Subject Name:- Computer Network

Computer Network
A Computer Network is a system where two or more devices are linked together to share data,
resources and information. These networks can range from simple setups, like the Internet. Below
are the main components of a computer network
 Node: Any device which can share or receive data. Examples of devices are laptop, mobile,
printer, earbuds and server.
 Transmission Media: The medium through which devices communicate It can be a wired
media like Optical Fiber and Ethernet Cables. It can also be a wireless media like WiFi,
Bluetooth and Infrared
 Protocol: The set of rules that devices use to communicate. There are many different
protocols for different types of communications. Examples are HTTP (For web browsing) and
SMTP (For emails).
 Networking Devices: The devices with main purpose of providing network facilities.
Examples are Router, Switch, Access Point and Hub.

Network Models
In this section foundational frameworks of Computer Networks will be discussed. These frameworks
provide a standard set of rules for network communication. We will dive deep into the layered
structures of the OSI and TCP/IP models. This will help us understand their purpose and comparing
their approaches in organizing network functions.

 OSI Model
 TCP/IP Model
 OSI vs TCP/IP Model

What is OSI Model

The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Model is a set of rules that explains how different computer
systems communicate over a network. OSI Model was developed by the International Organization
for Standardization (ISO). The OSI Model consists of 7 layers and each layer has specific functions
and responsibilities.

OSI Model provides a clear structure for data transmission and managing network issues. The OSI
Model is widely used as a reference to understand how network systems function.

Layers of the OSI Model

There are 7 layers in the OSI Model and each layer has its specific role in handling data. All the
layers are mentioned below:
 Physical Layer
 Data Link Layer
 Network Layer
 Transport Layer
 Session Layer
 Presentation Layer
 Application Layer
1. Physical Layer
The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is the Physical Layer. It is responsible for the actual
physical connection between the devices. The physical layer contains information in the form
of bits. Physical Layer is responsible for transmitting individual bits from one node to the next. When
receiving data, this layer will get the signal received and convert it into 0s and 1s and send them to
the Data Link layer, which will put the frame back together. Common physical layer devices
are Hub, Repeater, Modem, and Cables.
 2 - Data Link Layer (DLL)
The data link layer is responsible for the node-to-node delivery of the message. The main function of
this layer is to make sure data transfer is error-free from one node to another, over the physical layer.
When a packet arrives in a network, it is the responsibility of the DLL to transmit it to the Host using
its MAC address. Packet in the Data Link layer is referred to as Frame. Switches and Bridges are
common Data Link Layer devices.

The Data Link Layer is divided into two sublayers:

 Logical Link Control (LLC)

 Media Access Control (MAC)

3 - Network Layer
The network layer works for the transmission of data from one host to the other located in different
networks. It also takes care of packet routing i.e. selection of the shortest path to transmit the packet,
from the number of routes available. The sender and receiver's IP address are placed in the header
by the network layer

 Routing: The network layer protocols determine which route is suitable from source to
destination. This function of the network layer is known as routing.
 Logical Addressing: To identify each device inter-network uniquely, the network layer defines
an addressing scheme. The sender and receiver’s IP addresses are placed in the header by
the network layer.

4-Transport Layer
The transport layer provides services to the application layer and takes services from the network
layer. The data in the transport layer is referred to as Segments. It is responsible for the end-to-end
delivery of the complete message. The transport layer also provides the acknowledgment of the
successful data transmission and re-transmits the data if an error is found.
Transport Layer are TCP, UDP NetBIOS, PPTP.

Functions of the Transport Layer

 Segmentation and Reassembly: This layer accepts the message from the (session) layer
and breaks the message into smaller units. Each of the segments produced has a header
associated with it. The transport layer at the destination station reassembles the message.
 Service Point Addressing: To deliver the message to the correct process, the transport layer
header includes a type of address called service point address or port address. Thus, by
specifying this address, the transport layer makes sure that the message is delivered to the
correct process.
Services Provided by Transport Layer

 Connection-Oriented Service

 Connectionless Service
 5 - Session Layer
Session Layer in the OSI Model is responsible for the establishment of connections, management of
connections, terminations of sessions between two devices. It also provides authentication and
security. Protocols used in the Session Layer are NetBIOS, PPTP.

Functions of the Session Layer

 Session Establishment, Maintenance, and Termination: The layer allows the two
processes to establish, use, and terminate a connection.
 Synchronization: This layer allows a process to add checkpoints that are considered
synchronization points in the data. These synchronization points help to identify the error so
that the data is re-synchronized properly, and ends of the messages are not cut prematurely,

6 - Presentation Layer
The presentation layer is also called the Translation layer. The data from the application layer is
extracted here and manipulated as per the required format to transmit over the network. Protocols
used in the Presentation Layer are JPEG, MPEG, GIF, TLS/SSL, etc.

Functions of the Presentation Layer

 Translation: For example, ASCII to EBCDIC.
 Encryption/ Decryption: Data encryption translates the data into another form or code. The
encrypted data is known as the cipher text, and the decrypted data is known as plain text. A key
value is used for encrypting as well as decrypting data.
 Compression: Reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted on the network.
7 - Application Layer
At the very top of the OSI Reference Model stack of layers, we find the Application layer which is
implemented by the network applications. These applications produce the data to be transferred over
the network. This layer also serves as a window for the application services to access the network
and for displaying the received information to the user. Protocols used in the Application layer are
SMTP, FTP, DNS, etc.

Functions of the Application Layer

The main functions of the application layer are given below.
 Network Virtual Terminal (NVT): It allows a user to log on to a remote host.
 File Transfer Access and Management (FTAM): This application allows a user to access files
in a remote host, retrieve files in a remote host, and manage or control files from a remote
computer.
 Mail Services: Provide email service.
 Directory Services: This application provides distributed database sources and access for
global information about various objects and services.

Data Flows in the OSI Model

Data flows through the OSI model in a step-by-step process:
 Application Layer: Applications create the data.
 Presentation Layer: Data is formatted and encrypted.
 Session Layer: Connections are established and managed.
 Transport Layer: Data is broken into segments for reliable delivery.
 Network Layer: Segments are packaged into packets and routed.
 Data Link Layer: Packets are framed and sent to the next device.
 Physical Layer: Frames are converted into bits and transmitted physically.
What is Network Topology
Network topology is the way devices are connected in a network. It defines how these components
are connected and how data transfer between the networks

There are two major categories of Network Topology i.e. Physical Network topology and Logical
Network Topology. Physical Network Topology refers to the actual structure of the physical medium
for the transmission of data.

Types of Network Topology

Below mentioned are the types of Network Topology
 Point to Point Topology
 Mesh Topology
 Star Topology
 Bus Topology
 Ring Topology
 Tree Topology
 Hybrid Topology
Point to Point Topology
Point-to-point topology is a type of topology that works on the functionality of the sender and receiver.
It is the simplest communication between two nodes, in which one is the sender and the other one is
the receiver. Point-to-Point provides high bandwidth.
```

Mesh Topology
In a mesh topology, every device is connected to another device via a particular channel. Every
device is connected to another via dedicated channels. These channels are known as links. In Mesh
Topology, the protocols used are AHCP (Ad Hoc Configuration Protocols), DHCP (Dynamic Host
Configuration Protocol), etc.
The total number of ports required = N * (N-1).
Then the total number of dedicated links required to connect them is N C 2 i.e. N (N-1)/2. In Figure

Star Topology
In Star Topology, all the devices are connected to a single hub through a cable. This hub is the
central node and all other nodes are connected to the central node.

At the same time the hub can be intelligent known as an active hub. Active hubs have repeaters in
them.

In Star Topology, many popular Ethernet LAN protocols are used as CD (Collision Detection), CSMA
(Carrier Sense Multiple Access), etc.

A common example of star topology is a local area network (LAN) in an office where all computers
are connected to a central hub. This topology is also used in wireless networks where all devices
are connected to a wireless access point.

Bus Topology
Bus Topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is connected to a
single cable. It is bi-directional. In Bus Topology, various MAC (Media Access Control) protocols are
followed by LAN Ethernet connections like TDMA, Pure Aloha, CDMA, Slotted Aloha, etc.

Advantages of Bus Topology

 If N devices are connected to each other in a bus topology, then the number of cables required
to connect them is 1, known as backbone cable, and N drop lines are required.
 Coaxial or twisted pair cables are mainly used in bus-based networks that support up to 10
Mbps.
 The cost of the cable is less compared to other topologies, but it is used to build small networks.
 Bus topology is familiar technology as installation and troubleshooting techniques are well
known
Disadvantages of Bus Topology
 A bus topology is quite simpler, but still, it requires a lot of cabling.
 If the common cable fails, then the whole system will crash down.
 If the network traffic is heavy, it increases collisions in the network. To avoid this, various
protocols are used in the MAC layer known as Pure Aloha, Slotted Aloha, CSMA/CD, etc.
 Adding new devices to the network would slow down networks.
 Ring Topology
In a Ring Topology, it forms a ring connecting devices with exactly two neigh boring devices. A
number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with a large number of nodes, because if someone
wants to send some data to the last node in the ring topology with 100 nodes, then the data will
have to pass through 99 nodes to reach the 100th node.

It is called Dual Ring Topology. In-Ring Topology, the Token Ring Passing protocol is used by the
workstations to transmit the data.

The most common access method of ring topology is token passing.

 Token passing: It is a network access method in which a token is passed from one node to
another node.
 Token: It is a frame that circulates around the network

Advantages of Ring Topology

 The data transmission is high-speed.
 The possibility of collision is minimum in this type of topology.
 Cheap to install and expand.
 It is less costly than a star topology
Disadvantages of Ring Topology
 The failure of a single node in the network can cause the entire network to fail.
 Troubleshooting is difficult in this topology.
 The addition of stations in between or the removal of stations can disturb the whole topology.
Tree Topology
Tree topology is the variation of the Star topology. This topology has a hierarchical flow of data. In
Tree Topology, protocols like DHCP and SAC (Standard Automatic Configuration) are used.

In tree topology, the various secondary hubs are connected to the central hub which contains the
repeater. This data flow from top to bottom i.e. from the central hub to the secondary and then to
the devices or from bottom to top i.e. devices to the secondary hub and then to the central hub.
 Hybrid Topology
Hybrid Topology is the combination of all the various types of topologies we have studied above.
Hybrid Topology is used when the nodes are free to take any form. It means these can be
individuals such as Ring or Star topology or can be a combination of various types of topologies
seen above.

Network Topology Important

Network Topology is important because it defines how devices are connected and how they
communicate in the network. Here are some points that defines why network topology is important.
 Network Performance: Upon choosing the appropriate topology as per requirement, it helps in
running the network easily and hence increases network performance.
 Network Reliability: Some topologies like Star, Mesh are reliable as if one connection fails,
they provide an alternative for that connection, and hence it works as a backup.
 Network Expansion: Choosing correct topology helps in easier expansion of Network as it
helps in adding more devices to the network without disrupting the actual network.
 Network Security: Network Topology helps in understanding how devices are connected and
hence provides a better security to the network.

OSI Model and TCP/IP

Parameters OSI Model TCP/IP Model

TCP/IP stands for

OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection Transmission Control
Full Form Protocol/Internet Protocol

Layers It has 7 layers It has 4 layers

Usage It is low in usage It is mostly used

Approach It is vertically approached It is horizontally approached

Delivery of the package is

Delivery of the package is guaranteed in OSI
not guaranteed in TCP/IP
Model
Delivery Model

Replacement of tools and changes can easily Replacing the tools is not
Replacement be done in this model easy as it is in OSI Model

It is more reliable than OSI

It is less reliable than TCP/IP Model
Reliability Model
 Parameters OSI Model TCP/IP Model

Not tied to specific protocols, but examples

include HTTP (Application), SSL/TLS HTTP, FTP, TCP, UDP, IP,
Protocol (Presentation), TCP (Transport), IP (Network), Ethernet
Example Ethernet (Data Link)

Error Built into protocols like

Built into Data Link and Transport layers
Handling TCP

Both connection-oriented (TCP) and

Connection TCP (connection-oriented),
connectionless (UDP) protocols are covered
UDP (connectionless)
Orientation at the Transport layer

TCP/IP Model
The TCP/IP model (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) is a four-layer networking
framework that enables reliable communication between devices over interconnected networks. It
provides a standardized set of protocols for transmitting data across interconnected networks,
ensuring efficient and error-free delivery

The main condition of this process is to make data reliable and accurate so that the receiver will
receive the same information which is sent by the sender.

Layers of TCP/IP Model

 Application Layer
 Transport Layer(TCP/UDP)
 Network/Internet Layer(IP)
 Network Access Layer

1. Application Layer
The Application Layer is the closest to the end user and is where applications and user interfaces
reside. It serves as the bridge between user programs and the lower layers responsible for data
transmission.
 Function: Provides services and interfaces for end-user applications to access network
resources.
 Key responsibilities:
o Supports application protocols like HTTP, FTP, SMTP, DNS, etc.
o Enables communication between software applications across networks.
o Handles data formatting, encryption, and session management.

2. Transport Layer
This layer ensures data is delivered reliably and in the correct order between devices. The two
main protocols in this layer are TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and UDP (User Datagram
Protocol).
 Function: Ensures reliable or unreliable delivery of data between hosts.
 Key responsibilities:
o TCP (Transmission Control Protocol): Provides reliable, connection-oriented delivery
with error checking, retransmission, and flow control.
o UDP (User Datagram Protocol): Provides faster, connectionless transmission without
guarantees.
 3. Internet Layer
It handles the routing of data packets across networks. It uses the Internet Protocol (IP) to assign
unique IP addresses to devices and decide the most efficient path for data to reach its destination.
 Function: Determines the best path for data to travel across networks.
 Key responsibilities:
o IP (Internet Protocol): Provides addressing and routing.
o Handles packet forwarding, fragmentation, and logical addressing (IP addresses).
o Involves protocols like IP, ICMP (for diagnostics), and ARP (for address resolution).

4. Network Access Layer

This layer is the lowest layer in the model and responsible for the physical connection between
devices within the same network segment.
 Function: Manages the physical transmission of data over the network hardware.
 Key responsibilities:
o Handles how data is physically sent over cables, Wi-Fi, etc.
o Manages MAC addressing, framing, and error detection at the physical link.
o Includes Ethernet, Wi-Fi, and other data link technologies.

What is Protocol?
A protocol is a set of rules that determines how data is sent and received over a network. The protocol
is just like a language that computers use to talk to each other, ensuring they understand and can
respond to each other's messages correctly. Protocols help make sure that data moves smoothly and
securely between devices on a network.

Key Elements of Protocol

 Syntax: Syntax refers to the structure or the format of the data that gets exchanged between
the devices. Syntax of the message includes the type of data, composition of the message, and
sequencing of the message. The starting 8 bits of data are considered as the address of the
sender. The next 8 bits are considered to be the address of the receiver. The remaining bits are
considered as the message itself.

 Semantics: Semantics defines data transmitted between devices. It provides rules and norms
for understanding message or data element values and actions.

 Timing: Timing refers to the synchronization and coordination between devices while
transferring the data. Timing ensures at what time data should be sent and how fast data can be
sent. For example, If a sender sends 100 Mbps but the receiver can only handle 1 Mbps, the
receiver will overflow and lose data. Timing ensures preventing of data loss, collisions, and
other timing-related issues.

 Sequence Control: Sequence control ensures the proper ordering of data packets. The main
responsibility of sequence control is to acknowledge the data while it get received, and the
retransmission of lost data. Through this mechanism, the data is delivered in correct order.
 Flow Control: Flow control regulates device data delivery. It limits the sender's data or asks the
receiver if it's ready for more. Flow control prevents data congestion and loss.

 Error Control: Error control mechanisms detect and fix data transmission faults. They include
error detection codes, data resend, and error recovery. Error control detects and corrects noise,
interference, and other problems to maintain data integrity.

 Security: Network security protects data confidentiality, integrity, and authenticity. Which
includes encryption, authentication, access control, and other security procedures. Network
communication's privacy and trustworthiness are protected by security standards.

Types of Protocol
 Network Layer Protocols: Network layer protocols operate in the network layer which is also
known as the Layer 3 of the network architecture. Network layer protocols are responsible for
packet routing, forwarding, and addressing of data packets throughout the network. IP
and ICMP are the network layer protocols.

 Transport Layer Protocols: Transport layer protocols work in the transport layer which
provides end-to-end service ensuring data transfer across apps on different
devices. TCP and UDP are the most popular transport layer protocols.

 Application Layer Protocol: Application layer protocol working in the application layer of the
network architecture provides communication between applications running on different devices.
The application layer protocols enable cross-device communication. They format, exchange,
and interpret application data. HTTP, FTP, and SMTP are examples.

 Wireless Protocols: Wireless protocols basically used in wireless communication which

enables data transfer through wireless networks. Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, and LTE protocols are
examples.

 Routing Protocols: Routing protocol establishes the best/optimal network pathways throughout
the network for fastest data transmission. Routers share information to develop and maintain
routing tables. RIP, OSPF, and BGP are examples.

 Security Protocols: security protocol protects data confidentiality, integrity, and authenticity
while transmission of data over the network. They include SSL and TLS, encryption methods,
and authentication protocols for providing data security.

 Internet Protocols: IP identifies devices uniquely. Internet protocol provides data

communication through routing and forwarding data packets from one device to another by
unique addressing scheme.

Important Protocols Used in Computer Network

Here are some key protocols that are widely used in computer networks:
 TCP (Transmission Control Protocol): Ensures data is sent and received accurately by
breaking it into packets, sending them, and reassembling them at the destination.

 IP (Internet Protocol): Addresses and routes the packets to make sure they reach the right
destination.

 HTTP/HTTPS (Hypertext Transfer Protocol/Secure): HTTP used for transferring web pages
on the internet. When you browse a website, your browser uses HTTP to request and display
web pages. And HTTPs is a secure version of HTTP that encrypts data to protect it from being
intercepted.
 FTP (File Transfer Protocol): Used for transferring files between computers on a network. It
allows users to upload and download files. SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol): Used for
sending emails. It transfers emails from a client to a server or between servers.

 DNS (Domain Name System): It is used to translate human-readable domain names (like
[Link]) into IP addresses that computers use to identify each other on the network.

 DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol): Automatically assigns IP addresses to

devices on a network, ensuring each device has a unique address.

 SSH (Secure Shell): Provides a secure way to access and manage devices over a network. It
encrypts the data, making it safe from eavesdropping.

 SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol): Used for managing and monitoring network
devices like routers, switches, and servers. It collects and organizes information about these
devices
Go-Back-N Protocol in Networking

Go-Back-N (GBN) is a data link layer protocol used in reliable communication over unreliable or
noisy networks. It’s part of the Sliding Window Protocol family, designed to manage the flow of
frames between sender and receiver.

Key Concepts

1. Sliding Window: The sender can transmit multiple frames (up to a window size N) without
waiting for an acknowledgment (ACK) for each one.
2. Acknowledgment (ACK): Receiver sends ACKs only for the last correctly received, in-
order frame.
3. Go-Back-N Mechanism: If an error occurs (e.g., a frame is lost or damaged), the sender
goes back and retransmits that frame and all subsequent frames, even if some of them
were received correctly.

What is a Repeater?

A repeater is a physical layer network device used to regenerate and amplify signals in a computer
network to extend the transmission distance. It ensures that the signal remains strong and clear
over long distances.

What is a Hub?

A hub is a basic networking device used to connect multiple computers or devices in a Local
Area Network (LAN). It operates at the OSI Layer 1 (Physical Layer) and simply broadcasts data
it receives to all connected devices, regardless of the destination.

What is a Switch?

A network switch is a device that connects multiple devices (like PCs, printers, or servers) in a
Local Area Network (LAN) and intelligently forwards data only to the specific device (port) it is
intended for. Switches operate mainly at the Data Link Layer (Layer 2) of the OSI model.
 What is a Router?

A router is a network device that connects multiple networks together and routes data packets
between them based on their IP addresses. Routers operate at the Network Layer (Layer 3) of the
OSI model.

What is a Gateway?

A gateway is a networking device or node that acts as an entrance between two different
networks, especially when they use different protocols, architectures, or communication
formats.

Unlike routers or switches that work within similar network types, gateways perform protocol
conversions, making them essential in heterogeneous networks.