Reference Models

1. OSI Reference Model,

2. TCP/IP Reference Model.
Example Networks: The Internet,
Ethernet.
 OSI Reference Model

• OSI Reference Model - internationally standardized

network architecture.
• OSI = Open Systems Interconnection: deals with open
systems, i.e. systems open for communications with
other systems.
• Specified in ISO 7498.
• Model has 7 layers.
What is an internet?
• A set of interconnected networks.
• Routers are devices on multiple networks that pass traffic
between them
• Individual networks pass traffic from one router or endpoint to
another.
Ethernet?
• Ethernet is the traditional technology for connecting devices
in a wired local area network (LAN) or wide area network
(WAN).
• It enables devices to communicate with each other via a protocol,
which is a set of rules or common network language.
The OSI model is divided into two
layers: upper layers and lower layers.

1) The upper layer of the OSI model mainly deals with the application
related issues, and they are implemented only in the software. The
application layer is closest to the end user. Both the end user and the
application layer interact with the software applications. An upper layer
refers to the layer just above another layer.
2) The lower layer of the OSI model deals with the data transport issues.
The data link layer and the physical layer are implemented in hardware
and software. The physical layer is the lowest layer of the OSI model
and is closest to the physical medium. The physical layer is mainly
responsible for placing the information on the physical medium.
• Advantages
• Both connection-oriented services and connectionless
services are supported.
• It is quite flexible.
• All the layers work independently.
• Disadvantages
• Setting up a model is a challenging task.
• Sometimes, it becomes difficult to fit a new protocol into
this model.
• It is only used as a reference model.
 • The main functionality of the physical layer is to transmit the
individual bits from one node to another node.
• It is the lowest layer of the OSI model.
• It establishes, maintains and deactivates the physical connection.
• It specifies the mechanical, electrical and procedural network
interface specifications.
• Functions of a Physical layer:
• Line Configuration:It defines the way how two or more devices
1) Physical layer can be connected physically.
• Data Transmission:It defines the transmission mode whether it
is simplex, half-duplex or full-duplex mode between the two
devices on the network.
• Topology:It defines the way how network devices are
arranged.
• Signals:It determines the type of the signal used for transmitting
the information.
 • This layer is responsible for the error-free transfer of
data frames.
• It defines the format of the data on the network.
• It provides a reliable and efficient communication
between two or more devices.
• It is mainly responsible for the unique identification
2) Data-Link Layer of each device that resides on a local network.
• Functions of the Data-link layer
• Framing, Physical Addressing,Flow
Control,Error Control,Access Control.
 • It is a network layer that manages device addressing,
tracks the location of devices on the network.
• It determines the best path to move data from source
to the destination based on the network conditions,
the priority of service, and other factors.
• The Data link layer is responsible for routing and
forwarding the packets.
3) Network Layer • Routers are the network layer devices, they are
specified in this layer and used to provide the routing
services within an internetwork.
• The protocols used to route the network traffic are
known as Network layer protocols. Examples of
protocols are IP and Ipv6.
• Functions of Network Layer: Internetworking,
Addressing,Routing,Packetizing.
 • The Transport layer is a Layer 4 ensures that messages are
transmitted in the order in which they are sent and there is no
duplication of data.
• The main responsibility of the transport layer is to transfer the data
completely.
• It receives the data from the upper layer and converts them into
4) Transport Layer smaller units known as segments.
• This layer can be termed as an end-to-end layer as it provides a
point-to-point connection between source and destination to deliver
the data reliably.
• Functions of Transport Layer: Service-point addressing,
Segmentation and reassembly, Connection control, Flow
control, Error control.
 • The Session layer is used to establish, maintain and
synchronizes.
• The interaction between communicating devices.
• Functions of Session layer:
5) Session Layer • 1) Dialog control.
• 2) Synchronization
 • A Presentation layer is mainly concerned with the
syntax and semantics of the information exchanged
between the two systems.
• It acts as a data translator for a network.
• This layer is a part of the operating system that
converts the data from one presentation format to
6) Presentation Layer another format.
• The Presentation layer is also known as the
syntax layer.
• Functions of Presentation layer:
Translation,Encryption,Compression.
 • An application layer serves as a window for users
and application processes to access network service.
• It handles issues such as network transparency,
resource allocation, etc.
• An application layer is not an application, but it
performs the application layer functions.
7)Application Layer • This layer provides the network services to the end-
users.
• Functions of Application layer: File transfer, access,
and management (FTAM), Mail services,
Directory services
 TCP/IP

• The Internet Protocol Suite (commonly known as

TCP/IP)is the set of communications protocols used for
the Internet and other similar networks.
• It is named from two of the most important protocols in it:
1)The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP).
2) The Internet Protocol(IP), which were the first two
networking protocols defined in this standard
TCP/IP Network Model

• There are 4 layers:

• Layer 1 : Physical layer or Link
• Layer 2 : Network or Internet Layer
• Layer 3 : Transport
• Layer 4 : Application
Layer 1 : Physical layer or Link

• This layer provides the physical interface between

devices and the network. It includes protocols for
transmitting data over Ethernet,
• Wi-Fi, and other physical media.
Layer 2 : Network or Internet Layer

• Selection of a packet switching network which is based on a

connectionless internetwork layer is called a internet layer.
• This layer is responsible for routing data between networks and ensuring
that it reaches its destination. The Internet Protocol (IP) is the main
protocol used in this layer.
• It is the layer which holds the whole architecture together.
• It helps the packet to travel independently to the destination.
• Order in which packets are received is different from the way they are
sent.
• IP (Internet Protocol) is used in this layer.
• The various functions performed by the Internet Layer are:
• Delivering IP packets.
• Performing routing.
• Avoiding congestion.
 Layer 3 : Transport

• This layer is responsible for establishing connections between

applications and delivering data reliably between them. The most
commonly used protocol in this layer is the Transmission Control
Protocol (TCP).
• It decides if data transmission should be on parallel path or single
path.
• Functions such as multiplexing, segmenting or splitting on the data
is done by transport layer.
• The applications can read and write to the transport layer.
• Transport layer adds header information to the data.
• Transport layer breaks the message (data) into small units so that
they are handled more efficiently by the network layer.
• Transport layer also arrange the packets to be sent, in sequence
 Layer 4 : Application

• This layer contains protocols that provide services to the end-user,

such as web browsing, email, file transfer, and remote login.
• The TCP/IP specifications described a lot of applications that were
at the top of the protocol stack. Some of them were TELNET,
FTP, SMTP, DNS etc.
• TELNET is a two-way communication protocol which allows
connecting to a remote machine and run applications on it.
• FTP(File Transfer Protocol) is a protocol, that allows File transfer
amongst computer users connected over a network. It is reliable,
simple and efficient.
• SMTP(Simple Mail Transport Protocol) is a protocol, which is
used to transport electronic mail between a source and destination,
directed via a route.
 Difference between OSI Reference Model and TCP/IP Reference Model.

[Link]
OSI Model TCP/IP

1 The full form of OSI is Open Systems Interconnection. The full form of TCP/IP is Transmission Control Protocol/ Internet
Protocol.

2 It is a structured model which deals which the functioning of a It is a communication protocol that is based on standard protocols and
network. allows the connection of hosts over a network.

3 In 1984, the OSI model was introduced by the International In 1982, the TCP/IP model became the standard language of
Organization of Standardization (ISO). ARPANET.

4 It comprises seven layers: It comprises of four layers:

•Physical •Physical or Link Layer
•Data Link •Network or Internet
•Network •Transport
•Transport •Application
•Session
•Presentation
•Application
5 It follows a vertical approach. It follows a horizontal approach.

6 An OSI Model is a reference model, based on which a network is The TCP/IP is the implementation of the OSI Model.
created.

7 It is protocol independent. It is protocol dependent.