Rs

Total cost for this project = Rs.

 CHAPTER-8

APPLICATIONS, ADVANTAES AND DISADVANTAGES

 CHAPTER-9
CONCLUSION

We had a great opportunity to apply what little knowledge we did have to this assignment. We
learned a lot about planning,economics, building, and processing from working on this project.
We believe that working on a project together is a terrific approach to connect industry and
academics. Eddy current braking systems in automobiles that are well-designed and produced
work well. We are aware of the difficulties in upholding standards of quality and tolerance. We
utilised the resources fully provided to us possible by using our skills and knowledge. For this
reason, we developed the "Eddy Current Brake System," which facilitates the development of a
braking system that is more effective than is feasible with conventional braking systems.
Different additional technologies could be used.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
PHOTOGRAPHY