KABETE NATIONAL POLYTECHNIC

INSTITUTE OF APPLIED SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED SCIENCES

SCIENCE LABORATORY TECHNOLOGY LEVEL 5

TITLE OF THE PROJECT: DETERMINATION OF CONCENTRATION OF SODIUM AND POTASSIUM

FROM SELECTED BOREHOLE WATER IN KABETE NATIONAL POLYTECHNIC AND ITS
SURROUNDING BY FLAME PHOTOMETER.

PRESENTERS NAME: SAIDA NAMIKOYE

ADMISSION NUMBER: SLT/500/S23/067

SUPERVISOR: MR OBEGI

This project is submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of certificate in
science laboratory technology.
1

DECLARATION

I, SAIDA NAMIKOYE here by declare that this research project is my original work and has not
been submitted to any other institution

Signature_____________ date__________________

DEDICATION

I dedicate this project to my family members for their support in my academic journey. Their
belief in me has been my great motivation in my project.
2

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
 3

TABLE OF CONTENTS

DECLARATION…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….2

DEDICATION……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….2

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…….3

ABSTRACT…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

CHAPTER ONE

1.1 OBJECTIVES…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….7

2.1 CHARACTERISTIC OF WATER…………………………………………………………………………………………………7

BIOLOGICAL PROPERTIES……………………………………………………………………………………………………………7

2.2 CHEMICAL WATER STANDARD………………………………………………………………………………………………8

CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS…………………………………………………………………………………………………….8

2.3 BIOLOGICAL ATTRIBUTE……………………………………………………………………………………………………….8

2.4 ECOLOGICAL FEATURE………………………………………………………………………………………………………….8

2.5 CHEMICAL RISK…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….8

2.3 SODIUM……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….9

2.6 APPLICATION OF SODIUM…………………………………………………………………………………………………….9

2.7 EFFECTS OF SODIUM IN THE ENVIRONMENT……………………………………………………………………….9

2.3 HEALTH EFFECTS OF SODIUM TO HUMAN BEINGS……………………………………………………………….9

2.4 POTASSIUM…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….….10

2.9 USES OF POTASSIUM………………………………………………………………………………………………………….10

POTASSIUM IN THE ENVIRONMENT………………………………………………………………………………….….….10

HEALTH EFFECTS OF POTASSIUM………………………………………………………………………………………………10

4
CHAPTER THREE

3.0 Methodology………………………………………………………………..……………..11
3.2.1 materials ........................................................................................................................... 11
3.2.2Equipment ......................................................................................................................... 11
3.2.3 Reagents and standard ...................................................................................................... 11
3.2.4Chemicals .......................................................................................................................... 11
3.3 Sampling location................................................................................................................ 12
3.4 Sample collection ................................................................................................................ 12
3.5 Sampling preparation .......................................................................................................... 12
3.6 PREPARATION OF THE STANDARD ............................................................................ 12
3.6.1 Preparation of standard sodium solution .......................................................................... 13
3.6.2 Preparation of potassium standards .................................................................................. 13
3.7 Procedure............................................................................................................................. 14
3.8 TABLE OF RESULTS........................................................................................................ 14

CHAPTER FOUR

4.1 Calibration curve for potassium and sodium....................................................................... 15

4.2 Calculation of potassium and sodium concentration........................................................... 15
4.3 Concentration of sodium and potassium ............................................................................. 15
4.4 FINDINGS .......................................................................................................................... 16
4.5 RESULTS............................................................................................................................ 16
4.6 DISCUSSION ..................................................................................................................... 17
4.8 RECOMMENDATIONS .................................................................................................... 17
REFERENCE ............................................................................................................................ 18
 5

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND INFORMATION

Sodium was discovered in 1807 by Humphry Davy by electrolyzing sodium hydroxide. It has a
symbol of Na and its atomic number is 11 with an electron configuration of 2.8.1 and it’s found
in group in period 3 of the periodic table. It has a specific gravity of 0.971, it’s an alkali metal
and has a very soft silverly white metal.

Potassium was discovered by a British chemist its symbol is k atomic number of 19 with an
electron configuration of [Link] and it’s classified as an alkali metal and is highly reactive with
water, potassium is soft silverly metal.

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

A study of determination levels of potassium and sodium helps in identifying whether the
concentration of potassium and sodium is within the acceptable limits set by health
investigating and analyzing the difference in potassium and sodium levels among different
boreholes and their possible causes. It is a study crucial ensuring that the borehole water within
the school for daily use and does not pose any long-term health risk to its users.

1.3 RESEARCH OBJECTIVE

The study above sough to answer the following objectives

1.3.1 general objective

To investigate the challenges of determination of the level of potassium and sodium in different
borehole projects in Nakuru county.

1.3.2 specific objectives

To determine the influence of levels of potassium and sodium projects in Nakuru

To determine the influence of insufficient funds of water in the borehole

1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

How does the level of potassium and sodium is determined

6
1.5 JUSTIFICATION FOR THE STUDY

The findings of the study are beneficial to the organization within its recorded that every year
huge no of people die because of drinking water from the borehole.

1.6 LIMITATION OF THE STUDY

In every work that is done by people there are challenges that are faced during activity periods,
they can bring a hinderance in one way or another considering this is study the researcher faced
the challenge of the shortage of water due to dryness of the borehole within the area of the
study. It’s caused by delay in the time of reaching to the respondent.

The challenge also raised where some of the respondents were relevant in disclosing all the
information that is required for the study it was brought by some of them lacking believes the
information handled with a lot of confidentiality.

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Potassium and sodium are essential commonly found in groundwater. Their presence in drinking
water can impact human health and industrial applications in a school assessing their levels is
crucial

2.1.1 COLOUR

Pure water is colorless, but impurities like minerals, organic matter or pollutants can cause
discoloration.

2.1.2 TASTE& ODOUR

Clan water is tasteless and odorless unpleasant smell or tastes can be caused by dissolved gases
e.g., hydrogen sulphide and pollutants

6
2.1.3 TURDIGITY

A measure of suspended particles like sodium that makes the water cloudy. High turgidity can
indicate contamination.

2.1.4 PH

It is a chemical characteristic that determine the composition of water

A PH measure of acidity or alkalinity, pure water has a ph. of 7.

2.2 BIOLOGICAL PROPERTIES

Water is crucial for assessing water quality and its impact on human health same
microorganisms absorbs excess sodium and potassium, which can be studied to assess natural
water for purification certain bacteria and algae respond to sodium variations, influencing
microbial diversity in the borehole water.

2.2.1 CHEMICAL HAZARDS

Hazards uses flammable gases which can cause fire and explosion risk and must be ensured that
proper ventilation is applied. Acid fumes or sodium and potassium compounds. Environmental
hazards can also cause chemical spills of acids or solvent can damage lab surface and pose
health risk one should keep spill kits available and clean spills immediately.

2.2.2 CHEMICAL QUALITY PARAMETERS

Water is crucial for ensuring accurate and reliable results, concentration levels of sodium while
in potassium its suggested to a limit of 12mg/l for drinking and ph. level is used to affect ion
solubility and measurement accuracy. A borehole water should have a ph. of 6.5 and 8.5 for
accurate sodium and potassium readings. Flame photometry method is used to quicken and
precises for sodium and potassium for atomic absorption.

7
2.3 SODIUM (K)

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

Sodium is a chemical element with the symbol (Na) and atomic no 11. It is also silverly while
reactive metal that belong to the alkali metal group on the periodic table. It can be cut with a
knife for it has a relatively low melting point.

Sodium reacts with metallic halides to form metal. It doesn’t react with paraffin but forms
addiction compounds.

It reacts violently with water to produce sodium hydroxide and hydrogen.

2.3.1 APPLICATION OF SODIUM

Sodium is used in the extraction of some metals such as titanium from their ores. Sodium also is
used in medicine where by it is an electrolyte balance that vital role in maintaining proper fluid
balance and nerve function in the body

It is also used in heat transfer acts as a coolant in nuclear reactors where by sodium is used to
cool some types of nuclear reactors.

2.3.2 SODIUM IN THE ENVIRONMENT

Sodium is the most abundant elements on earth and naturally present in various environment
components including air and soil.

It is found in minerals like soda ash. It is also present in fresh water in varying amounts
depending on rock composition sodium exists in the air as aerosoilism from ocean, spray and
volcanic eruptions.

2.3.3 HEALTH EFFECTS OF SODIUM ON HUMAN BEINGS

Sodium is an essential mineral that helps maintain fluid balance, nerve function and muscle
function. However, consuming too much sodium particularly from table salt and processed
foods. Sodium can cause hypertension where by excess sodium can cause the body to retain
more water, increasing the volume of blood.

8
2.4 POTASSIUM

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

It is a highly reactive alkali metal with a strong electropositive.

Potassium reacts violently with water producing potassium and hydrogen gas which may ignite
due to heat release.

Potassium reacts with oxygen in air to form potassium oxide.

Potassium readily reacts with chlorine, bromine and iodine to form ionic salts like potassium
chloride.

2.4.1 APPLICATIONS AND USES OF POTASSIUM

Potassium is a vital nutrient for plant growth and also in fertilizers such as potassium chloride.

Potassium is also used in medical applications where by it maintains fluid balance nerve
transmission and muscle function.

Potassium permanganate is used in water treatment plants to purify drinking water and
eliminate contaminants such as iron.

It is also used in manufacturing soaps detergents and various chemicals.

2.4.2 HEALTH EFFECTS OF POTASSIUM IN THE HUMAN BEINGS

It maintains blood pressure and works with sodium to balance blood pressure.

It regulates fluid balance and helps central water distribution in the body.

It reduces the risk kidney stones.

High potassium intake can lower hypertension and reduce the risk of strokes.

9
3.0 METHODOLY

3.1 Study Area

The study was conducted in three locations:

I. Kabete National Polytechnic – The institution and its immediate surrounding.

II. Kangemi – A neighboring urban area with mixed residential and commercial activities.
III. Kianda – A nearby locality with different environmental and water characteristics.
One sample was collected

The borehole sampled in these areas provide water for domestic, commercial and institutional
purpose.3.2 Apparatus, chemicals and equipment

3.2.1 materials
I. Filtration apparatus
II. Graduated cylinders
III. Pipette and micro pipette
IV. Plastic or glass sampling bottles
3.2.2Equipment
Flame photometer

Air compressor and gas cylinder

Distilled or deionized water

3.2.3 Reagents and standard

Sodium standard solution

Potassium standard solution

Diluting solution

Sample preservatives

3.2.4Chemicals

Hydrochloric acid

Deionized water

Potassium chloride

Sodium chloride

10
3.3 Sampling location
Sampling is crucial in accurate determine potassium and sodium level in borehole water and the
surrounding environment. The choice of location should consider geographical hydrogeological
and environment factors that may influence ions concentration. Carefully representative sample
location for research was selected near Kabete National Polytechnic. The location is: Kabete,
Kianda and Kangemi.

3.4 Sample collection

Water samples were collected from boreholes in Kabete, Kianda and Kangemi. Samples
were taken in clean, pre-rinsed plastic bottles and stored in cool condition to prevent
contamination.

3.5 Sampling preparation

5ml of concentrated nitric(v) acid was added per litre of sample. This was to acidify the
water to PH 2.0 so that metals do not get absorbed on the walls of the container.
This also helps to inhibits metallic processes that will lead to changes in cation level.

3.6 PREPARATION OF THE STANDARD

3.6.1 Preparation of standard sodium solution

0.635g of Nacl was accurately weighed using analytical weighing balance and dissolved in
250cm3 volumetric flask containing 200cm3 of distilled water then diluted up to the mark. The
solution is equivalent to 1000ppm. The standards were prepared as follow 2ppm, 4ppm, 6ppm,
8ppm and 10ppm. Using the following formulae;

C1 V1= C2 V2

e.g., 1000

1000 x V1 x 2 x 1000
V1 = 2x 1000 = 2 ml
1000

11
3.6.2 Preparation of potassium standards
0.4775 of kcl was weighed and dissolved in 250cm3 volumetric flask containing 200cm3 of
distilled water then diluted up to the mark. This solution is equivalent to 1000ppm. The standards
were prepared as follows 2ppm, 4ppm, 6ppm,8ppm and 10ppm. The formula in preparation of
sodium standard was adopted.

3.7 Procedure
✓ Both the standard stock solution and sample solution are prepared in fresh deionized
water.
✓ The flame of the photometer is calibrated by adjusting the air and gas then the flame is
allowed to stabilize for about 5cm.
✓ The reading instrument is switched on and the locks of filters are opened to insert
appropriate color filter.
✓ The reading of the galvanometer is adjusted to zero by de-ionized water into the flame.
✓ The sensitivity is adjusted by spraying the most concentrated standard working solution
in to the flame, then the full scale of the galvanometer is recorded.
✓ Again, de-ionized water is sprayed into the flame to attain constant reading of a
galvanometer.
✓ The working standard solution of the lowest concentration into the flame start with the
lowest calibration and the calibration curve is constructed.
✓ The test solution is aspirated into the flame photometer, the emission is recorded and is
repeated three times.
✓ Deionized water is aspirated into the flame photometer to switch it off and the source of
power.
3.8 TABLE OF RESULTS

[Link] in Na+

Concentration of Na+ Emissions of Na+

Blank 0
2ppm 3.1
4ppm 6.5
6ppm 9.0
8ppm 11.0
10ppm 8.7

12
2)Results in K+

Concentration of K+ Emission of K+
Blank 0
2ppm 10
4ppm 20
6ppm 30
8ppm 40
10ppm 50

Test solution 0.5

Kabete 1.3
Kianda 2.3
kangemi 2.8

CHAPTER TWO
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
Potassium and sodium level in borehole water can be determined by use of flame photometry
metrhod because it is reliable and efficient. The levels of sodium andpotassium are influenced by
various factors including agricultural pratices, geological composition and industrialization.

2.1 CHARATERISTICS OF WATER

2.1.1 Colour
The colourless water is typypical in ground water or purified water, naturally and human;
induced factors can change the water appearance. The colour of water can range from colouress
various shades of blue, brown and green depending on the substance.

2..1.2 Taste and odor

Variety of factors like dissolved minerals, pollution and organic compounds can influence taste
of water. Some taste and odor are harmless; others may indicate the presence of contamination or
poor water quality.
2.1.3 Turbidity
Is a way of evaculating water quality and its presences can indicate contamination by suspended
particles or microorganism? High turbidity does not always pose health risk, it can indicate
waterborne pathogen and disrupt aquactic ecosystems.
13
2.1.4 PH
It’s a measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a solution. It has a logarithmic scale that
ranges from 0 to14. It has significant implications for both water quality and ecosystem
health. Measured using PH meter or PH indicator.

2.1.5 Acidity
Its ability to neutralize bases and its directly related to the concetration of hydrogen ions
presented in water. The acidity of water is often quantified in two ways:
i. Alkalinity and testing
ii. PH measurement

2.1.6 Alkalinity
Is the ability to neutrarize acids that act as a buffer to prevent significant change in PH. It can be
measured by various methods like titration and PH testing. Cause alkalinity in water includes
pollution, natural sources and human activities. Types of alkalinity includes total alkalinity,
carbonate alkalinity, Bicarbonate alkalinity and hydroxide alkalinity.

2.2 BIOLOGICAL HAZARDS

They are essential electrolyte for biological sytems and plays important roles in cell function
including muscle contraction, nerve transmission and water balance. High sodium level can lead
to hypertension and kidney problems in humans. However, excessive concentration of the ions
can be harmful to both human health and environment. Sodiumemits lights at wavelength of
589nm while potassium emits light of 766.5nm.

2.3 CHEMICAL HAZARDS

2.3.1 Chemical quality parameter

Potassium
Chemical properties
➢ It is a good conductor of heat and electricity.
➢ It is a soft and shiny metal which has a high meilting of 63c and a boiling point of 770c.
➢ It can float on water.
➢ It has a heat of fusion of 2.334KJ/mol.
➢ It reacts with water violenty and gives hydrogen which can actually catch fire and may
explode.
Uses

• It prevents the development of kidney stones.

• It helps in body muscles.
• It regulates fluid balance and electrolyte levels.
• Intake of high potassium can associate with a lower risk of stroke.
Potassium in the environment
14
 ✓ Found in several forms: In water- Is present in water bodies such as rivers, lakes and
oceans. It plays a role in maintain aquatic ecosystem and supports plant life in these
environment.
✓ In soil – Its essential for plant growth as it adds in several physiological processes.
Health effects of potassium on human beings
o Bone health. It may contribute to bone density and prevents osteoporosis.
o Muscle function. For proper muscle contraction.
o Heart arrhythmias. Excess potassium can disrupt the heart electrical rhythm.
Sodium
Chemical properties.
➢ It highly reactive with metals belonging to group1 (Alkali)
➢ It reacts with acids to produce salt and hydrogen gas.
➢ Its highly soluble in water.
➢ It’s a strong reducing agent because it readily donates electrons.
➢ It easily loses electrons to form a stable Na ion.
Uses
• Sodium carbonate is used to make glass.
• Used in making soaps.
• Used in vapor lamp.
• Used in improvise the structure of certain alloys.
• It used in the purification of molten metals.
Sodium and the environment.
✓ In industrial processes – Sodium compounds like sodium hydroxide are used in various
industrial applications including: soap production, paper manufacturing and waste water
treatment.
✓ In agriculture – sodium compounds are present in some fertilizers excessive use can
affect soil PH and nutrient balance, in which in turn impacts plant growth and local
ecosystems.
✓ Sodium chloride is commonly used in road to melt ice during winter. When applied in
large quantities can run off into water bodies, causing soil and water pollution. High salt
concentration in fresh water ecosystem may harm plant and animals that cannot tolerate
high salinity.
✓ Mining and extraction – Sodium is often mined in the form of sodium chloride or other
sodium-based minerals. Mining operations can disrupt local ecosystem, cause soil erosion
and release contaminants into the surrounding environment.
Health effect of sodium on human beings
15
 o It is an essential mineral for human health but excessive or insuffient intake can lead to
serious health issues.
o It causes symptoms like nausea, headache and muscles cramps.
o It regulates fluid balance and maintain the body water balance by controlling osmosis.
o Present in gastric juice and Nacl which helps in breaking down of food.
o Too much sodium can cause swelling in the legs and face due to excess fluid reflation.
o High sodium intake forces the kidney to work hard leading to kidney diseases.

2.4 Flame Photometer

2.4.1 Principle of operation

Alkali and alkaline earth metals can be analyzed by a flame photometer. These metal are
dissociated by heat from the flame producing atoms. Some of the atoms can further
undergo excitement to a much higher energy level-hence the working principle of flame
photometry. When the atoms at higher energy level returns to the ground states, a
radiation is emitted (at a wavelength specific for the element analyzed) which lies in the
visible area of the spectrum.

Table 1: Details of the emission wavelength and color produced by alkali and
alkaline earth metals

Element Emission wavelength(nm) Flame color

Sodium(Na) 589 Yellow
Potassium(k) 766 Violet
Barium(Ba) 544 Lime green
Calcium(Ca) 622 Orange
Lithium(Li) 670 Red

At a certain range of concentration, the intensity of emission is directly related to amount

of atoms coming back to the ground state. Consequently, this is proportional to the total
amount of the volatilized species in the flame hence making the emitted light in the flame
photometer directly proportional to the concentration of the sample. Electrical signal
which is also proportional to the concentration of the sample can be acquired by the
isolation of the emitted light at a characteristic wavelength using an optical filter
followed by the measure of the light intensity determined using a photodetector. The
electrical signal can be obtained and the readout done in analogue or digital from after
processing.

2.4.2 Instrumentation

Schematic diagram showing the components parts of a flame photometer

16
The basic components of a simple flame photometer include: Burner that provides a
flame whose form and temperature is constantly maintained; Nebulizer and mixing
chamber which provides a pathway through which a homogeneous solution is transferred
into the flame at a steady rate; Color filters which separates light of the wavelength to be
determined from that of extraneous emissions; Photo-detector that acts by determining
the intensity of radiation emitted by the flame.
Advantage

Analyzing alkali and alkaline earth metals by use of a flame photometry method has two
advantage which includes: Low temperature for its operation and the metal have a wide
spectrum due to their characteristic wavelengths hence making them easier to be isolated
from those of most other element.
17
Disadvantage

This technique can be affected by temperature. This is because intensity of emission is

very sensitive to changes in temperature of the flame. Normally there is an encounter of
spectral interference and self-absorption which affects the precision of the measurement
and also a straight line is not obtained when absorbance against concentration curve is
plotted.

Application

The flame photometer is used entirely in the quantitative determination of metals in

solution, especially alkali and alkaline earth in given samples. It uses the same principle
as that described for ASS. It can also do qualitative analysis as each element emits its
own characteristic line spectrum.

18
 CHAPTER THREE

3.0 Methodology
3.1 Study Area
The study was conducted in three locations:
IV. Kabete National Polytechnic – The institution and its immediate surrounding.
V. Kangemi – A neighboring urban area with mixed residential and commercial activities.
VI. Kianda – A nearby locality with different environmental and water characteristics.
One sample was collected
The borehole sampled in these areas provide water for domestic, commercial and institutional
purpose.
3.2 Appatratus, chemicals and equipments

3.2.1 materials
V. Filtration apparatus
VI. Graduated cylinders
VII. Pipette and micro pipette
VIII. Plastic or glass sampling bottles

3.2.2Equipment
Flame photometer
Air compressor and gas cylinder
Distilled or deionized water

3.2.3 Reagents and standard

Sodium standard solution
Potassium standard solution
Diluting solution
Sample preservatives

3.2.4Chemicals
Hydrochloric acid
Deionized water
Potassium chloride
Sodium chloride
19
3.3 Sampling location
Sampling is crucial in accurate determine potassium and sodium level in borehole water and the
surrounding environment. The choice of location should consider geographical hydrogeological
and environment factors that may influence ions concentration. Carefully representative sample
location for research was selected near Kabete National Polytechnic. The location are: Kabete,
Kianda and Kangemi.

3.4 Sample collection

Water samples were collected from boreholes in Kabete, Kianda and Kangemi. Samples
were taken in clean, pre-rinsed plastic bottles and stored in cool condition to prevent
contamination.

3.5 Sampling preparation

5ml of concentrated nitric(v) acid was added per litre of sample. This was to acidify the
water to PH 2.0 so that metals do not get absorbed on the walls of the container.
This also helps to inhibits metallic processes that will lead to changes in cation level.

3.6 PREPARATION OF THE STANDARD

3.6.1 Preparation of standard sodium solution

0.635g of Nacl was accurately weighed using analytical weighing balance and dissolved in
250cm3 volumetric flask containing 200cm3 of distilled water then diluted up to the mark. The
solution is equivalent to 1000ppm. The standards were prepared as follow 2ppm, 4ppm, 6ppm,
8ppm and 10ppm. Using the following formulae;
C1 V1= C2 V2
e.g. 1000
1000 x V1 x 2 x 1000
V1 = 2x 1000 = 2 ml
1000

20
3.6.2 Preparation of potassium standards
0.4775 of kcl was weighed and dissolved in 250cm3 volumetric flask containing 200cm3 of
distilled water then diluted up to the mark. This solution is equivalent to 1000ppm. The standards
were prepared as follows 2ppm, 4ppm, 6ppm,8ppm and 10ppm. The formula in preparation of
sodium standard was adopted.

3.7 Procedure
✓ Both the standard stock solution and sample solution are prepared in fresh deionized
water.
✓ The flame of the photometer is calibrated by adjusting the air and gas then the flame is
allowed to stabilize for about 5cm.
✓ The reading instrument is switched on and the locks of filters are opened to insert
appropriate color filter.
✓ The reading of the galvanometer is adjusted to zero by de-ionized water into the flame.
✓ The sensitivity is adjusted by spraying the most concentrated standard working solution
in to the flame, then the full scale of the galvanometer is recorded.
✓ Again de-ionized water is sprayed into the flame to attain constant reading of a
galvanometer.
✓ The working standard solution of the lowest concentration into the flame start with the
lowest calibration and the calibration curve is constructed.
✓ The test solution is aspirated into the flame photometer, the emission is recorded and is
repeated three times.
✓ Deionized water is aspirated into the flame photometer to switch it off and the source of
power.

3.8 TABLE OF RESULTS

[Link] in Na+
Concentration of Na+ Emissions of Na+
Blank 0
2ppm 3.1
4ppm 6.5
6ppm 9.0
8ppm 11.0
10ppm 8.7

21
2)Results in K+
Concentration of K+ Emission of K+
Blank 0
2ppm 10
4ppm 20
6ppm 30
8ppm 40
10ppm 50

Test solution 0.5

kabete 1.3
Kianda 2.3
kangemi 2.8

22
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 Results and analysis
The selection preserves the results obtaining from the flame photometric analysis of potassium
and sodium concentration in borehole water.

The absorbance values of the samples were compared against the calibration curve of standard
solution to determine their concentration measured in mg/l.

4.1 Calibration curve for potassium and sodium

Calibration curve for potassium k+ and sodium Na+ is used in analytical chemistry to determine
the concentration to these ions in a sample like flame photometry atomic absorption
spectroscopy (ASS) or ion selective electron.
Table1.1 Emission value for sodium and potassium standards.

S/NO Concentration(ppm) Emission of sodium Emission of potassium

1 0.5 006 005
2 1.0 011 010
3 2.0 022 023
4 4.0 043 041
5 6.0 067 063
6 8.0 084 083
7 10.0 103 100

The data in the table 1.1 was used to tabulate the graph below:

23
 120

100

80

60 Emission of sodium
Emission of potassium
40

20

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7

4.2 Calculation of potassium and sodium concentration

To calculate the potassium and sodium concentration in a sample using potassium calibration
curve follow the steps;

i. Obtain the calibration equation

Equation y= mx+b
Where: y= instrument response
M= slope of the calibration curve
X= concentration of the ion(ppm)
b= y- intercept
ii. Measure the sample response
Flame photometer or ion selective electrons to get the instrument response for the
unknown sample.
iii. Solve for concentration
Rearrange the equation to solve for x
X= y-b/m
4.3 Concentration of sodium and potassium
Parameters Dilution Factor
Sample source Sodium meter Potassium meter
readings(emission) reading(emission)
Kabete 13.6 10
Kangemi 12.5 10
Kianda 14.0 10

24
4.4 findings
The analysis of sodium and potassium ions present in the water borehole samples showed
variable cations concentration. The cations concentration is quite within the safe limits and are
not fit for drinking and agricultural purpose.

Provide isightsinto water quality in the region. Sodium or potassium levels exceed recommended
limits in the water may require treatment before consumption further more studies could help
understand seasons variation and potential contamination sources affecting borehole water
chemistry.

4.5 RESULTS
The results for sodium and potassium concentration levels samples in Kabete national
polytechnic and its surrounding in(mgi/l) were presented for generalization. Evaluation and
assessment to be discussed in relation to the findings of the state of borehole water in Kabete
national polytechnic and its surrounding.

Hydrogen ion concentration (PH)

The PH of the water samples were found to be in the range of 6.91-7.67. The maximum value of
PH was recorded at kianda borehole (7.67) while the minimum value in kangemi borehole
(6.91). The recommended limits of the ph. in water by WHO and NEEMA is 6.5-8.5

PH values of water samples

Borehole PH WHO NEEMA

Kabete 7.13-1.13 6.5-8.5 6.5-8.5
Kangemi 6.91-1.10 6.5-8.5 6.5-8.5
Kianda 7.67-1.63 6.5-8.5 6.5-8.5

Sodium concentration(mg/L) in borehole water samples

Borehole X=(y-1.4717)/10.34mg/L Emission, y=10.34x+1.4717

Kabete 46.40 481.25
Kangemi 35.50 368.54
Kianda 22.20 231.02

25
4.6 DISCUSSION
desirable water should not contain substances at concentrations that may be dangerous to huma
health. In the current study boreholes water samples were taken from three boreholes and
examined for sodium and potassium levels.

KBESand WHO a standard stipulates that water used for drinking allows sodium and potassium
intake levels not exceeding 200mg/l. In the current study borehole water with the highest levels
of sodium and potassium were filled respectively

4.7 CONCLUSION

The results obtained showed the level of sodium and potassium were the below the maximum
permissible levels set by Kenya Bureau of Standards (KBS) and World Health Organization
(WHO)

This water does therefore meet the required standards.

Determination of potassium and sodium concentration in borehole water using aflame
photometer provides essential information about water quality and its sustainability for
consumption agriculture and industrial use. Flame photometry proves to be a effective analytical
tool for assessing the level of potassium and sodium in the bore hole water. The data obtained
can guide water resources management environmental protection and public health policy to
ensure safe and suitable water use.

4.8 RECOMMENDATIONS
1. Full chemical analysis for regulated parameters should be carried out at Kabete national
polytechnic and its surrounding
2. The Government should establish proper sewage treatment which will prevent pollution
of ground water specially boreholes.
3. The county government and public health departments should investigate methods of
prevention of water from various sources from getting mixed up into boreholes.
4. More test for heavy metals should be conducted
5. It has recommended that further periodic research should be done to continuously
monitor other indicators of pollution
6. The government should develop and implement water quality and quantity measuring
protocols.

26
REFERENCE
1. Pier 5m. The Role of Heavy Metal in Human Health. Taxes Report on Biology and
Medicine, 1975, 33;145-171.
2. Sodium Chloride and Conductivity in Drinking Water. Copenhagen, WHO Regional
Office for Europe, 1979(EURO report, No. 2)
3. Terry, L A (1996) Water Pollution Environ- law Pact; vol 4 no.1 pg. 19-29
th
4. C.R Kothari, Gaurav Garg, 2019, Research Methodology; Method and Techniques 4
Edition. New Age International Publisher pg. 89-113

27