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Kharoṣṭī Script
Created by O Olivia Ray

Origin of the Kharoṣṭī Script

The Kharoṣṭī script, a writing system of immense historical and linguistic significance,
played a crucial role in documenting various aspects of ancient Indian and Central Asian
history. Its origins have been a subject of scholarly debate, but prevailing evidence points
towards a creation influenced by foreign administrative needs and local linguistic
requirements in the north-western part of the Indian subcontinent.
The journey to understanding Kharoṣṭī began with its decipherment, which indirectly
revealed clues about its genesis. A great number of Indo-Greek, Scytho-Parthian, and early
Kushāṇa coins unearthed in the north-western Indian subcontinent and eastern Afghanistan
featured a Greek legend on the obverse and an inscription in unknown characters on the
reverse. James Prinsep, a key figure in this decipherment, initially thought the reverse
inscriptions on Scytho-Parthian and early Kushāṇa coins were Pehlevi (a Semitic script) due
to apparent similarities, while those on Indo-Greek coins seemed to be an ancient type of
Nāgrī. However, he soon realised both sets of letters should be from the same script, leaning
towards Nāgrī and calling it "Arian Pāli". Further examination of numerous coins and the
discovery of inscriptions, including one from the Kushāṇa king Kanishka, led Prinsep to
change his view, adopting Masson's observation that the script was a type of "Pehlevi" and
naming it "Bactrian Pehlevi". He believed the language was Pehlevi or a kindred tongue.
A critical breakthrough came with the understanding that, like the Semitic script used for
Pehlevi, "Bactrian Pehlevi" had to be read from right to left. This characteristic, shared
with Semitic languages like Aramaic, was a significant indicator of its external influence. By
comparing corresponding Greek and "Bactrian Pehlevi" (or "Arian Pāli") letters on bilingual
coins, Prinsep began to establish equivalents. The discovery of the Shahbazgarhi rock
inscription, written in the same script, further aided this process. Prinsep initially thought the
language was a Sanskrit dialect, but upon recognising a "regular Pāli termination of the
genitive case" (specifically the final letter 'sa'), he realised the language was indeed Pāli (or
more accurately, Prakrit). The script was then termed "Arian Pāli," reflecting its prevalence in
Ariana, a region encompassing parts of modern Afghanistan and the Indus region. Prinsep

Kharoṣṭī Script 1
 himself correctly identified 11 to 13 out of 36 to 40 basic letters, with C. Lassen, A.
Cunningham, and E. Norris completing the main task of decipherment by the mid-19th
century.
The transition from "Arian Pāli" to the universally accepted name Kharoṣṭhī occurred in the
late 19th century. G. Bühler observed that the Lalitavistara, an ancient text, listed Brāhmī and
Kharoṣṭhī as the two most important alphabets. As Brāhmī was associated with Aśoka's
edicts, it was proposed that the script under review, second in importance, must be Kharoṣṭhī.
This was supported by a 7th-century Chinese encyclopaedia, Fa-wan-shu-lin, which
mentioned a right-to-left script called Kia-lu or Kia-lu-she-ti, taken as a transliteration of
Kharoṣṭhī. While the name was widely written as Kharoshṭī, it was discovered in 1980 that
the correct spelling in the Lalitavistara is Kharoshṭī. The name's etymology, Kharostī
(Khara + -ost +i), which means "that which has been put in the service of the
empire," strongly suggests its administrative purpose. This name, with its cerebralised form
Kharoṣṭhī, was ultimately adopted due to its attestation in a literary text.
The origin of Kharoṣṭhī is most plausibly tied to the Achaemenid Empire, specifically
around the late 6th century BCE. This hypothesis posits that the script was created to
allow Aramaic-speaking officials within the Achaemenid administration to write North-
Western Prakrit, the local language of the region, which was then partly under Persian rule.
The ancient kingdom of Gandhāra, located in modern-day northwestern Pakistan and
northeastern Afghanistan, was a key region for Kharoṣṭhī and was under Achaemenid control
from 550-330 BCE. Scholars like Darius I may have introduced Persian satraps (clerks,
scribes, and officials) to Gandhāra, who then implemented an adapted version of Aramaic.
Several key features of Kharoṣṭhī support this Achaemenid-Aramaic connection:

Writing Direction: Kharoṣṭhī is predominantly written right-to-left, a characteristic

feature of Semitic scripts like Aramaic. A newly discovered variant, Type B Kharoṣṭhī,
also follows this right-to-left direction.

Stylistic Resemblance: Kharoṣṭhī is noted to stylistically resemble a cursive variant of

Aramaic. It bears a formal and systematic relationship to the Semitic alphabet and
Aramaic, reflecting the region's close contact and eventual subjugation by the
Achaemenian Empire.

Aramaic Letter Influence: The script incorporates certain letters of Aramaic

(Parthian) origin, such as ‘aleph, ṭeth, and śin’.

Linguistic Peculiarities: Unlike Brāhmī, Kharoṣṭhī does not distinguish between long
and short vowels, nor does it use separate signs for initial vowels, instead favouring
diacritics and modification of existing signs. This might reflect an adaptation from an
abjad system (like Aramaic) that primarily writes consonants. Furthermore, there's a

Kharoṣṭī Script 2
 curious lack of written representation for certain phonemes well known to Sanskrit,
such as r ̥l ̥ḥ and ṅ, and missing signs for the widely-used Sanskrit diphthongs /ai/ and
/au/. This suggests its origin was not purely Indic.

Numerical System: Kharoṣṭhī employs an additive and multiplicative numeral

system, similar to Roman numerals, and notably lacks the concept of zero. These
numerals are also written right-to-left.

The hypothesis of Achaemenian origin, though debated, is now supported by comparative

studies of Aramaic letters from the Achaemenid age, the earliest known long Kharoṣṭhī
inscriptions (such as those from the time of Maurya emperor Aśoka, c. 273-236 BCE), and
the shapes of Aramaic letters in Aśoka's Aramaic edicts. Aśoka's edicts, like those at
Mansehra, are among the oldest datable evidence of Kharoṣṭhī use, written right to left, to
ensure his subjects could understand them directly in their local script. This further
underscores the practical administrative use of the script.
Scholarly debates on the precise conditions of Kharoṣṭhī's creation persist. Theories range
from creation by grammarians under Achaemenid or Mauryan commission, to its introduction
via diplomatic excursions, or even as a graphic variant of Brāhmī. However, later discoveries
increasingly suggest that Kharoṣṭhī was a conscious invention by a group of people who
had some familiarity with both Aramaic and Brāhmī scripts, mixing and combining
aspects while also inventing new letters and paradigms. This highlights Kharoṣṭhī as
a hybrid script, integrating elements from different traditions to serve a specific
administrative and linguistic need. The consensus points to its origin in northwest India
around 500 BCE, a period when the Achaemenid influence was strong in the region.

Despite its foreign influences, Kharoṣṭhī was primarily used to transcribe Gāndhārī Prakrit,
an ancient dialect derived from Sanskrit, in the Gandhāra region. It was in use between 400
BCE and 300 CE in Gandhāra, although evidence from the Silk Road indicates its survival in
Middle Asia until the 7th century CE, as seen in the Niya documents. Kharoṣṭhī was
eventually superseded by the Brāhmī script, a more widely used system with descendants
still in modern India.

In conclusion, the Kharoṣṭhī script, initially misidentified and then meticulously deciphered,
owes its origin to a unique confluence of geopolitical circumstances and linguistic demands.
Its creation around the late 6th century BCE in northwest India, under the influence of the
Achaemenid Empire, was driven by the practical need to facilitate communication in the local
North-Western Prakrit for Aramaic-speaking officials. Its right-to-left direction, stylistic
similarities to cursive Aramaic, use of Aramaic-derived letters, and specific phonetic
limitations all strongly support its hybrid nature as an adaptation of Semitic principles for

Kharoṣṭī Script 3
 an Indic language, making it a fascinating testament to the cultural interactions of ancient
empires

Geographical Distribution of Kharoṣṭī Script

The Kharoṣṭhī script, also known as Kharosthī or Kharoshtri, was a significant writing
system primarily used in specific regions of ancient South and Central Asia. Historically, it
was sometimes referred to as "Bactrian," "Indo-Bactrian," "Bactro-Pali," or "Ariano-Pali" by
earlier epigraphists before George Bühler definitively identified it as Kharoṣṭhī, based on
Chinese descriptions of the "ass-lip" (Khara-oṣṭha in Sanskrit) script. This script is notably
distinguished by its right-to-left writing direction.

Presumed Homeland and Principal Area of Use

The presumptive homeland and principal area of use for Kharoṣṭhī script was the
territory along and around the Indus, Swat, and Kabul River Valleys. This region largely
corresponds to ancient Gandhāra and its adjoining areasin what is now the North-West
Frontier Province of Pakistan. Kharoṣṭhī is almost invariably associated with the Middle
Indo-Aryan (MIA) language of this region, often referred to as "Gandhārī". According to S.
Konow, the "Kharoṣṭhī area proper" extended from approximately 69° to 73° 30' East
longitude and from the Hindu Kush mountains south to about 33° North latitude. Konow
posited that Gandhāra, particularly Taxila, was likely its place of origin.

The earliest dated appearances of the Kharoṣṭhī script are found in inscriptions from
the middle of the third century B.C.. These include the well-known Shahbazgarhi and
Mansehra rock edicts of Asoka. The script appears as a fully developed system in these
early records, indicating a significant pre-history. It is widely considered a modified form of
an older variety of the Aramaic script. The close connection between Kharoṣṭhī and
Aramaic was first noted by E. Thomas, who observed similarities in letters such as 'na', 'ba',
'ra', and 'va', and the shared right-to-left writing direction. Isaac Taylor and Alexander
Cunningham further theorized that Aramaic was introduced into India by the Achaemenian
conquerors, who extensively used it in Assyria and Babylon. Officials in the Indian satrapies
of the Achaemenian Empire likely employed this script, a supposition confirmed by the
discovery of an Aramaic stone inscription at Taxila. Indian scribes then modified the Aramaic
script to suit local dialects, leading to the distinct Kharoṣṭhī form. The oldest forms of
Kharoṣṭhī can also be found on some coins of Achaemenian sovereigns. While Bühler
suggested an earlier origin around the beginning of the fifth century B.C. for Kharoṣṭhī based
on palaeographic grounds, the precise date of its origin remains uncertain, though it is
generally placed sometime in the fourth, or possibly the fifth, century B.C..

Kharoṣṭī Script 4
 Expansion within South Asia
While its concentration remained in Gandhāra, later discoveries proved that Kharoṣṭhī's
usage extended far beyond this core region, covering a much broader area across South Asia.

Northwest and West: It was actively used in Afghanistan and the Punjab from the
fourth or fifth centuries BC to the third or fourth centuries AD. Significant finds include
inscriptions along the Kabul River in Afghanistan, reaching as far west as Wardak or
Khawat (approximately thirty miles west of Kabul). The Wardak Vase inscription is a
notable example from this area. Another important stone inscription is the Takht-i-Bahai
inscription of Gondophernes, located in the Yusufzai country, north-west of Taxila.

North: Kharoṣṭhī script has been found in numerous graffiti around Chilas and other
sites along the upper course of the Indus River. These discoveries are crucial as they
establish a link between the central Kharoṣṭhī area and the previously isolated Khalatse
inscription in Ladakh, also along the Indus.

South and Southwest: Sporadic examples of Kharoṣṭhī inscriptions were also

discovered along the lower Indus, reaching as far as Mohenjo-Daro, and
in Baluchistan (e.g., Tor Dherai).

Southeast and Central India: The script extended into regions further east and south.
Examples include inscriptions in Kangra (Pathyar and Kanhiara, often biscriptual with
Brāhmī) and the region around Delhi and Mathura. The Mathura Lion
Capital inscriptions, in particular, are considered among the oldest stone inscriptions
from the Saka period and showcase Kharoṣṭhī's presence in this central Indian region.
Other stone inscriptions demonstrating its broader geographical presence
include Fatehjang, Muchai, Mount Banj, Paja, Zeda, Manikyala, Shakardarra, Ara,
Kaldarra, Skarahdheri, and Dewai, found in various localities. Kharoṣṭhī was also
found on metal inscriptions like the Taxila Copper-plate and Taxila Silver-
plate (discovered by Sir John Marshall), the Sue Vihar Copper-plate, and the Peshawar
Relic Casket inscription.

Sporadic or Doubtful Finds in India: Some reported occurrences are not indicative of
active local use. A plaque with Kharoṣṭhī from Kumrahar (Patna) is most likely an
import from the northwest. The presence of a few Kharoṣṭhī letters on pillar bases
from Bharhut is of uncertain significance. The single word "lipikarena" in Kharoṣṭhī
found in three Asokan inscriptions from Karnataka is merely considered a scribe's
flourish. Furthermore, reports of Kharoṣṭhī or mixed Kharoṣṭhī-Brāhmī script
inscriptions from West Bengal are of questionable validity.

Spread to Central Asia and Beyond

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 By the third century A.D., Kharoṣṭhī transitioned from primarily a regional script to a major
script for both epigraphic and literary purposes in Central Asia.

Tarim Basin: Abundant official documents of the Shan-shan (Kroraina) kingdom were
discovered on leather and wood along the southern rim of the Tarim Basin. These
"Niya documents" are significant as they show Kharoṣṭhī's use as an administrative
script. Additionally, the birch-bark manuscript of the Dhammapada from the region
of Khotan provides crucial evidence of its literary application. Some still unpublished
Kharoṣṭhī documents, potentially of a later date, have also been found at sites on
the northern rim of the Tarim Basin.

Bactria: Recent archaeological excavations have unearthed numerous Kharoṣṭhī

inscriptions from north of the Hindu Kush, in ancient Bactria. These include sites in
northern Afghanistan such as Qunduz, as well as several locations in the former Soviet
republics of Uzbekistan and Tajikistan.

China: A few Kharoṣṭhī inscriptions have even been found in China proper, for
instance, at Lo-yang. These inscriptions are often dedicatory or memorial and are
frequently indistinguishable from similar ones found in India. This suggests the presence
of Gandhārī-speaking Indian monks in Buddhist monasteries in these areas, indicating a
cultural transmission of the script alongside religious practices.

Role of Rulers, Religion, and Numismatics in its Spread

The spread of Kharoṣṭhī was significantly promoted by its adoption and use by the
Indo-Scythian rulers, and especially by the Kuṣaṇa kings. These powerful dynasties
appear to have been responsible for introducing the script into both the North Indian heartland
and Bactria. The expansion of Kharoṣṭhī was also intricately linked with the spread of
Buddhism under the patronage of these rulers. This connection is evident in the content of
many inscriptions from outlying regions like Bactria and China, which are largely Buddhist in
nature.
Furthermore, Kharoṣṭhī script was extensively employed in the legends on coins of the
Indo-Greek and Scythian kings, as well as other foreign rulers of India. It was also used by
some indigenous polities, such as the so-called tribal republics of the Audumbaras, Kunindas,
and Rajanyas. This widespread numismatic use extended over a broad area of northern
India and adjoining regions, including the western coastal region. Notably, coins of the
early Western Kṣatrapas Nahapana and Castana featured legends in three scripts: Greek,
Brāhmī, and Kharoṣṭhī. Kharoṣṭhī was rarely used on coins by itself, usually appearing in
combination with Greek and/or Brāhmī.

Kharoṣṭī Script 6
 The decline of Kharoṣṭhī around the third century A.D. can presumably be attributed
to major historical developments of that time. With the decline and fall of the Kuṣaṇa
empire, the centre of political power in South Asia began to shift from the northwest towards
northern and northeastern India. This political transformation likely diminished the
importance of Kharoṣṭhī as the prominent regional script of the former Kuṣaṇa territories,
ultimately leading to its supplantation by the pan-Indian Brāhmī script.
The Kharoṣṭhī script originated in the ancient region of Gandhāra (modern North-West
Frontier Province of Pakistan) as a modified form of Aramaic, appearing fully developed by
the mid-3rd century BC. From this core area, its geographical distribution expanded
significantly, reaching across Afghanistan, the Punjab, parts of Baluchistan, and eastward into
regions of India such as Kangra, Delhi, and Mathura. Its spread was profoundly influenced by
the Indo-Scythian and Kuṣaṇa rulers, who utilized it in administration and on coinage across
a vast northern Indian territory. Crucially, Kharoṣṭhī also extended into Central Asia,
particularly the Tarim Basin (e.g., Niya, Khotan) where it served administrative and literary
functions, and even sporadically appeared in China, often linked to the spread of Buddhism.
However, with the decline of the Kuṣaṇa empire and a shift in political power, Kharoṣṭhī
gradually fell out of widespread use in South Asia by the 3rd century A.D., eventually being
replaced by the more prevalent Brāhmī script.

Connection between Kharoṣṭī and Aramaic

The Kharoṣṭhī script, an ancient writing system predominantly used in the historical region of
Gandhāra (parts of modern Afghanistan and Pakistan) from approximately the fourth or fifth
centuries BCE to the third or fourth centuries CE, exhibits a strong and widely accepted
connection to the Aramaic script.

The initial recognition of this fundamental link was made by E. Thomas, who observed that
certain Kharoṣṭhī letters, specifically na, ba, ra, and va, agreed with their Aramaic
counterparts for the same sounds. Crucially, Thomas also noted the shared right-to-left
writing direction between Kharoṣṭhī and Aramaic. This observation led Isaac Taylor and
Alexander Cunningham to propose that the Achaemenian conquerors were responsible for
introducing the Aramaic script into India.
The Achaemenian Empire (550-330 BCE) extensively used Aramaic as an administrative
script throughout its vast territories, including its Indian satrapies. This supposition was
significantly confirmed by the discovery of an Aramaic stone inscription among the ruins
of Taxila. The prevailing theory is that Indian scribes then modified this Aramaic script to
align with the requirements of Indian dialects, leading to the emergence of Kharoṣṭhī as a
distinct writing system. This adaptation aimed to facilitate the writing of North-Western
Prakrit, the local language, by Aramaic-speaking officials. The hypothesis regarding the

Kharoṣṭī Script 7
 Achaemenian origin of Kharoṣṭhī, though once debated, is now largely accepted, bolstered by
comparative studies of Aramaic letter forms from the Achaemenid era with those in the
earliest known long Kharoṣṭhī inscriptions, such as Aśoka's edicts, and Aśoka's own Aramaic
edicts. The script is assumed to have been created around the late 6th century BCE within the
Achaemenid empire.
Several inherent features of the Kharoṣṭhī script provide compelling evidence for its Semitic,
specifically Aramaic, origin:

Direction of Writing: Kharoṣṭhī is consistently written from right to left, a

characteristic directly inherited from Aramaic.

Shared Letter Forms: Beyond the initial observations, research has noticed the use of
specific letters of Aramaic (Parthian) origin within Kharoṣṭhī, such as ‘aleph, ṭeth,
and śin. Twenty Aramaic letters with modifications and creations of new letters helped to
bridge the gap between Aramaic and Brāhmī characters.

Abugida Structure and Vowel Treatment: Kharoṣṭhī functions as an abugida, where

consonant signs inherently carry the vowel /a/, and other vowels are indicated by diacritic
modifiers. However, Kharoṣṭhī does not distinguish between long and short
vowels and lacks separate signs for initial vowels, instead favouring diacritics and
modification of existing signs. This suggests an adaptation from a system (like Semitic
alphabets) that did not primarily focus on inherent vowels or full vowel representation. It
also curiously lacks written representation for certain Sanskrit phonemes and diphthongs,
further pointing to an adaptation rather than an independent invention perfectly suited
for Indo-Aryan languages.

Conscious Invention and Adaptation: Scholars increasingly believe that Kharoṣṭhī

was consciously invented by a group somewhat familiar with both Aramaic and
Brāhmī scripts. This resulted in a blend of elements and the creation of new forms,
suggesting an adaptive process rather than a direct, unmediated borrowing. The aim was
to create a script that could facilitate imperial administration, specifically designed for
North-Western Prakrit. The name "Kharostī" itself, possibly meaning "that which has
been put in the service of the empire", further underscores its practical, administrative
origins within an imperial context, likely the Achaemenid.

In conclusion, the Kharoṣṭhī script is widely understood as a modified form of an older

variety of the Aramaic script. Its genesis is strongly tied to the Achaemenian Empire's
presence in North-Western India, where Aramaic was an administrative language. The
consistent right-to-left writing direction, clear similarities in letter forms, and linguistic
peculiarities all point to its direct descent from Aramaic, consciously adapted by Indian
scribes to suit the phonological needs of the local Prakrit dialects.

Kharoṣṭī Script 8
Kharoṣṭī Script 9