POST GRADUATE DIPLOMA IN TEACHING (PGDT)

ACTION RESEARCH MODULE

1. Course Description

This course focuses on the development of action research knowledge, skills

and dispositions applicable in the context of teaching at secondary schools in
Ethiopia. It develops the conceptual and analytical skills to conduct action
research on issues related to teaching and learning. Students, therefore, will
explore action research conceptions, importance, characteristics, processes, and
places within the typologies of research approaches. In a synchronized manner
and interspersed within these contents, the students undertake practical project
work following the processes of action research.

2. Objectives of the Course

The course is designed with the main purpose of acquainting the would be
secondary school teachers with basic knowledge and skills of action research
applicable mainly in subject area methods of teaching at secondary schools. By so
doing, the course integrates theory and practice whereby the learners are
empowered to challenge the long existed status-quo through reflection, self-study,
and practice at their actual work environment. By the end of the course, therefore,
students will be able to:

 explain the concepts, importance and characteristics of action

research ;

 Identify the processes to be followed in conducting action research;

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  Indicate the similarities and differences between action research and
other types of research approaches,

 Apply their knowledge and skills of action research by identifying an

issue and investigating it following appropriate approach.

UNIT ONE

1. CONCEPTS, IMPORTANCE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF ACTION

RESEARCH

1.1. Unit objectives: Upon completion of this Unit, students will be able to:

1.1.1. Appreciate the diverse conceptions of action research;

1.1.2. Define action research in the context of the teaching;

1.1.3. Identify the purposes of action research;

1.1.4. Explain the characterizing features of action research; and

1.1.5. Identify an issue for investigation following action research approach;

1.1.6. Limit the identified issue for investigation.

1.2. Unit Contents

1.2.1. Concepts of Action Research

1.2.2. Importance of Action Research

1.2.3. Characteristics of Action Research

1.2.4. Identifying and limiting a relevant topic for investigation

1.2.5. Summary

UNIT TWO

2. PROCESSES OF ACTION RESEARCH

2.1. Unit objectives:

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Upon completion of this Unit, students will be able to:

2.1.1. Appreciate the dynamism of the Processes of action research;

2.1.2. Identify some basic process of conducting action research;

2.1.3. Elaborate a spiral cycles of action and research in the context of teaching;

2.1.4. Differentiate models of action research;

2.1.5. Develop an action research plan;

2.1.6. Implement the plan.

2.2. Unit Contents and sub-contents

2.2.1. Dynamism of the Processes of action research

2.2.2. Basic process of conducting action research

2.2.3. Spiral cycles of action and research

2.2.4. Models of action research

2.2.5. Summary
2.2.6. General Approach/Methods/Strategies

 Lecture method

 Buzz group

 Mini-research proposal or project method

2.3. Detailed Activities

2.3.1. Students’ activities

Students will accomplish the following activities:

 Attentive listening;

 Take notes,

 Observe and participate in performance approach of the teaching,

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  Actively participate in Buzz group discussion,

 Present their action research plans,

 Implement their action research plans,

 Participate in peer evaluation/feedback

2.3.2. Instructor’s activities

Among others, the instructor will:

 Introduce, the Unit contents

 present the lesson using gapped lecture,

 Demonstrate,

 Organize and monitor the Buzz group discussion,

 Monitor student learning,

 Give feedback to students’ presentations on their action research plans,

 Evaluate the students’ implementations.

2.4. Assessment Strategies and Techniques

Continuous and practice-based assessment: Assignments by way of examining the content of

the developed action research plan

2.5. Instructional Resources (Materials and equipment)

 White/Chalkboard, LCD, handouts, diagrams, Figures

UNIT THREE

3. The Place of Action Research Within the Educational Research Typologies

3.1. Unit objectives

Upon completion of this Unit, students will be able to:

3.1.1. Discuss over the various ways of classifying research typologies;

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 3.1.2. Classify educational research into different categories;

3.1.3. Compare and contrast the differences and similarities between action research
and traditional educational research;

3.1.4. Indicate the place of action research within the various typologies of educational
research methods;

3.2. Unit Contents and sub-contents

3.2.1. Broad categories of educational research

3.2.2. Action research versus traditional educational research

3.2.3. Action research versus qualitative and quantitative methodology

3.2.4. Classroom Research types versus action research

3.2.5. The Paradigms of Educational Research

3.2.6. Summary

3.3. General Approach/Methods/Strategies

 Brainstorming

 Informal and gapped Lecture,

 Student Independent study method

 Think-Pair-Share

3.4. Detailed Activities

3.4.1. Students’ activities

Students will perform the following activities:

 Respond to brainstorming questions posed by the instructor,

 Attentive listening;

 Take notes,

 Observe and participate in n the production and demonstration of Figures,

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  Independently study and do assignments,

 Participate in peer evaluation/feedback,

 Actively participate in Think-Pair-Share approach of teaching.

3.4.2. Instructor’s activities

The instructor will undertake the following activities:

 Pose brainstorming questions,

 Present the lesson using informal and gapped lecture

 Demonstrate the different ways of classifying educational research using diagrams,

Figures,

 Assign students into group work and monitor their participation and work,

 Give feedback to individual and group presentations.

3.5. Assessment Strategies and Techniques

 Continuous and practice-based assessment: Assessing the level of the Implementation

of the action research plan

3.6. Instructional Resources (Materials and equipment)

 White/Chalkboard, LCD, handouts, diagrams, Figures

3.7. Reading Materials for the unit (mandatory)

UNIT FOUR

4. Preparing and Presenting Action Research Reports

4.1. Unit objectives: Upon completion of this Unit, students will be able to:

4.1.1. Prepare reports using standard procedures,

4.1.2. Apply the findings of the action research conducted,

4.1.3. Communicate the results of the implemented action research;

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 4.1.4. Reflect on the research process and on the outcomes of the implementation of
action research outcomes.

4.2. Unit Contents and sub-contents

4.2.1. Implementing the action research plan

4.2.2. Sharing and communicating the results of the implemented action research
plan;

4.2.3. Reflecting on the research process;

4.2.4. Summary

4.3. General Approach/Methods/Strategies

 Brainstorming on the overall action research cyclical steps, of course related to the
students’ project work,

 The Problem Solving Method so as to revisit the phases of action research whereby the
students started by identify an issue and ended with finding solution

 Question and answers related to the presentations by students,

 Portfolio

 Feedback by: a) mentor; b) peers, c) instructor

4.4. Detailed Activities

4.4.1. Students’ activities

Students will perform the following activities:

 Respond to brainstorming questions,

 Present their action research projects and solicit feedbacks

 Give assessment feedback to each other.

4.4.2. Instructor’s activities

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The instructor will undertake the following activities:

 Pose brainstorming questions,

 Plan and activate the students to synthesize and report their action research project
whereby the students participate and give feedback in the form of reflection on the
processes,
 Assess the overall action research project of each students,
 Examine portfolio of each students,
 Give feedback.
4.5 Assessment Strategies and Techniques
 Continuous assessment: test, term paper; portfolio, presentation of the action
research project work; written exams; peer assessment of the presentations; mentor
feedback
4.6. Instructional Resources (Materials and equipment)

 White/Chalkboard, LCD, handouts, diagrams, Figures

4.7. Reading Materials for the unit (mandatory)

4.8. Course Assessment and Strategies

Whereas the overall learning assessment is continuous in nature, each student will give his/her
course assessment report to the instructor who taught him/her action research and/or subject
area methods in writing as feedback for the improvement of the course and delivery
mechanisms

4.9. Grading Schemes

The overall grading schemes of the students’ final assessment shall be done as follows:

 Written tests and exams (40%)

 Project and presentation (40%)
 Portfolio of evidence (10%)
 Mentor assessment (10%)

UNIT ONE

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 Concepts, Importance and Characteristics of Action Research

Introduction: The Nature of Research

There are many procedures by which we obtain information about a given phenomenon or
situation. We acquire a great deal of information from the events we experience as we go
through life. Experts also provide us with much information. We will briefly discuss four ways
by which we acquire knowledge, and then we will discuss the scientific approach to acquiring
knowledge. You should be able to see that each successive approach represents a more
acceptable means of acquiring knowledge. Although the earlier approaches do not
systematically contribute to the accumulation of scientific knowledge, they are used in the
scientific process. These are: Intuition, authority, rationalism, empiricism and the scientific
approach.

Intuition: - It is the act or process of coming to direct conclusions or certainty without

reasoning or inferring. Intuition relies on justification such as “It feels true to me” or I believe
this point, although I can’t really tell you why” The problem with intuition approach is that it
does not provide a mechanism for separating accurate from inaccurate knowledge. Intuition is
sometimes used in science, especially at the stage of formulating hypothesis (Polanyi, 2009).

Authority: - Authority as an approach to acquiring knowledge represents an acceptance of

information or facts stated by another because that person is a highly respected source. The
problem with the authority approach is that the information or facts stated by the authority
might be inaccurate.

Rationalism: -This approach uses reasoning to arrive at knowledge and assumes that valid
knowledge is acquired if the correct reasoning is used. During the sixteenth century rationalism
was assumed to be the dominant mode by which one could arrive at truth. In fact, it was
believed that knowledge derived from reasons was just as valid as, and often superior to
knowledge gained from observation. One danger of relying solely on rationalism for acquiring
knowledge is that, it is not unusual for two well-meaning and honest individuals to reach
different conclusions.

Empiricism: - A fourth approach to gaining knowledge is through empiricism. In this native

form, experience is valid and true. Therefore, facts that occur with experience are accepted, and
those are not tested through experience are rejected. Empiricism as a systematic and well-

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developed philosophy is traced to John Locke (1632-1704). Locke argued that virtually all
knowledge is based on experience. The origin of all knowledge is from our senses (sight,
hearing, touch, smell and taste).

Although the empirical approach is very appealing and has much to recommend, several
dangers exist if it used alone. Our perceptions are affected by a number of variables. Research
has demonstrated that such variables as past experiences and our motivations at the time of
perceiving can drastically alter what we see. Empiricism is vital element in science, but in
science, empirical observations must be conducted under controlled conditions and systematic
strategies must be used to minimize researcher bias and to maximize objectivity.

The scientific approach: - Scientific approach produces reliable and valid knowledge about
the natural world through systematic observation and experimentation. It searches for order and
defined relationships among the events in nature. This leads to knowledge, explanations and
understanding about nature. The Scientific approach involves four basic steps.

1) Conducting observation- First we begin by observing phenomena, people or objects. In this

approach the scientist can use the five sense organs to collect data from the surrounding
environment. For example, you may observe growth of plants whenever there is adequate
rainfall.

2) Formulating assumptions- Based on your observation you guess the possible cause- effect
relationship. In this stage the scientist attempts to guess a tentative solution for the problem
yet to be proved at the end of the experiment. For instance, from the above observation you
can assume that whenever there is adequate rainfall, plants grow better. This kind of
assumption is known as hypothesis.

3) Conducting experiment- After formulating assumptions it is important to conduct an

experiment to check if the assumptions are true assumptions. In this case we can take two
plants to grow in different places, one with adequate rainfall and the other with inadequate
rainfall. If the plant with adequate rainfall grows better than the other then our assumption
is proved to be true.

4) Forming conclusions. Based on the results of the experiment and repetition of the
experiment you can make generalization. For instance, in the above example, if repeated

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 experiments show the same results, we can conclude that adequate water is the necessary
condition for plant growth.

Classification of Research
Research is classified based on different perspectives. We can classify research on the basis of
Purpose as - Applied & Basic
On the basis of the nature of data used- Qualitative& Quantitative
On the basis of Method/strategies
 Descriptive (Survey)
 Case Study
 Historical
 Interrelationship (Correlational)
 Experimental
 Quazi-experimental.

 Research is the principal method for acquiring dependable knowledge.

 It is a problem solving activity
 Research is a systematic inquiry involving a series of interrelated and systematic steps.
 Research is an inquiry to obtain dependable information
 It is a systematic approach for reliable knowledge

A) Basic research
 Basic Research has a more general orientation i.e. adding to the existing body of
knowledge in the discipline
 It does not necessarily provide results of immediate practical use. However, in an
attempt to find a new knowledge, there is a possibility of providing solutions for
practical problems.
Example: the psychologist may be interested to measure the memory of people across age. The
result of this study may not have immediate practical use except helping us to know the
Relationship between memory and age.

B) Applied research

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The purpose of applied research is to solve an immediate practical problem. Such a research is
essential to solve a specific practical problem. For example, if the elementary school teacher
faces difficulty to correct the assignments of students in a large class, he/she may find a better
means through experimental research and uses the result in his/her daily teaching.
However, in producing a solution to a specific problem, applied research may contribute to the
general knowledge of the field. For instance, if scientists come up with a vaccine or a cure for
HIV/AIDS, then, on one hand it helps to solve a specific problem and on the other hand it helps
to add new knowledge to the field of Medicine
Activity:-[Link]

Give one example of applied research from your school life

One type of applied Research is Action Research. Action research is a kind of research
conducted by a teacher, administrator, or other educational professionals to aid in decision-
making in local school.
Dear Colleagues, if a teacher faces several problems in his/her teaching perhaps,
he/she might have faced difficulty to apply problem solving teaching methodology in
large class size. To solve this problem, he/she may conduct experimental study. That
is, first s/he teaches one class with lecture method and the other class by dividing the
class into discussion groups, for instance, one group containing 10 students and give
them topics s/he teaches in the first class in the lecture. Finally, if the teacher finds
that the class with groups is found to be appropriate to apply problem-solving teaching
methodology, then, s/he will group the class for the coming periods. This decision is
made based on the results of the research conducted by the teacher him/herself.

From the above example, we can conclude that action research focuses on the solutions of day-
to-day problems at local level. That means, there is little concern about generalizing the results
of action research to other educational setting.

Action-research is:

1. Conducted by the one who uses the results to make decisions

2. Conducted to solve practical, specific day-to-day problems
3. Cannot be generalized to other educational settings.
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A. Basic research

The second way of classifying educational research is based on the methodology used to collect
the relevant data. Based on the methodologies used there are two types of research. They are
quantitative research and qualitative research. The significant difference of these two types of
researches is on how data is collected, analyzed and interpreted and generalized. These two
research methodologies will be discussed in unit two.

1.5. Action Research

1.5.1. Introduction
Action research, sometimes called practitioner based research is a powerful tool for change and
improvement at the local level. Its combination of action and research has contributed to its
attraction to researchers, teachers and the academic and educational community alike. The
scope of action research as a method is impressive. It can be used in almost any setting where a
problem involving people, tasks and procedures cries out for solution, or where some change of
feature results in a more desirable outcome. It can be undertaken by the individual teacher , a
group of teachers working cooperatively within one school, or a teacher or teachers working
alongside a research or researchers in a sustained relationship.
1.5.2. Concept of action research.
The different conceptions of action research can be revealed in some typical definitions of
action research. For example Hopkins (1985:32) suggests that the combination of action and
research renders that a form of disciplined, rigorous inquiry in which a personal attempt is
made to understand, improve and reform practice. Ebbutt (1985:156) too, regards action
research as a systematic study that combines action and reflection with the intention of
improving practice. Cohen and Manion (1994:186) define it as a small- scale intervention in the
functioning of the real world and a close examination of the effects of such an intervention.
Corey (1953:6) argues that it is a process in which practitioners study problems scientifically so
that they can evaluate, improve and steer decision- making and practice.

A more philosophical stance on action research is the work of Kemmis (1986:162), who regard
it as a form of ‘self- reflective inquiry’ by participants, which is undertaken in order to improve
their understanding of their practices in context with a view to maximizing social justice.
Action research is designed to bridge the gap between research and practice. Whereas in some

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forms of research the researcher ‘does research on other people’, in action research the
researcher does it to himself/herself.
The aim of any action research project or program is to bring about practical improvement,
innovation, change or development of social practice, and the practitioners’ better
understanding of their practices.
Action research is a form of self-reflective inquiry undertaken by participants in social
situations in order to improve the rationality and justice of the own social or educational
practices and the situation in which these practices are carried out. The approach is only action
research when it is collaborative, though it is important to realize that the action research of the
group is achieved through the critically examined action of individual group members.
Kemmis and McTaggart(1992) distinguish action research from the everyday action of
teachers:
 It is not research done on other people. Action research is research by particular people
on their own work, to help them improve that they do, including how they work with
and for others.
 Makes for practical problem-solving as well as expanding scientific knowledge.
 Focuses on those problems that are of immediate concern to practitioners;
 Includes evaluation and reflection
 Collaboration, which is intended to mean that everyone’s view is taken as a contribution
to understanding the situation;
 It is an approach to improving education by changing it and learning from the
consequences of changes.
 Action research is participatory; it is research through which people work towards the
improvement of their own practices.
 Action research develops through the self-reflective spiral: a spiral of cycles of
planning, acting (implementing plans), observing (systematically), reflecting… and then
re-planning.
 Action research is collaborative: it involves those responsible for action in improving it.
 Action research allows us to build records of our improvements
Participatory action research does not mean that all participants need be doing the same. This
recognizes a role for the researcher as facilitator, guide, formulator and summarizer of
knowledge, raiser of issues.
1.5.3. Importance of action Research
Action research can be used in a variety of areas, for example:
 Teaching methods- replacing a traditional method by a discovery method

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  Learning strategies- adopting an integrated approach to learning in preference to a
single subject style of teaching and learning
 Evaluative procedures – improving one’s methods of continuous assessment ;
 Attitudes and values – encouraging more positive attitudes to work , or modifying
pupil’s value systems with regard to some aspect of life.
 Continuing professional development of teachers – improving teaching skills ,
developing methods of learning, increasing powers of analysis, heightening self-
awareness
 Management and control- the gradual introduction of the techniques of behavior
modification
 Administration – increasing the efficiency of some aspect of the administrative side of
school life.
Ferrance (2000:1) argues that a powerful justification for action research is that teachers:
 Work best on problems that they have identified for themselves
 Become more effective when they are encouraged to examine and assess their own
work and then consider ways of working differently.
 Help each other by working collaboratively
 Can help each other in their professional development by working together.
1.5.4. Types of action research
Though scholars distinguish different types of action research, only two of them are mentioned
below.
a) Technical action research: - It is designed to render an existing situation more efficient
and effective.
b) Practical action research: - Is designed to promote teachers’ professionalism by drawing
on their informal judgement. This underpins the teacher- as- researcher.
Unit summary
We acquire a great deal of information from the events we experience as we go through life.
Experts also provide us with much information. You should be able to see that each successive
approach represents a more acceptable means of acquiring knowledge. Although the earlier
approaches do not systematically contribute to the accumulation of scientific knowledge, they
are used in the scientific process. These are: Intuition, authority, rationalism, empiricism and
the scientific approach.
Action research is a form of self-reflective inquiry undertaken by participants in social
situations in order to improve the rationality and justice of the own social or educational
practices and the situation in which these practices are carried out. The approach is only action
research when it is collaborative, though it is important to realize that the action research of the
group is achieved through the critically examined action of individual group members.
Action research, sometimes called practitioner based research is a powerful tool for change and
improvement at the local level. Its combination of action and research has contributed to its
attraction to researchers, teachers and the academic and educational community alike.

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1.6 Reading Materials for the unit
Coghlan, D. & Brannick, T. (2001). Doing Action Research in Your Own Organization.
London: Sage Publications, Ltd.
Daniel D. & Firdissa J. (2009). Action Research Handbook for Higher Education Institutions.
Addis Ababa: AAU Printing Press
Elliott, J. (1991) Action Research for Educational Change. Milton Keynes: Open University
Press.
Firdissa J. (2010). Action research practices in teaching English as a foreign language in
Ethiopian universities: implications for quality language teaching (PhD Dissertation)
Hopkins, David (2002). A Teacher’s Guide to Classroom Research, 3rded. New York: Open
University Press.
Kemmis, S (2006) “Participatory action research and the public sphere” Education Action
Research Journal Vol 14, No. 4, pp 459-476. Reprinted in Pontë, P. and Smit, B. (eds) Quality
in Practitioner Research Amsterdam: Sense Publishers.
McKernan, James (1996): Curriculum Action Research: A handbook of methods and resources
on the reflective practitioner, 2nd Ed. London: Routledge Falmer.

Chapter Two
Basic Process of Conducting Action research

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2.1. Dynamism of action research process
The process of action research begins with a general idea that some kind of improvement or
change is desirable in deciding just where to begin in making improvements. There are several
ways in which the steps of action research have been analyzed. Blum (1959) casts action
research into two simple stages- Diagnostic stage in which the problems are analyzed and
hypothesis developed and therapeutic stage in which the hypotheses are tested by a consciously
directed intervention or experiment.

On the other hand others codified the action research process into four main stages: Planning,
acting, observing and reflecting. In practice, the action research process begins with a general
idea that some kind of improvement or change is desirable. In deciding just where to begin in
making improvements, one decides on a field of action where the battle should be fought. It is a
decision on where it is possible to have an impact. The general idea prompts a ‘reconnaissance’
of the circumstances of the field, and the fact- finding about them. Having decided on the field
and made a preliminary reconnaissance, the action researcher decides on a general plan of
action. Breaking the general plan down into achievable steps, the action researcher settles on
the first action step. Before taking this first step the action researcher becomes more
circumspect, and devices a way of monitoring the effects of the first action step. When it is
possible to maintain fact-finding by monitoring the action the first step is taken. As the step is
implemented, new data start coming in and the effect of the action can be described and
evaluated. The general plan is then revised in the light of the new information about the field
of action and the second action step can be planned along with appropriate monitoring
procedures. The second step is then implemented, monitored and evaluated and planning
continues.

According to this model, action research follows a series of spirals, each of which incorporates
a cycle of analysis, reconnaissance, reconceptualization of the problem, planning of the
intervene, implementation of the plan, evaluation of the effectiveness of the intervention. It is
also important feedback within and between each cycle is important, facilitating reflection.

On the other hand emancipatory action research categorized into the following cyclical process
of;

1. Strategic planning
2. Implementing the plan (action)
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 3. Observation, evaluation and self- evaluation
4. Critical and self-critical evaluation on the results of step1-3 and making decisions for
the next cycle.

Another approach of conducting the actin research is to set out an eight stage model;

Stage1: Decide and agree one common problem that you are experiencing or need that must be
addressed

Stage 2: identify some causes of the problem (need)

Stage3: brainstorm a range of possible practical solutions to the problem, to address the real
problem and the real cause(s).

Stage 4: from the range of possible practical solutions decide one of the solutions to the
problems, perhaps what you consider to be the most suitable or best solution to the problem.
Plan how to put the solution into practice.

Stage5: Identify some ‘success criteria’ by which you will be able to judge whether the
solution has worked to solve the problem, i.e., how will you know whether the proposed
solution, when it is put into practice, has been successful. Identify some practical criteria which
will tell you how successful the project has been.
Stage6: put the plan into action, monitor, adjust and evaluate what is taking place.
Stage7: evaluate the outcome to see how well it has addressed and solved the problem or need,
using the success criteria identified in stage 5.
Stage8: review and plan what needs to be done in light of the evaluation.
In general the key features of action research are:
It works on, and tries to solve real practitioner- identified problems of everyday practice.
Mcniff (2002:71), too, sets out an eight stage model of the action research process:
 Review your current practice;
 Identify an aspect that you wish to improve;
 Imagine a way forward in this
 Try it out
 Monitor and reflect on what happens
 Modify the plan in the light of what has been found; what has happened, and continue
 Evaluate the modified action;
 Continue until you are satisfied with that aspect of your work.

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We set out below an eight stage process of action research that attempts to draw together the
several strands and steps of the action research undertaking.

The first step will involve the identification, evaluation and formulation of the problem
perceived as critical in an everyday teaching situation. Problem be interpreted loosely here so
that it could refer to the need to introduce innovation into some aspect of a school’s established
programme.

The second stage involves preliminary discussion and negotiation among the interested parties-
teachers, researchers, advisers, sponsors, possibly- which may culminate in a draft proposal.
This may include a statement of the questions to be answered (example; ‘under what conditions
can curriculum change be best effected?’ what are the limiting factors in bringing about
effective curriculum change?’ what strong points of action research can be employed to bring
about curriculum change?’). The researchers in their capacity as consultants (or sometimes as
programme initiators) may draw upon their expertise to bring the problem more in to focus,
possibly determining causal factors or recommending alternative lines of approach to
established ones. This is often the crucial stage for the venture as it is at this point that the
needs of success or failure are planted.

The third stage may in some circumstances involve a review of the research literature to find
out what can be learned from comparable studies, their objectives, procedures and problems
encountered.

The fourth stage may involve a modification or re-definition of the initial statement of the
problem at stage one. It may now emerge in the form of a testable hypothesis or as a set of
guiding objectives. The fifth stage may be concerned with the selection of research procedures
– sampling, administration, choice of materials, methods of teaching and learning, allocation of
resources and tasks, deployment of staff and so on. Here it must be stated that embedded within
the overall scope of the term ‘action research’ might be a number of different research designs
that include different methods of gathering data.

The seventh stage embraces the implementation of the project itself (over varying periods of
time). It will include the conditions and methods of data collection (e.g. meetings, the keeping
of records, interim reports, final reports, the submission of self-evaluation and group-

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evaluation reports, etc., the monitoring of tasks and the transmission of feedback to the research
team; and the classification and analysis of data.

The eighth and final stage will involve the interpretation of the data; inferences to be drawn;
and overall evaluation of the project. Discussions on the findings will take place in the light of
previously agreed evaluative criteria. Errors, mistakes and problems will be considered. A
general summing up may follow this in which the outcomes of the project are reviewed,
recommendations made and arrangements for dissemination of results to interested parties
decided.

Figure1. A framework for action research

Problem
identification
How well intervention solved
the problem Possible interventions
to address problems

Review and Reflect Decision on

evaluate particular
intervention problems

Plan intervention
Monitor and record
Implement the with success
implementation
intervention criteria

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Unit Summary

There are several ways in which the steps of action research have been analyzed. Blum (1959)
casts action research into two simple stages- Diagnostic stage in which the problems are
analyzed and hypothesis developed and therapeutic stage in which the hypotheses are tested by
a consciously directed intervention or experiment.

Others codified the action research process into four main stages: Planning, acting, observing
and reflecting. In practice, the action research process begins with a general idea that some kind
of improvement or change is desirable. In deciding just where to begin in making
improvements, one decides on a field of action where the battle should be fought. It is a
decision on where it is possible to have an impact.

Reading Materials for the unit

Altricher, H., Posch, P. & Somekh, B. (1993). Teachers Investigate their Work: An
Introduction to the Methods of Action Research. London, Routledge.

Brindley, G. (1991). Becoming a researcher: Teacher conducted research and professional

growth. In E. Sadtono (ed.). Issues in language teacher education. Singapore: SEAMEO
Regional Language Center.

Hopkins, David (2002). A Teacher’s Guide to Classroom Research, 3 rded. New York: Open
University Press.

Kemmis, S. and McTaggart, R. (eds.) (1988). The Action Research Planner. (3rd ed.) Geelong,
Victoria: Deakin University Press.

McKernan, James (1996): Curriculum Action Research: A handbook of methods and resources
on the reflective practitioner, 2nd Ed. London: Routledge Falmer.

McNiff, Jean (2002.). Action Research: Principles and Practices. (2nd ed.). London & New
York: Rout ledge Falmer.

Verma, Gajendra K.,and Mallick, Kanka (1999). Researching Education Perspectives and
Techniques. London: Falmer Press.

21
 UNIT THREE

3. The Place of Action Research within the Educational Research Typologies

3.1. Unit objectives: Upon completion of this Unit, students will be able to:

3.1.1. Discuss over the various ways of classifying research typologies;

2.1.2. Classify educational research into different categories;

2.1.3. Compare and contrast the differences and similarities between action research
and traditional educational research;

2.1.4. Indicate the place of action research within the various typologies of educational
research methods;

Dear students! Welcome to this unit that will focus on the place of action research within the
educational research typologies. After completing the unit we think that you will
have a well understanding of action research in relation to other types of research
and their respective methodologies. Attaining that, it is expected that you will be
able to conduct practical action research and solve various problems in your
academic career.

How do you perceive research in general and educational research in particular?



22
 2.2. Educational Research

Education is an integral aspect of every society and in a bid to expand the frontiers of
knowledge, educational research must become a priority. Educational research plays a vital role
in the overall development of pedagogy, learning programs, and policy formulation.

As we all know that human beings by birth are inquisitive. Since their existence on the earth,
they are curious about events and phenomena happening in and around them. They want to find
out the answers behind the happenings of each event or phenomenon. This inquisitiveness has
led them to undertake an inquiry to know and understand a particular event or phenomenon.
This process of inquiry sometimes leads to the generation of new knowledge and sometimes
already existing knowledge gets verified or validated by others and some other times the
existing piece of knowledge is contradicted or invalidated by others. The way the knowledge
has been generated has always been a matter of discussion among the people who are
responsible for generating this knowledge.

Charles Pierce, one of the leading American philosophers describes this process that
historically there are four ways of generating knowledge i.e. method of tenacity, method of
authority, method of intuition, and method of science. The first three methods are haphazard,
disoriented, and lack empirical evidence and testing. But, the fourth method is called the
method of science. The scientific method is considered the most appropriate and best-known
method of generation of knowledge.

Bassey (1999: 38) defines “Research as a systematic, critical and self-critical inquiry which
aims to contribute towards the advancement of knowledge and wisdom (as cited in Morrison,
(p. 5) Source: [Link] default/files/upm-binaries/9629_017546Ch1.pdf
retrieved on 10th July 2020).

The inquiry which follows the systematic process or procedure and involves the generation of a
body of knowledge based on empirical evidence which can be validated by others is termed as
Research. Education as a discipline has evolved as researchers have been able to generate
knowledge in the field.

23
 2.3. Concept and Meaning of Educational Research

Educational research is a spectrum that bothers on multiple fields of knowledge and this means
that it draws from different disciplines. As a result of this, the findings of this research are
multi-dimensional and can be restricted by the characteristics of the research participants and
the research environment.

Educational research is a type of systematic investigation that applies empirical methods to

solving challenges in education. It adopts rigorous and well-defined scientific processes in
order to gather and analyze data for problem-solving and knowledge advancement.

Educational research consists of two words-education and research. The term ‘Education’ has a
wider meaning and it’s very difficult to give one meaning to the word education. But still, the
word education is derived from the Latin word Educare which means to mould or shape. In the
context of humans, altering human behavior as desired by society. On the other hand, the
word ‘research ‘is derived from the French word ‘recherché’ which means ‘act of searching
closely’ or ‘go about seeking’. Therefore, educational research stands for scientific research
that tries to alter or shape human behavior. In other words, educational research is the process
of inquiry in the field of education wherein research generates a body of knowledge in the form
of law, theory, principles which can be used in general or specific situations for altering human
behavior.

Thus, educational research is a systematic process of finding out how and why the behavior of
people changes or modify in educational settings. It not only involves predicting human
behavior in certain situations but also tries to find answers to unexplained behavior, phenomena
or discover new relationships, etc. It tries to seek answers to the causal relations or connections
between various human activities

Before having a clear meaning of the term and coming out with one’s definition, perusal of
definitions given by educationists is needed. Below are mentioned a few definitions of
educational research.

Ary, Sorenson, and Razaveih (2010) define that “it is the application of the scientific approach
to the study of educational problems” (p.19). “Critical inquiry aimed at informing educational
judgments and decisions to improve educational action. This is the kind of value-laden research

24
that should have immediate relevance to teachers and policymakers, and is itself educational
because of its stated intention to ‘inform’. It is the kind of research in education that is carried
out by educationists” Bassey (1999: 39). (Cited by Morrison, p.8)Source:
[Link] retrieved on 10th
July 2020)

Creswell (2011) defines that “Educational research involves asking questions, collecting and
analyzing data to find out the answers to the questions thus helping the practitioners to
understand the problem along with accumulating knowledge. It also assists educators to
improve the educational practices and focuses the attention of policymakers on important
policy issues to make wellinformed decisions on policy matter” (p.26).

Anderson (1998) “Research in education is a disciplined attempt to address questions or solve

problems through the collection and analysis of primary data for description, explanation,
generalization, and prediction” (p. 6).

Analysis of the above definitions indicates that educational research is a systematic and
organized method of finding out the answers for the questions raised and for the problems
encountered in the field of education as well as to improve the educational practices of the
teachers, educational administrators, managers, institutional heads and other stakeholders or
practitioners. It also helps the policymakers and planners to make policies based on it and thus
make well informed decisions based on educational policies

J. W. Best defines educational research as that activity that is directed towards the development
of a science of behavior in educational situations. The ultimate aim of such a science is to
provide knowledge that will permit the educator to achieve his goals through the most effective
methods.

The primary purpose of educational research is to expand the existing body of knowledge by
providing solutions to different problems in pedagogy while improving teaching and learning
practices. Educational researchers also seek answers to questions bothering on learner
motivation, development, and classroom management.

25
 2.4. Characteristics of Educational Research

Characteristics In the previous sub-section, you might have come to know that educational
research is a scientific process that follows several steps and contains certain features or
characteristics. The features or characteristics mentioned/highlighted by some of the
educational scientists are given discussed below. According to Anderson (1998) following are
the ten characteristics of educational research:

 attempts to solve educational problems; It sets out to solve a specific problem

 Involves the collection of data either from primary sources (first hand) or from secondary
sources (existing data); Educational research adopts primary and secondary research
methods in its data collection process. This means that in educational research, the
investigator relies on first-hand sources of information and secondary data to arrive at a
suitable conclusion
 Either empirical or observation-based; Educational research relies on empirical evidence.
This results from its largely scientific approach.
 Demands accurate and precise observation and description; Educational research is
objective and accurate because it measures verifiable information.
 Emphasis is on to develop generalization, theories, principles, etc which will facilitate in
understanding as well as prediction of behavior; Educational research findings are useful in
the development of principles and theories that provide better insights into pressing issues.
 requires expertise in designing the research, developing the tools, familiarizing with the
field, collecting data, collating the data from different sources, and analyzing the data;
 tends to find an objective, unbiased solution to the educational problem and made efforts to
validate the procedure employed; In educational research, the researcher adopts specific
methodologies, detailed procedures, and analysis to arrive at the most objective responses
 well directed, deliberate, and unhurried activity and often involves the refinement of the
problems or research questions during research;
 always meant for others and that’s why it is always carefully recorded and reported
conducted or done with well-defined procedures and in a rigorous manner; Many
educational research findings are documented for peer review before their presentation
 This research approach combines structured, semi-structured, and unstructured questions to
gather verifiable data from respondents

26
 Educational research is interdisciplinary in nature because it draws from different fields and
studies complex factual relations

2.5. Importance of Educational Research

1. Educational research plays a crucial role in knowledge advancement across different fields
of study.
2. It provides answers to practical educational challenges using scientific methods.
3. Findings from educational research; especially applied research, are instrumental in policy
reformulation.
4. For the researcher and other parties involved in this research approach, educational research
improves learning, knowledge, skills, and understanding.
5. Educational research improves teaching and learning methods by empowering you with
data to help you teach and lead more strategically and effectively.
6. Educational research helps students apply their knowledge to practical situations.

2.6. Steps in Educational Research

Like other types of research, educational research involves several steps. Following these steps
allows the researcher to gather objective information and arrive at valid findings that are useful
to the research context.

 Define the research problem clearly.

 Formulate your hypothesis. A hypothesis is the researcher’s reasonable guess based on the
available evidence, which he or she seeks to prove in the course of the research.
 Determine the methodology to be adopted. Educational research methods include
interviews, surveys, and questionnaires.
 Collect data from the research subjects using one or more educational research methods.
You can collect research data using Form plus forms.
 Analyze and interpret your data to arrive at valid findings. In the Form plus analytics
dashboard, you can view important data collection insights and you can also create custom
visual reports with the reports summary tool.
 Create your research report. A research report details the entire process of the systematic
investigation plus the research findings.

27
3.7. Broad Categories of Educational Research

Dear students! Please be in group of five and discuss the various types of educational

research from your prior experiences and share with other groups

Criteria for classification-Purpose Based

Here we will discuss the first type of classification that is purpose-based. As research is all
about the generation of new knowledge and using that knowledge for human welfare activity,
therefore this type of research can be broadly categorized into three categories: (i)
Fundamental/Basic Research (ii) Applied Research and (iii) Action Research. Let us discuss
each one of them in detail.

A. Fundamental/Basic Research;
Fundamental research is generally carried out for the generation of knowledge without any
immediate practical utility or application. It always deals with the generation of new and/or
additional knowledge related to an understanding of nature and its laws. These researches are
normally done in controlled situations either in the laboratory or laboratory-like conditions.
Fundamental researches are done to generate theories, principles, or laws so that applied
researchers used these theories, laws or principles, to generate/invent/design various machines,
types of equipment, or devices for the welfare of human beings. Fundamental research always
adds/modify/corrects the existing body of knowledge

Since educational researches have immediate utility and education being an interdisciplinary
and multidisciplinary area of study, researchers are more applied in nature, therefore researches
done in the field of social sciences like psychology, sociology, etc. like learning theories,
intelligence theories, personality theories, symbolic interactionism, conflict theory,
structuralism functionalism theory, etc. have closely related in many respects. Fundamental
researches are being carried out to understand in these allied areas or fields of studies or
examples regarding learning theories-how learning takes place in human beings; in
intelligence- how to understand the basic human intelligence and how it functions in them; in
personality-understanding the personality of human beings and categorized people based on
their personality, All these theories from the allied areas of studies help us to understand the

28
social behavior of human beings. Scientists doing fundamental research normally take different
perspectives/angles/routes to look at the basic or core problem/ issue.

Basic research is an investigation of basic principles and reasons for the occurrence of a
particular event or process or phenomenon. It is also called theoretical research. The study or
investigation of some natural phenomenon or relating to pure science is termed basic research.
Basic research sometimes may not lead to immediate use or application. It is not concerned
with solving any practical problems of immediate interest. But it is original or basic in
character. It provides a systematic and deep insight into a problem and facilitates the extraction
of scientific and logical explanations and conclusion on it. It helps build new frontiers of
knowledge. The outcomes of basic research form the basis for much-applied research.
Basic research:
 Seeks generalization
 Aims at basic processes
 Attempts to explain why things happen
 Tries to get all the facts
 Reports in the technical language of the topic
B. Applied Research
We have come to know about fundamental research. The next type of research described is
applied research. As already indicated or mentioned, applied research is done by scientists or
researchers to solve the immediate or practical problems at hand. Research, carried out all over
the world to develop vaccines for the control of coronavirus is an apt example of applied
research.

According to Travers “applied research is undertaken to solve an immediate practical problem

and the goal of adding to scientific knowledge is secondary”

The main difference between fundamental research and applied research is that applied
research problems are solved in natural settings rather than in laboratory conditions. In applied
research, researchers or scientists use the existing laws, theories, and principles of fundamental
research to solve their immediate or practical problems in real situations. Take, for example,
using the intelligence theories one can identify children with various types of intelligence
(numeracy, verbal, reasoning, kinesthetic, spatial, etc) and develop educational programs based
on their type of intelligence for their educational enrichment. Applied researches are in a way

29
used to test and verify the theories or laws, principles generated through fundamental research.
Thus, applied research is generally carried out to improve the product or process. Applied
research helps fundamental researchers to review or formulate new theories. Applied
researchers also follow the same steps for conducting the research. As already stated,
educational research is more applied in nature and tries to answers questions on what, how, and
why, therefore, the practitioners of educational research like teachers, educational
administrators, educational leaders, clinical psychologists, social workers, etc. carry out applied
research for a dual purpose:

(i) By addressing their professional problems through systematic inquiry;

(ii) By developing understanding among the practitioners about using basic or applied
research to improve their professional practices
Educational research is mostly inter-disciplinary as well as multidisciplinary in nature.
Therefore, educational researchers or practitioners while dealing with professional problems
are not purely confined to education discipline but they do take the help of other disciplines like
sociology, psychology, anthropology, management, etc. to understand the problem and seek the
solution from different perspectives

In applied research, one solves certain problems by employing well-known and accepted
theories and principles. Most of the experimental research, case studies, and inter-disciplinary
research are essentially applied research. Applied research is helpful for basic research.
Research, the outcome of which has immediate application is also termed applied research.
Such research is of practical use to current activity.
Applied research:
 Studies individual or specific cases without the objective to generalize
 Aims at any variable which makes the desired difference
 Tries to say how things can be changed
 Tries to correct the facts which are problematic
 Reports in common language
Depending on the nature of data and its analysis basic and applied research is further divided
into three types of research bearing some characteristics feature as follows:

30
 a. Quantitative research
 It is numerical, non-descriptive, applies statistics or mathematics, and uses numbers.
 It is an iterative process whereby evidence is evaluated.
 The results are often presented in tables and graphs.
 It is conclusive.
 It investigates the what, where, and when of decision-making.
Meaning / Characteristics and Classification of Educational Research
b. Qualitative research
 It is non-numerical, descriptive, applies to reason, and uses words.
 Its aim is to get the meaning, and feeling and describe the situation.
 Qualitative data cannot be graphed.
 It is exploratory.
 It investigates the why and how of decision-making.
c. Mixed Research
Mixed research- research that involves the mixing of quantitative and qualitative methods or
paradigm characteristics. The nature of data is a mixture of variables, words, and images.
2.7. Criteria for classification-nature of investigation and purpose
a. Exploratory Research
Exploratory research might involve a literature search or conducting focus group interviews.
The exploration of new phenomena in this way may help the researcher’s need for better
understanding, may test the feasibility of a more extensive study, or determine the best methods
to be used in a subsequent study. For these reasons, exploratory research is broad in focus and
rarely provides definite answers to specific research issues. The objective of exploratory
research is to identify key issues and key variables.
b. Explanatory research
 Its primary goal is to understand or explain relationships.
 It uses correlations to study relationships between dimensions or characteristics off
individuals, groups, situations, or events.
 Explanatory research explains (How the parts of a phenomenon are related to each other).
 Explanatory research asks the “Why” question.
Criteria for classification-Nature of data collection
a. Longitudinal Research

31
Research carried out longitudinally involves data collection at multiple points in time.
Longitudinal studies may take the form of:
 Trend study- looks at population characteristics over time, e.g. organizational absenteeism
rates during the course of a year.
 Cohort study- traces a sub-population over time, e.g. absenteeism rates for the sales
department;
 Panel study- traces the same sample over time, e.g. graduate career tracks over the period
1990 – 2000 for the same starting cohort.
b. Cross-sectional Research
One-shot or cross-sectional studies are those in which data is gathered once, during a period of
days, weeks or months. Many cross-sectional studies are exploratory or descriptive in purpose.
They are designed to look at how things are now, without any sense of whether there is a
history or trend at work.

Criteria for classification-Researcher’s Operation on Variables

A. Descriptive Educational Research

Descriptive research investigates ‘what exists’. It helps in interpreting and explaining the
existence of educational phenomena. There are various forms of descriptive research studies
like Case studies, Survey Studies.

Naturalistic observation: is a descriptive research method in which subjects are observed

in their natural environment to get a real (not artificial) picture of how behavior occurs.
Limitations of naturalistic observation are observer effect (animals or people who know
they are being watched may behave artificially) and observer bias (the researcher may not
observe systematically or he/she may observe behaviors he/she wants to observe and
ignores others).
Sample Survey: A sample survey gathers data on a representative sample. The data
gathered through sample surveys are generalized to the population of the study. For
example, research conducted on “Secondary School Teachers attitude towards Blended
Learning”. The findings of this research can be generalized as the attitude of all the teachers
of secondary schools.

32
 Case Study: This method involves an in-depth, longitudinal examination of a single
instance or phenomena, or event. It provides a systematic way of looking at events,
collecting data, analyzing information, and reporting the results. As a result, the researcher
may gain a sharpened or deep understanding of why the instance happened as it did, and
what might become important to look at more extensively in future research.
Document Analysis: Analysis of documents related to a particular aspect/ area of education
(e.g. religious and moral instruction, value education, analyzing the education policies and
commissions in India, etc;) is known as documentary analysis studies. For example, a
researcher wants to compare the existing status of a two-year teacher education program
([Link].) and a four-year teacher education programme ([Link].,[Link]) by studying various
documents related to both.
Developmental Studies: Descriptive research may examine how various aspects of human
development (e.g. intelligence, attitudes, social development, moral development) or skills
(cognitive skills, social interaction skills, etc;) develop in groups of individuals of the same
characteristics. Such studies are called ‘developmental studies’

In this type of educational research, the researcher merely seeks to collect data with regards to
the status quo or present situation of things. The core of descriptive research lies in defining the
state and characteristics of the research subject being understudied.

Because of its emphasis on the “what” of the situation, descriptive research can be termed
an observational research method. In descriptive educational research, the researcher makes use
of quantitative research methods including surveys and questionnaires to gather the required
data.

Typically, descriptive educational research is the first step in solving a specific problem. Here
are a few examples of descriptive research:

 A reading program to help you understand student literacy levels.

 A study of students’ classroom performance.
 Research to gather data on students’ interests and preferences.

From these examples, you would notice that the researcher does not need to create a simulation
of the natural environment of the research subjects; rather, he or she observes them as they

33
engage in their routines. Also, the researcher is not concerned with creating a causal
relationship between the research variables.

B. Correlational Educational Research

Correlational research concealed the extent relationship between two variables. For example, if
a researcher conducted a study “ Relationship between scientific attitude(x) and scientific
aptitude(y) of students”, then based on the score of scientific attitude or variable ‘x’ we can
predict the score of scientific aptitude or variable ‘y’ and vice versa. Variables may be
positively or negatively related to one another

This is a type of educational research that seeks insights into the statistical relationship between
two research variables. In correlational research, the researcher studies two variables intending
to establish a connection between them.

Correlational research can be positive, negative, or non-existent. Positive correlation occurs

when an increase in variable A leads to an increase in variable B, while negative correlation
occurs when an increase in variable A results in a decrease in variable B.

When a change in any of the variables does not trigger a succeeding change in the other, then
the correlation is non-existent. Also, in correlational educational research, the research does not
need to alter the natural environment of the variables; that is, there is no need for external
conditioning.

Examples of educational correlational research include:

 Research to discover the relationship between students’ behaviors and classroom

performance.
 A study into the relationship between students’ social skills and their learning
behaviors.

34
 C. Experimental Research

Experimental educational research is a research approach that seeks to establish the causal
relationship between two variables in the research environment. It adopts quantitative research
methods in order to determine the cause and effect in terms of the research variables being
studied.

Research involves finding out the functional relationship(s) among phenomena under
controlled conditions is known as experimental research. Experimental research aims to study
the cause-and-effect relationships between two variables. In the process of experimental
research, a researcher tries to manipulate or introduce some changes on one variable and
observes the consequent changes on the other variable. The variable, which is changed or
varied, is known as the ‘independent variable’ (IV) while the variable(s) on whom the effect is
measured is called dependent variables (DV). Problems like “Effect of online teaching on
academic achievement of senior secondary school students’’ are planned through well-designed
experimental studies.

Experimental educational research typically involves two groups – the control group and the
experimental group. The researcher introduces some changes to the experimental group such as
a change in environment or a catalyst, while the control group is left in its natural state.

Quasi-experimental Studies The literal meaning of ‘quasi’ is “seemingly, but not really”.
Thus research studies that do not use a truly experimental design are called quasi-experimental
studies. Since educational research is carried out on human beings who are, unlike objects,
changeable, and controls cannot be exercised totally or absolutely, therefore experimental
research in education is quasi-experimental. This type of research investigates the same issues
that experimental research does. The difference is only in terms of how an experiment is
designed and conducted.

The introduction of these catalysts allows the researcher to determine the causative factor(s) in
the experiment. At the core of experimental educational research lies the formulation of a

35
hypothesis and so, the overall research design relies on statistical analysis to approve or
disprove this hypothesis.

Examples of Experimental Educational Research

 A study to determine the best teaching and learning methods in a school.

 A study to understand how extracurricular activities affect the learning process.

Based on functionality, educational research can be classified into fundamental

research, applied research, and action research. The primary purpose of fundamental research is
to provide insights into the research variables; that is, to gain more knowledge. Fundamental
research does not solve any specific problems.

Just as the name suggests, applied research is a research approach that seeks to solve specific
problems. Findings from applied research are useful in solving practical challenges in the
educational sector such as improving teaching methods, modifying learning curricula, and
simplifying pedagogy.

Action research is tailored to solve immediate problems that are specific to a context such as
educational challenges in a local primary school. The goal of action research is to proffer
solutions that work in this context and to solve general or universal challenges in the
educational sector.

3.2.2. Action Research versus Traditional Educational Research

Dear students! Be in pair and try to reflect on the following activities


1. .How do you define action research?
2. How do you compare Action Research with other Traditional Educational Research?
3. Have you ever conducted action research? If so, what kind of problem did you solve?

Action Research
Action Research has its origin in the works of the social psychologist Kurt Lewin (1946). He
developed the ideas of group decision and commitment to improvement at work situations
36
(classroom and administrative). It is an act of analyzing a situation leading to certain action for
improvement and evaluating the result of the tried out action. Action research is focused on
immediate application. It places the emphasis on the problem here and now, in a school setting.
Its findings are to be evaluated in terms of local applicability and improvement in school
practices. The whole purpose of Action Research is to involve classroom teachers to attempt to
solve their classroom problems.

Action research is focused on solving specific classroom or school problems, improving

practice, and helping to make decisions at local sites. The purpose of action research is to
provide teacher-researchers with a method for solving problems in schools so that they may
improve both student learning and teacher effectiveness. Action research is a philosophy and
methodology of research that is generally applied in the social sciences.

Key Characteristic features of Action Research

 persuasive
 authoritative
 relevant
 accessible
 It is situational
 It is a reflective inquiry
 It is based on scientific approach
 It is a scientific way of Solving Problems
 It is a small scale intervention
 It is a way to find remedies to overcome obstacles in learning
 It provides avenues for the teachers to be innovative
 It is a unified exercise to bridge the gap between theory and practice
 It is a way to develop self confidence in teachers
 It is self-evaluative

Action research challenges the intractability of reform of the education system. Action research
techniques can be viewed in terms of the dialectic action research spiral. The spiral is a four-
step process made up of identifying of an area of study, taking action, collecting
data, analyzing data, and reflecting.

37
The reflection process of action research ensures rigor. Within the context of action research,
"rigor" refers to the usefulness of the research. Reflection allows the researcher to evaluate the
thoroughness of the process and improve rigor. In order for research to be considered rigorous,
it needs to have validity. The research needs to be thorough and accurate in order to hold
validity and demonstrate rigor. The reproductively of the research is another indication of rigor,
as it is a key component of useful research. Action research requires rigorous iteration between
action and reflection. The elements of action research which are unique within the research
context are reflective learning and the continuous cycle of improvement.

Action research involves a systematic process of examining the evidence. The results of this
type of research are practical, relevant, and can inform theory. Action research is different than
other forms of research as there is less concern for universality of findings, and more value is
placed on the relevance of the findings to the researcher and the local collaborators.

Action Research in Education

In the field of education, action research is systemic inquiry conducted by educators with a
vested interest in the teaching-learning process or environment for the purpose of gathering
information about how their school operates, how they teach, and how their students learn.
Action research focuses on solving specific classroom or school problems, improving practice,
and helping to make decisions at a local site.

Action research generates knowledge around inquiry in practical educational contexts and
allows educators to learn through their actions with the purpose of developing personally or
professionally. Action research contributes significantly to the professional stance that teachers
may adopt because it encourages them to examine the dynamics of their classrooms, ponder
the actions of students, challenge existing practices, and take risks in the process. Action
research is largely about developing the professional disposition of teachers by encouraging
them to be continuous learners in their classrooms and of their practice.

It is similar to traditional research in regards to collecting and analyzing data, developing

research question, reporting a conclusion. It is a process that integrates practical pursuit, theory
and practice, and community-school-based participants to identify practical solutions about a
concern. Below are the following purpose and features of action research:

A Comparison of Traditional Educational Research and Action Research

38
 Traditional Research Action Research
Purpose To draw conclusions. Focus is on To make decisions. Focus is on the
advancing knowledge in the field. Insights improvement of educational practice.
may be generalized to other settings. Limited generalizability.
Context Theory: Hypotheses/research questions Practice: Research questions derive from
derive from more general theoretical practice. Theory plays secondary role.
propositions.
Data Rigorous statistical analysis. Focus on practical, not statistical
analysis significance
Sampling Random or representative sample. Students with whom they work.
Immediat Knowledge in teaching and learning is Directly benefits school practitioners
e Benefit developed outside Directly benefits involved in the research such as educators
school practitioners involved in the and the school district itself.
research such as educators and the school
district itself. schools or not developed by
educators.
Scope Face-to-face interaction between Collaboration of school community
researcher and the participant. including educators, parents, community
activists, and university-based colleagues
Approach Used a lot for qualitative research to Aim is to improve teaching and learning
capture participant’s emotional reaction. and Conducted to lobby changes or change
policies
Focus Theory development and testing is It is a research process investigating about a
conducted separately. problem.

3.2.3. Action Research versus Qualitative and Quantitative Methodology

Brain storming Activities:

Dear students: be in pair and reflect on the following activities
1. What are the Qualitative and Quantitative Methodologies? What are the main differences?
2. Have you ever used them at different stages of your research experience?
3. When do we employ the qualitative and quantitative approaches in action research

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What is action research?

Action research is a research paradigm which allows you to develop knowledge or

understanding as part of practice. It allows research to be done in situations where other
research methods may be difficult to use. For instance, you may find it useful if...

 you must remain flexible

 or you wish to involve the people in the system being researched
 or you wish to bring about change at the same time
 or the situation is too ambiguous to frame a precise research question. or any
combination of the preceding conditions.

The history of action research began in the US in the 1930s when Kurt Lewin introduced it as
a form of qualitative inquiry in the applied social science, and two decades later it gained
momentum in the field of education (Adelman, 1993; Whitehead & McNiff, 2006). Despite
its reliance on the interpretive paradigm at the early stage of development, in the course of
time action research was approached using alternative paradigms (McCutcheon & Jung, 1990).

In short, action research is a useful way of doing research if you are a practitioner who wishes
to improve your understanding of your practice. Its other common use is by activists who wish
to engage the clients as co-researchers. It can also be used for preliminary or pilot research
before using some other research approach. This is less common, but potentially very useful.

More formally described, action research is a research paradigm: a family of research methods
united by a certain set of principles and a certain style. Examples of other research paradigms
are experimental (including quasi-experimental), and ethnographic. And there are others.
There are many varieties of action research within the paradigm, at least as the term "action
research" is used here. Other views may differ.

As its name implies, action research is intended to achieve both action and research. It is suited
to situations where you wish to bring about action in the form of change, and at the same time
develop an understanding which informs the change and is an addition to what is known.

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Action research is typically cyclic. The later cycles are used to challenge and refine the results
of the earlier cycles. In most of its forms it also tends to be qualitative, and participative.
Some would say that neither of these is strictly necessary. Some insist, strongly, on high
participation as a necessary feature. Some have defined publication of results as a defining
characteristic.

Action research is also critically reflective. The researchers (and probably clients acting as co-
researchers) regularly and systematically critique what they are doing. They refine the
questions they are asking and the methods they are using and the understanding and subsequent
action plans they are developing.

Action research commonly proceeds like this. The researcher, again often involving clients as
co-researchers, plans the first or next step. This is then carried out. Researchers meet to
recollect and critique their experience. In the light of this, they decide what to do for the next
step: what information do they need or what outcome to pursue, and what method to use.

In short, action research alternates between action and critical reflection. The reflection
consists first of analyzing what has already happened in previous steps, and then of planning
what next step to take.

Qualitative Approach to Action Research

Action research requires teachers to understand their own practice by being self-
reflective and examining it critically and systematically (Burns, 2010), paving the way for
them to find some aspects of their practice that may need improvement. Such in-depth
understanding could be accomplished with optimum results by conducting action research with
qualitative approach. Interpretive paradigm, which underlies certain types of qualitative
research, views education as a process and school as a lived experience, so
understanding the collecting data in order to generate hypotheses rather than testing
them. In addition, multiple reality exists as the voices of the researchers and the
participants are acknowledged and considered valuable; yet, they are interpreted holistically to
make up meaning (Merriam, 1998). This underlying paradigm enables teachers to delve
deeply into the teaching and learning process by asking doing? Why must we do it?”
(McCutcheon & Jung, 1990)

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Quantitative Approach to Action Research

The quantitative approach stems from positivism, the underlying principles of which
considerably differ from those of interpretivism above. According to the positivist stance,
education and school are objects or phenomena that can be investigated, and understanding
these objects or phenomena should be done deductively by using scientific or experimental
research to obtain objective, quantifiable outcomes. Therefore, in positivism reality is
considered as stable, observable and measurable (Merriam, 1998). Such views affect the nature
of action research teachers conduct in their classrooms. They rely on numerical data obtained
from the learners to answer research questions formulated in the following ways: Which
technique/media/activity works more effectively for a particular group of learners? What is the
correlation between X and Y? How well does a particular strategy help the students learn?

Definition of Qualitative Research

Qualitative research is one which provides insights and understanding of the problem setting. It
is an unstructured, exploratory research method that studies highly complex phenomena that
are impossible to elucidate with the quantitative research. Although, it generates ideas or
hypothesis for later quantitative research.

Qualitative research is used to gain an in-depth understanding of human behavior, experience,

attitudes, intentions, and motivations, on the basis of observation and interpretation, to find out
the way people think and feel. It is a form of research in which the researcher gives more
weight to the views of the participants. Case study, grounded theory, ethnography, historical
and phenomenology are the types of qualitative research.

Definition of Quantitative Research

Quantitative research is a form of research that relies on the methods of natural sciences, which
produces numerical data and hard facts. It aims at establishing cause and effect relationship

42
between two variables by using mathematical, computational and statistical methods. The
research is also known as empirical research as it can be accurately and precisely measured.

The data collected by the researcher can be divided into categories or put into rank, or it can be
measured in terms of units of measurement. Graphs and tables of raw data can be constructed
with the help quantitative research, making it easier for the researcher to analyze the results.

Key Differences between Qualitative and Quantitative Research

The differences between qualitative and quantitative research are provided can be drawn clearly
on the following grounds:

1. Qualitative research is a method of inquiry that develops understanding on human and

social sciences, to find the way people think and feel. A scientific and empirical
research method that is used to generate numerical data, by employing statistical,
logical and mathematical technique is called quantitative research.
2. Qualitative research is holistic in nature while quantitative research is particularistic.
3. The qualitative research follows a subjective approach as the researcher is intimately
involved, whereas the approach of quantitative research is objective, as the researcher is
uninvolved and attempts to precise the observations and analysis on the topic to answer
the inquiry.
4. Qualitative research is exploratory. As opposed to quantitative research which is
conclusive.
5. The reasoning used to synthesize data in qualitative research is inductive whereas in the
case of quantitative research the reasoning is deductive.
6. Qualitative research is based on purposive sampling, where a small sample size is
selected with a view to get a thorough understanding of the target concept. On the other
hand, quantitative research relies on random sampling; wherein a large representative
sample is chosen in order to extrapolate the results to the whole population.
7. Verbal data are collected in qualitative research. Conversely, in quantitative research
measurable data is gathered.
8. Inquiry in qualitative research is a process-oriented, which is not in the case of
quantitative research.

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 9. Elements used in the analysis of qualitative research are words, pictures, and objects
while that of quantitative research is numerical data.
10. Qualitative Research is conducted with the aim of exploring and discovering ideas used
in the ongoing processes. As opposed to quantitative research the purpose is to examine
cause and effect relationship between variables.
11. Lastly, the methods used in qualitative research are in-depth interviews, focus groups,
etc. In contrast, the methods of conducting quantitative research are structured
interviews and observations.
12. Qualitative Research develops the initial understanding whereas quantitative research
recommends a final course of action.

3.2.4. Classroom Research Types versus Action Research

Dear students! Please be in group of five and discuss the various types of Classroom Research

and compare them with Action Research share with other groups

Classroom Research

The Definition of Classroom Action Research Bogdan & Biklen (1992: 223) explain that action
research is the systematic collection of information that is designed to bring about social
change. In addition, (Cameron-Jones: 1983) defines action research as a research carried out by
practitioners with a view to improve their professional practice and understand it better. In
accordance with that Allwright and Bailey (1991: 2) mention that it is a research centers on the
classroom, and simply tries to investigate what actually happens inside the classroom. It treats
classroom interaction as virtually the only object worthy of investigation.

The first definition refers to the general meaning of action research and the second reflects the
meaning of classroom action research since it can be understood that the term practitioners used
refers to teachers who practice and act in classroom. The last, perfectly indicates the action and
the practice done by teachers in their own classrooms or issues on how teachers respond to

44
learners’ errors, how interaction occurs in classrooms, the feeling of teachers and learners
during or after the lessons, and so on.

Action Research is a process in which educators examine their own practice systematically and
carefully using the techniques of research. Participants design a research question, collect data
throughout the year, analyze what they have learned, and write about their findings.
Observations, interviews, surveys and journals are typical data methods that participants use to
investigate their questions.

The Purpose of Classroom Action Research

The purposes of action research in school and classroom fall broadly into five categories
(Cohen: 1989: 118). First, it is a mean of remedying problems diagnosed in specific situations,
or improving in some way a given set of circumstances. Second, it is a mean of in-service
Training, thereby equipping the teacher with new skills and methods, sharpening his analytical
powers and heightening his self-awareness. Third, it is a mean of injecting additional or
innovatory approaches to teaching and learning into an ongoing system which normally inhibits
innovation and change. Fourth, it is a mean of improving the normally poor communication
between the practicing teacher and academic researcher. Fifth, it is a mean of providing a
preferable alternative to more subjective approach to problem solving in the classroom.

In addition, other idea describing the topic is one of Borg, Gall, and Gall (1993: 391) that state
other five purposes of classroom action research. First, classroom action research contributes to
the theory and knowledge base needed for enhancing practice. Second, it support the
professional development of practitioners by helping them become more competent in
understanding and utilizing research finding and carrying out research themselves when
appropriate. Third, it builds a collegial networking system for sometimes it involves several
educators, even students and parents, working together. Fourth, it helps practitioners identify
problem and seek solutions in a systematic fashion. Fifth, it can be used at all levels and in all
areas of education, such as a mean of in-service training for principals. Even though the
explanation of different experts above seems to be different in form of statements, the essence
of the idea is perfectly similar.

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 Action Research

According to Paul Gorski, Action Research for educators meets the following qualifications:

 a non-traditional and community-based form of educational evaluation;

 carried out by educators, not outside researchers or evaluators;
 focused on improving teaching and learning, but also social and environmental factors
that affect the nature and success of teaching and learning;
 formative, not summative--an on-going process of evaluation, recommendation,
practice, reflection, and reevaluation; and
 change-oriented, and undertaken with the assumption that change is needed in a given
context.
3.2.5. The Paradigms of Educational Research

Brain storming Activities:

 1. What is the main essence of the concept paradigm?

2. What are the purposes of paradigm in research in general and educational research in
particular?

For decades during the late 20 th century, ‘paradigm wars’ raged amongst supporters arguing
fiercely for the superiority of their chosen paradigm. Over time, this gave way to a
‘paradigm dialogue’ in which supporters came to accept their differences and realized that
every research paradigm is of equal importance. No research paradigm is superior, but each
has a specific purpose in providing a distinct means of producing unique knowledge.
Thanks to the newer paradigms, educational researchers (including teacher-researchers) are
providing empirical and theoretical evidence of ways in which traditional curriculum and
assessment policies unduly constrain teaching and learning, and research practices in
schools, colleges and universities. And, importantly, these researchers are being empowered
to envisage new policies and practices that better meet the emerging educational needs of
their rapidly globalizing societies.

The term paradigm needs clarification. Willis (2007) explains that: “A paradigm is thus a
comprehensive belief system, world view, or framework that guides research and practice
in a field” (p.8). From a philosophical perspective, a paradigm comprises a view of the
nature of reality (i.e., ontology) – whether it is external or internal to the knower; a related

46
view of the type of knowledge that can be generated and standards for justifying it (i.e.,
epistemology); and a disciplined approach to generating that knowledge (i.e.,
methodology). For educational researchers, there are several major paradigms that govern
their inquiries into the policies and practices of education. Each paradigm carries related
theories of teaching and learning (or pedagogy), curriculum and assessment, professional
development, etc.

1. Traditional Paradigms

We will not spend much time on these tried and trusted paradigms, as there is a plethora of
social science research methods textbooks that serve this purpose. The outlines provided
here serve simply as a basis of comparison with the newer paradigms.

A. Positivist Paradigm
We start with positivism, a research paradigm that is very well known and well established
in universities worldwide. This ‘scientific’ research paradigm strives to investigate, confirm
and predict law-like patterns of behavior, and is commonly used in graduate research to test
theories or hypotheses. This is particularly useful in natural science, physical science and,
to some extent, in the social sciences, especially where very large sample sizes are
involved. Generally its focus is on the objectivity of the research process (Creswell, 2008).
The positivist paradigm mostly involves quantitative methodology, utilizing experimental
methods involving experimental (or treatment) and control groups and administration of
pre- and post-tests to measure gain scores. Here, the researcher is external to the research
site and is the controller of the research process.

B. Post-Positivist Paradigm
Post-positivism, as Willis (2007) describes it is a “milder form of positivism “that follows
the same principles but allows more interaction between the researcher and his/her research
participants. It uses additional methods such as survey research and qualitative methods
such as interviewing and participant-observation (Creswell, 2008). This paradigm is the
modified scientific method for the social sciences. It aims to produce objective and
generalizable knowledge about social patterns, seeking to affirm the presence of universal
properties/laws in relationships amongst pre-defined variables. This epistemology is
manifested by quasi-experimental research designs that utilize treatment, outcome measures
47
and experimental units, but do not use random assignment to create comparison from which
treatment caused change is inferred. It is very similar to the positivist approach of
comparing mean scores but depends on non-equivalent groups that differ from each other in
many ways other than the presence of the treatment whose effects are being tested (Depoy
& Gitlin, 1998). The quality standards of this paradigm are objectivity,
validity and reliability, which can be modified with the use of triangulation of data,
methods and theories.

C. New Paradigms

1. The Interpretive Paradigm

This humanistic paradigm arrived in educational research during the late 1970s, influenced
strongly by anthropology which aims to understand other cultures, from the inside. That is,
to understand the culturally different ’other’ by learning to ‘stand in their shoes’, ‘look
through their eyes’ and ‘feel their pleasure or pain’. Thus the epistemology of this paradigm
is inter-subjective knowledge construction. Interpretive knowledge of the other is produced
through a prolonged process of interaction undertaken by ethnographers who immerse
themselves within the culture they are studying. Using ethnographic methods of informal
interviewing, participant observation and establishing ethically sound relationships,
interpretive researchers construct trustworthy and authentic accounts of the cultural other.
Applied to educational research, this paradigm enables researchers to build rich local
understandings of the life-world experiences of teachers and students and of the cultures of
classrooms, schools and the communities they serve.

The quality standards that regulate interpretive knowledge construction are varied, but
arguably the most well-known and coherent are those of Guba and Lincoln (1989) who
developed standards of trustworthiness and authenticity that are distinctly different but
‘parallel to’ the validity, reliability and objectivity standards of positivism. The
trustworthiness criteria include: credibility (did the researcher undertake prolonged
immersion in the field, check his/her interpretations with his/her informants, and display a
process of learning?), dependability (did the researcher engage in open-ended or emergent
inquiry?), transferability (is there sufficient rich description for the reader to compare

48
his/her own social context with the social setting of the research?), and confirmability (can
the research data be tracked to their source?).

The authenticity criteria focus on the ethics of the relationship established by the researcher
with his/her participants and include: fairness (are the informants represented
fairly?), educative (did the participants benefit by learning about their social
world?), catalytic (did the participants benefit by identifying problems associated with their
social world?), and tactical (did the research empower the participants to improve their
social situation?) (Guba & Lincoln, 1989; Josselson, 2007). The authenticity criteria have a
strong resonance with the standards of the critical paradigm outlined below.

Recent developments in the interpretive paradigm have highlighted the importance of the
researcher’s own subjectivity in the (hermeneutic) process of interpretation, and have
emphasised its progressive development as a key part of the inquiry process, thereby adding
to the emergent and reflective quality of interpretive research. Thus the interpretive
researcher would constantly ask him/herself: What is the influence of my own (past and
present) values and beliefs in interpreting the thoughts and feelings of the other? What
hidden assumptions are constraining (distorting) the way I make sense of the other?
Interpretive research methods include’ narrative inquiry’ and ‘writing as inquiry’,
especially autobiographic and auto-ethnographic methods (Ellis & Bochner, 2000;
Clandinin & Connolly, 1998; Richardson, 2000; Taylor & Settelmaier, 2003).

Applied to education, interpretive inquiry engages teachers as reflective practitioners in

developing enhanced understanding of the life-worlds of their students by constantly asking
questions such as: Who are these students who sit before me? Who is the self that teaches?
(Palmer, 1998). A deeper understanding involves a broader focus on the social, political,
historic and economic forces shaping the pedagogies, curriculum policies and schooling
system in which teachers are immersed. Such an interpretive orientation is essential for
teachers wishing to adopt more student-centred pedagogies such as constructivist
approaches to teaching and learning. Rigorous standards have been developed for
regulating the quality of reflective interpretive inquiry (or ‘self-study’) (e.g., Bullough &
Pinnegar, 2001).

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2. The Critical Paradigm

To resolve the global crises we are facing today we need to produce graduates capable not
only of conducting scientific research reasoned out through objective quantitative strategies
or engaging in interpretive research that deepens mutual understanding. The added
challenge for educational research is to empower our students and colleagues to become
imaginative and critical thinkers capable of addressing the question: ‘Whose interests are
not being (and should be) served by particular social policies and practices?’The critical
research paradigm addresses this issue by enabling the researcher to practice ‘deep
democracy’ (Kincheloe & McLaren, 2000) which involves identifying and transforming
socially unjust social structures, policies, beliefs and practices. Its primary purpose is to
identify, contest and help resolve ‘gross power imbalances’ in society which fuel ethically
questionable profit-making activities that contribute to systemic inequalities and injustices
such as social and economic exclusion of some sectors of society, loss of cultural capital
and cultural identity amongst ethnic minorities, and anthropocentric climate change and
loss of biodiversity.

In this type of research, the process of writing as inquiry (shared with the interpretive
paradigm) has an added critical dimension and becomes a means of critical analysis and
ideology critique of established policy and practice. The researcher raises his/her own
critical consciousness (Brookfield, 2000) and constructs a moral vision of a better society.
This can be done individually or, better still, in collaboration with less empowered others
participating in ‘critical action research’ led by the researcher in the role of facilitator. The
researcher’s role is one of advocacy, a change agent who argues for and leads the way
towards a more equitable, fair and sustainable society. The work of Jose Rizal (the national
hero of the Philippines) and Patrick Awuah (founder of Ashesi University, Ghana) are good
examples of this type of transformative leadership.

Applied to education, critical inquiry focuses first on raising the conscious awareness of
teachers about established values and beliefs that underpin their seemingly natural teacher-
centred classroom roles (Taylor, 2008). Once this process is underway, critical theory is
introduced (e.g., critical pedagogy, cultural inclusiveness, social justice) that stimulates
teachers’ creative thinking about designing curricula and assessment that are more student-

50
centred, inquiry oriented, culturally sensitive, community-oriented, socially responsible,
etc.

The rigor of this type of research is evaluated in terms of quality standards that are very
different from those of the positivist paradigm but which are congruent with the standards
of the interpretive paradigm. It is important that the researcher demonstrates critical self-
awareness and critical understanding of the complexity of social issues. But critique alone
is not enough to nourish the soul, and so it is important for the critical researcher to develop
a vision of a better way of teaching and learning, and research practices, a vision based
explicitly on moral principles that support the ‘shoulds/oughts’ of a transformed
professional practice.

And in order to avoid criticism of being an armchair academic or utopian, the critical
researcher is well advised to take direct action, to ‘make a difference’, by enacting his/her
ideals in a principled endeavor to transform the culture of his/her classroom community
through, for example, critical action research. This involves evaluating the impact of one’s
transformative teaching on student learning and, ideally, leads to the teacher-researcher’s
evolving praxis. Critical researchers also choose to write in a way that is designed to elicit
critical awareness and critical understanding in their readers, thereby writing
for pedagogical thoughtfulness (Manen, 1990).

3. The Postmodern Paradigm

This relatively new and challenging paradigm opens many new and exciting doors for
educational researchers as it brings to our attention the very important concept of
‘representation’ (Denzin & Lincoln, 2005) which holds that what goes on in our minds and
hearts is not directly accessible to the world outside us. There is no window in our heads
that allows another person to look directly into our minds and see ‘exactly what we mean’;
the best we can do is ‘represent’ our thoughts and feelings through various means of
communication (e.g., language, art, dance, gesture).

Equally for scientists, there is no window into nature that directly reveals nature’s secrets;
all scientific observations are ‘theory laden’ whether conducted using the human eye or
technological extensions such as radio telescopes, electron microscopes, cloud chambers, x-

51
ray crystallography, gamma spectroscopy, etc. Thus scientific knowledge is at best a model
of the ‘unseeable’ and its viability (or usefulness) is tested against the human purposes that
shape its production. Scientific knowledge remains forever contingent and open to
challenge; and in that way it continues to evolve, sometimes making radical departures that
overturn established models. Such is the case with our scientific knowledge of the cosmos
and the sub-atomic universe (Dosch & Muller, 2010).

4. Multi-Paradigmatic Research

Rather than standing alone as individual paradigms for framing the design of a researcher’s
inquiry, as does the positivist paradigm, the newer paradigms can serve as ‘referents’. In
other words, we can design our research by combining methods and quality standards
drawn from two or more of the newer paradigms. It is not uncommon for a research study
to combine methods and standards from the interpretive and critical paradigms to create a
‘critical auto/ethnography’. And when new literary genres, modes of thinking and quality
standards are added from Arts-based research such multi-paradigmatic studies become very
powerful means of transformative professional development (Taylor, Taylor, & Luitel,
2011).

One of the second author’s co-scholars at SMEC, Curtin University, Berhana Ignacio,
conducted a multi-paradigmatic research for her Masters project. Drawing on the
interpretive and critical paradigms and using literary genres (poetry, storying), she
examined her real-life experiences as a learner, practising teacher and teacher educator. In
particular, she excavated and reflected critically on her past experiences of and beliefs
towards constructivist teaching. She narrated and storied aspects of her pre-service and in-
service teaching experiences and her more recent experiences as a pre-service mentor and
Masters student. Theorising about culturally inclusive teaching fuelled Berhana’s vision of
her future science curriculum, one that includes the indigenous knowledge of students from
the local community.

. What Are the Essential Elements of a Research Paradigm?

According to Lincoln and Guba (1985), a paradigm comprises four elements, namely,
epistemology, ontology, methodology and axiology. It is important to have a firm

52
understanding of these elements because they comprise the basic assumptions, beliefs, norms
and values that each paradigm holds. Therefore, in locating your research proposal in a
particular research paradigm, the understanding is that your research will uphold, and be guided
by the assumptions, beliefs, norms and values of the chosen paradigm. It is therefore important
that you demonstrate that you know what each of these elements mean.

2. Epistemology of a Paradigm
Epistemology has its aetiology in Greek where the word episteme, means knowledge. Put
simply, in research, epistemology is used to describe how we come to know something; how
we know the truth or reality; or as Cooksey and McDonald (2011) put it, what counts as
knowledge within the world. It is concerned with the very bases of knowledge – its nature, and
forms and how it can be acquired, and how it can be communicated to other human beings. It
focuses on the nature of human knowledge and comprehension that you, as the researcher or
knower, can possibly acquire so as to be able to extend, broaden and deepen understanding in
your field of research. Schwandt (1997) defines it as the study of the nature of knowledge and
justification. And so, in considering the epistemology of your research, you ask questions like:
Is knowledge something which can be acquired on the one hand, or, is it something which has
to be personally experienced? What is the nature of knowledge and the relationship between the
knower and the would-be known? What is the relationship between me, as the inquirer, and
what is known? These questions are important because they help the researcher to position
themselves in the research context so that they can discover what else is new, given what is
known. And so to understand the epistemological element of your paradigm, you should ask the
very important question of how we know what we know? This question is the basis for
investigating ‘truth’. Whereas it might be debatable as to whether there is such a thing as ‘truth’
(Davidson, 2000), if we take factual evidence as truth, then epistemology helps you to ask
factual questions, such as how do we know the truth? What counts as knowledge? These are
particularly important questions because one of the criteria by which higher degree research is
judged is its contribution to knowledge. In trying to articulate the answers to the above
questions, researchers can draw from four sources of knowledge. Those sources are intuitive
knowledge, authoritative knowledge, logical knowledge, and empirical knowledge (Slavin,
1984). If you rely on forms of knowledge such as beliefs, faith, and intuition, then the

53
epistemological basis of your research is intuitive knowledge. If you rely on data gathered from
people in the know, books, leaders in organizations, then your epistemology is grounded on
authoritative knowledge. If you put emphasis on reason as the surest path to knowing the truth,
then this approach is called rationalist epistemology or logical knowledge. On the other hand, if
you put emphasis on the understanding that knowledge is best derived from sense experiences,
and demonstrable, objective facts, then your approach leans towards empirical epistemology.
Epistemology is important because, it helps you to establish the faith you put in your data. It
affects how you will go about uncovering knowledge in the social context that you will
investigate.

3. Ontology of a Paradigm
Ontology is a branch of philosophy concerned with the assumptions we make in order to
believe that something makes sense or is real, or the very nature or essence of the social
phenomenon we are investigating (Scotland, 2012). It is the philosophical study of the nature of
existence or reality, of being or becoming, as well as the basic categories of things that exist
and their relations. It examines your underlying belief system as the researcher, about the
nature of being and existence. It is concerned with the assumptions we make in order to believe
that something makes sense or is real, or the very nature or essence of the social phenomenon
we are investigating. It helps you to conceptualize the form and nature of reality and what you
believe can be known about that reality. Philosophical assumptions about the nature of reality
are crucial to understanding how you make meaning of the data you gather. These assumptions,
concepts or propositions help to orientate your thinking about the research problem, its
significance, and how you might approach it so as to contribute to its solution. Ontology is so
essential to a paradigm because it helps to provide an understanding of the things that constitute
the world, as it is known (Scott & Usher, 2004). It seeks to determine the real nature, or the
foundational concepts which constitute themes that we analyse to make sense of the meaning
embedded in research data. It makes you ask questions such as: Is there reality out there in the
social world or is it a construction, created by one’s own mind? What is the nature of reality? In
other words, Is reality of an objective nature, or the result of individual cognition? What is the
nature of the situation being studied? Ontology enables you to examine your underlying belief
system and philosophical assumptions as the researcher, about the nature of being, existence
and reality. Philosophical assumptions about the nature of reality are crucial to understanding
how you make meaning of the data you gather. These assumptions, concepts or propositions

54
help to orientate your thinking about the research problem, its significance, and how you might
approach it so as to answer your research question, understand the problem investigated and
contribute to its solution..

4. Methodology of a Paradigm Methodology

is the broad term used to refer to the research design, methods, approaches and procedures used
in an investigation that is well planned to find out something (Keeves, 1997). For example, data
gathering, participants, instruments used, and data analysis, are all parts of the broad field of
methodology. In sum, the methodology articulates the logic and flow of the systematic
processes followed in conducting a research project, so as to gain knowledge about a research
problem. It includes assumptions made, limitations encountered and how they were mitigated
or minimised. It focuses on how we come to know the world or gain knowledge about part of it
(Moreno, 1947). In considering the methodology for your research proposal, you should ask
yourself the question: How shall I go about obtaining the desired data, knowledge and
understandings that will enable me to answer my research question and thus make a
contribution to knowledge? 2.4 Axiology Axiology refers to the ethical issues that need to be
considered when planning a research proposal. It considers the philosophical approach to
making decisions of value or the right decisions (Finnis, 1980). It involves defining, evaluating
and understanding concepts of right and wrong behaviour relating to the research. It considers
what value we shall attribute to the different aspects of our research, the participants, the data
and the audience to which we shall report the results of our research. Put simply, it addresses
the question: What is the nature of ethics or ethical behavior? In answer to this question, it is
important to consider your regard for human values of everyone that will be involved with or
participate in your research project. This consideration is facilitated by the following questions.
What values will you live by or be guided by as you conduct your research? What ought to be
done to respect all participants’ rights? What are the moral issues and characteristics that need
to be considered? Which cultural, intercultural and moral issues arise and how will I address
them? How shall I secure the goodwill of participants? How shall I conduct the research in a
socially just, respectful and peaceful manner? How shall I avoid or minimize risk or harm,
whether it be physical, psychological, legal, social, economic or other? (ARC, 2015)

Answers to these questions are best guided by four criteria of ethical conduct namely,
teleology, deontology, morality and fairness (Mill, 1969). Technically, teleology is the theory

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of morality which postulates that doing what is intrinsically good or desirable, is a moral
obligation that should be pursued in every human endeavor. And so, teleology refers to
attempts made in research to make sure that the research results in a meaningful outcome that
will satisfy as many people as possible. An application of this criterion is facilitated by
questions such as, are the methods used in this research pragmatic and do they make common
sense? Will the actions undertaken in the research produce more benefits than harm? Am I
convinced that the actions that will be taken during the research will be the right ones? Have I
considered all possible consequences of this research? Deontology is the understanding that
every action that will be undertaken during the research will have its own consequence,
intended to benefit participants, the researcher, the scholastic community or the public at large
(Scheffler, 1982). It also allows for flexibility to deal with individual participants or
observations. The morality criterion refers to the intrinsic moral values that will be upheld
during the research. For example, that the researcher will be truthful in their interpretation of
the data. Finally, the criterion of fairness draws the researcher’s attention to the need to be fair
to all research participants and to ensure that their rights are upheld. Implementation of this
criterion is guided by questions such as, how fair will my research actions be? Will they treat
all research participants in the same way? Will my actions show favouritism and/or
discrimination towards any participants? And so in the section on ethical considerations for
your higher degree research proposal, you should demonstrate best ethical conduct by showing
an understanding of what is right or wrong behavior as you conduct the research. This
consideration is founded on the understanding that all humans have dignity which must be
respected, and they have a fundamental human right to make choices which you as a researcher
must respect. Implementation of ethical considerations focuses on four principles which you
need to uphold when dealing with your participants and data. These principles have the
acronym PAPA namely: Privacy, Accuracy, Property, and Accessibility, and are briefly
unpacked below, following Sidgwick, (1907) and Slote, (1985).

Privacy Under this principle, you need to consider what information participants will be
required to reveal to you or to others about themselves, their associations or organizations? It
considers the conditions and safeguards under which data will be gathered and analyzed. What
things, for example, can participants keep to themselves, and not be forced to reveal to you or
any other people

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Accuracy This principle considers who is responsible for the authenticity, fidelity, and,
accuracy of information? Similarly, it considers how you as the researcher will cross-check
with participants so they know you have recorded the data accurately. It also makes it very
clear who will be held accountable for any errors in data? And, if any party were to be injured,
how would they be compensated?

Property Under this principle, you need to consider who will own the data? Will there be any
payment for the data? If so, what will be the just and fair prices, for the exchange of data? Who
will own the channels, such as publications and media through which information will be
disseminated?

Accessibility This principle considers who will have access to the data? How will the data be
kept safe and secure? Under what conditions and with what safeguards will researchers and
participants have access to the data? How will access to the data be gained?

Reading Materials for the unit

Anderson,G.L., K. Herr and A.S. Nihlen (1994). Studying your own School. An Educator’s Guide to
Qualitative Practitioner Research. Thousand Oak, CA: Carwin Press
Ashcroft, K., and Foreman-Peck, L. (1994). Managing Teaching and Learning in Further and Higher
education. London: The Falmer Press.

Brindley, G. (1991). Becoming a researcher: Teacher conducted research and professional growth. In E.
Sadtono (ed.). Issues in language teacher education. Singapore: SEAMEO Regional
Language Center.

Firdissa J. (2010). Action research practices in teaching English as a foreign language in Ethiopian
universities: implications for quality language teaching (PhD Dissertation)

Hopkins, David (2002). A Teacher’s Guide to Classroom Research, 3 rded. New York: Open University
Press.

Kemmis, S (2006) “Participatory action research and the public sphere” Education Action Research
Journal Vol 14, No. 4, pp 459-476. Reprinted in Pontë, P. and Smit, B. (eds) Quality in
Practitioner Research Amsterdam: Sense Publishers.
Stringer, E. T. (1999). Action Research: A handbook for practitioners. (2nd ed.), Newbury Park, ca.:
Sage.

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 CHAPTER FOUR

4. Preparing and presenting action research reports

Unit objectives

Up on the completion of this unit, students will be able to;

 Prepare action research reports using standard procedures

 Apply the findings of action research conducted
 Communicate the results of the implemented action research
 Reflect on the research process and the outcomes of the implementation of action
research outcomes
4.1. Implementing the action research plan
Research implementation schedule
The research schedule is another detail to be included in your research proposal. Having an
implementation schedule prevents you from procrastinating. It will also tell you how much time
you have to implement each stage of your research and to complete your whole action plan.
The time-line of events allow you to pace yourself over the allotted period of time, so that you
do not rush to finish everything when the submission date approaches. At the same time, it
serves as a contractual agreement with your supervisor on how you plan to complete your
research exercise

Planning the Research Implementation Schedule Here is a suggestion of schedule that you may
be able to utilize. Using the suggested activity steps, determine the time frame for each event
till completion of research project.

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N0 Activity Implementation Period
. (dates)
1 Reflection on teaching and learning and identify
research focus
2 Submit the research proposal
3 Preparation for Research Implementation
• Action plan
• Implementation steps
• Determining the data collection techniques and
instruments
• Determining the data analysis procedures
4 Action Research Implementation
• Implementing cycle 1
• Implementing cycle 2 and so on
5 Monitoring the action and data collection
6 Processing the data and data analysis
• Manual analysis/analysis using software
• Deriving conclusions
7 Reflection on action effectiveness
8 Writing the research report
• Draft 1
• Editing
• Review
• Draft 2 and so on
9 Sharing the research findings
• Seminar presentation
• Journal publication
10 Planning for follow-up action research

Budgeting for your research implementation

Unlike research proposals that are submitted for funding and grants, your research proposal will
not provide you any form of monetary gain. It is however, a wise move to budget for your

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research so that you will have a fair idea of how much you are expected to set aside to carry out
your research successfully. You are expected to include budgeting in your research proposal.
Budgeting for your Research Implementation Below is a suggestion on how you may indicate
some examples of items that you may need. Work on the estimate quantity and the costs you
may incur. Do amend or add onto the list with relevant items necessary to implement your
action.

N0 Activity Quantity x Cost per Unit Total Cost

.
1 A4 paper
2 Printer Ink
3 Photostatting cost
4 Log book/Journal
5 Manila card
6 Color papers
7 Color pencils
8 Color pencils

Total

At some point, teachers and instructors will come across some form of problem that they would
like to address in their classroom or course. Some teachers will rely on traditional ways to solve
these problems. Teachers will also seek out the advice of experts or colleagues to try and
address challenges. Really good educators will conduct their own investigations to identify and
solve problems while analyzing information about their school and the learning environment.

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 These learning environments may be brick and mortar classrooms, online learning
environments, or a hybrid mix of the two.
Action Research is either research initiated to solve an immediate problem or a reflective
process of progressive problem solving that integrates research, action, and analysis. The
integration of action includes the development and implementation of a plan or strategy to
address the focus of the research. The research includes building a knowledge base to
understand the effectiveness of the action or plan being considered. Put simple, action research
can be viewed as a form of disciplined inquiry utilized by teachers, instructors, and supervisors
to better understand student learning and teacher effectiveness.

There are many guides and permutations available for conducting action research in the
classroom. I will link to some of these resources in the citations section at the conclusion of this
post. The purpose of this chapter is to get you up and running with four basic steps needed to
conduct action research in your own practice.

1. Selecting a focus
The first step in conducting action research is to identify and define the focus of your
investigation. You’ll want to develop some questions about the area of your focus. Finally,
you’ll need to identify a plan to effectively study and answer the questions you’ve developed.

Please note that action research typically will include an examination of the school, programs,
students, and instructional practices. You’ll want to consider what aspects of these areas you
will need to study in your research. Specifically, will you need to examine student outcomes
(dispositions, achievement); curriculum (instructional materials, content standards,
frameworks); instruction (teaching strategies, use of technology); school climate (student
morale, teacher morale, relationships between teachers and supervisors); parental involvement
(participation on committees, attendance at events).

As you develop your focus and identify a specific frame to guide your thinking, you should
also adjust your research questions. As an example, if you’re concerned with issues of school
climate, you might want to consider the following guiding questions:

 How can I document the morale of teachers?

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 What impact does possible low morale of teachers have on student achievement?
 Will increased relationships between teachers and supervisors yield higher teacher morale?
 How might we increase more positive relationships between students, teachers, and
supervisors?

Developing and revising the focus and guiding questions for your action research will help you
understand what elements you are interested in examining. You will also need to identify
questions you can effectively gather information about and conduct your research. What
research questions do you want to answer? What research questions do you think you can
answer?

2. Collecting data
The second step involved in conducting action research includes collecting data to use in
answering your research questions. Once again, in step one you’ll identify questions you are
interested in answering..and think that you can effectively “answer”? In the second step, you’ll
need to gather info to address these questions. This data may consist of teacher-made surveys
and standardized test data. Data may consist of surveys and interviews. Collected data may also
consist of student portfolios, observations, and other sources of information.

The data you collect may also consist of research conducted to identify best practices, or
research tested techniques. This is an opportunity to learn from others that may have been
trying to unpack the same problems or challenges. In my own work I use a two-step process of
Google searches and then Google Scholar to quickly learn more about a topic. After I have
identified the focus, keywords, and relevant search terms, I can continue my examination at the
library or using online sources.

You’ll want to make sure that your data will address the focus of your action research. If you’re
interested in studying the district’s new ELA/Reading curriculum, you might collect interview
and survey data. You may also collect student scores on district-wide assessments. Finally, you
may collect the previous curriculum, or examine other curricular materials available.

As you collect data, you’ll want to make sure that you organize it to make it easy for you (and
others) to analyze. You may not present the data to others, but it helps you in the long run in

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you keep your work organized as you work. You may also choose to share your data with
others to help prove a point or connect your findings with others. One of the last points I’d like
to make about data collection is identifying when you have collected enough data. This is
always a question that is asked as we begin the research process. What you’re looking for is
“saturation of data.” As you collect data, you’ll begin to recognize patterns in the data. If you
start to get a “gut feeling” that “you’ve already seen this before”…chances are
you’re approaching saturation.

3. Analyzing and interpreting data

After identifying your focus and collecting data, you’ll need to analyze and make
interpretations from your materials. In this you’ll want to describe or summarize the data
clearly. You’ll also look for consistent patterns or themes across the data. Finally, you’ll want
to use the data to answer your research questions and/or prove your hypotheses. There are
multiple strategies and techniques that can be used as you analyze your data. In my own work I
find it is helpful to lay out all of my data and the identified themes or patterns in an area that is
easily visible while working. I’ll save these themes and patterns written on paper on my desk,
or on a white board in my office. I also find it helpful to just write and think through the data,
themes, and patterns as I make sense of the results.

As you “make sense” of the results, you’ll want to identify how you’ll develop your findings.
In qualitative analysis, there is usually a focus on deductive or inductive analysis of the data.
Deductive means that you’re moving from concepts to examples while inductive means that
you’re moving from examples to concepts. Another way to consider this is that deductive
reasoning has you examine your data with an open mind, look for patterns, develop a
hypothesis, and then move to theory. Inductive on the other hand has you moving from the
theory and using your hypothesis and the data to confirm your findings.

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Please also note that it is possible and appropriate to move from one frame to another, or
include bits and pieces across the research process. You’ll just want to understand where you’re
obtaining your results, and what lenses you’re using as you analyze and interpret your data.

4. Taking action
The fourth step includes you making a decision about your research and identifying next
possible actions. Let us suppose you have researched the question above about teacher morale
and have uncovered the root cause of the problem. You’ve surveyed the students, teachers, and
supervisors and you know exactly how to “fix” the problem.

You now have to take action and this includes several possibilities. First, you may choose to
continue the system as it currently operates and make no changes. Second, you may choose to
disband the organization to address the problem. This may include shutting down the school
and sending all of the students, teachers, and supervisors elsewhere. Third, you may choose to
modify or make small tweaks to the school, program, or relationships between all partners to
address the culture of the school.

Your decision on how you take action will be determined by a multitude of factors…some of
which may be out of your control. Please note that action research typically follows a cycle as
you move through each of the steps. As you work through the sequence, you’ll learn a bit more
about the problem or research question. You’ll use this information as a way to improve your
focus, research, or action in subsequent steps through the cycle. This most likely will not be the

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end of the cycle. You’ll continue to observe, act, and reflect as you continue to plan and operate
in the classroom.

4.2. Writing the report of the implemented action research plan

Action research is any research into practice undertaken by those involved in that practice, with
the primary goal of encouraging continued reflection and making improvement. It can be done
in any professional field, including medicine, nursing, social work, psychology, and education.
Action research is particularly popular in the field of education. When it comes to teaching,
practitioners may be interested in trying out different teaching methods in the classroom, but
are unsure of their effectiveness. Action research provides an opportunity to explore the
effectiveness of a particular teaching practice, the development of a curriculum, or your
students’ learning, hence making continual improvement possible. In other words, the use of an
interactive action-and-research process enables practitioners to get an idea of what they and
their learners really do inside of the classroom, not merely what they think they can do. By
doing this, it is hoped that both the teaching and the learning occurring in the classroom can be
better tailored to fit the learners’ needs.

You may be wondering how action research differs from traditional research. The term itself
already suggests that it is concerned with both “action” and “research,” as well as the
association between the two. Kurt Lewin (1890-1947), a famous psychologist who coined this
term, believed that there was “no action without research; no research without action”
(Marrow, 1969, p.163). It is certainly possible, and perhaps commonplace, for people to try to
have one without the other, but the unique combination of the two is what distinguishes action
research from most other forms of enquiry. Traditional research emphasizes the review of prior
research, rigorous control of the research design, and generalizable and preferably statistically
significant results, all of which help examine the theoretical significance of the issue. Action
research, with its emphasis on the insider’s perspective and the practical significance of a
current issue, may instead allow less representative sampling, looser procedures, and the
presentation of raw data and statistically insignificant results.

What Should We Include in an Action Research Report?

The components put into an action research report largely coincide with the steps used in the
action research process. This process usually starts with a question or an observation about a
current problem. After identifying the problem area and narrowing it down to make it more

65
manageable for research, the development process continues as you devise an action plan to
investigate your question. This will involve gathering data and evidence to support your
solution. Common data collection methods include observation of individual or group behavior,
taking audio or video recordings, distributing questionnaires or surveys, conducting interviews,
asking for peer observations and comments, taking field notes, writing journals, and studying
the work samples of your own and your target participants. You may choose to use more than
one of these data collection methods. After you have selected your method and are analyzing
the data you have collected, you will also reflect upon your entire process of action research.
You may have a better solution to your question now, due to the increase of your available
evidence. You may also think about the steps you will try next, or decide that the practice needs
to be observed again with modifications. If so, the whole action research process starts all over
again.

In brief, action research is more like a cyclical process, with the reflection upon your action and
research findings affecting changes in your practice, which may lead to extended questions and
further action. This brings us back to the essential steps of action research: identifying the
problem, devising an action plan, implementing the plan, and finally, observing and reflecting
upon the process. Your action research report should comprise all of these essential steps.
Feldman and Weiss (n.d.) summarized them as five structural elements, which do not have to
be written in a particular order. Your report should:

 Describe the context where the action research takes place. This could be, for example,
the school in which you teach. Both features of the school and the population associated
with it (e.g., students and parents) would be illustrated as well.
 Contain a statement of your research focus. This would explain where your research
questions come from, the problem you intend to investigate, and the goals you want to
achieve. You may also mention prior research studies you have read that are related to
your action research study.
 Detail the method(s) used. This part includes the procedures you used to collect data,
types of data in your report, and justification of your used strategies.
 Highlight the research findings. This is the part in which you observe and reflect upon
your practice. By analyzing the evidence you have gathered, you will come to

66
 understand whether the initial problem has been solved or not, and what research you
have yet to accomplish.
 Suggest implications. You may discuss how the findings of your research will affect
your future practice, or explain any new research plans you have that have been inspired
by this report’s action research.

The overall structure of your paper will actually look more or less the same as what we
commonly see in traditional research papers.

What Else Do We Need to Pay Attention to?

We discussed the major differences between action research and traditional research in the
beginning of this article. Due to the difference in the focus of an action research report, the
language style used may not be the same as what we normally see or use in a standard research
report. Although both kinds of research, both action and traditional, can be published in
academic journals, action research may also be published and delivered in brief reports or on
websites for a broader, non-academic audience. Instead of using the formal style of scientific
research, you may find it more suitable to write in the first person and use a narrative style
while documenting your details of the research process.

However, this does not forbid using an academic writing style, which undeniably enhances the
credibility of a report. According to Johnson (2002), even though personal thoughts and
observations are valued and recorded along the way, an action research report should not be
written in a highly subjective manner. A personal, reflective writing style does not necessarily
mean that descriptions are unfair or dishonest, but statements with value judgments, highly
charged language, and emotional buzzwords are best avoided.

Furthermore, documenting every detail used in the process of research does not necessitate
writing a lengthy report. The purpose of giving sufficient details is to let other practitioners
trace your train of thought, learn from your examples, and possibly be able to duplicate your
steps of research. This is why writing a clear report that does not bore or confuse your readers
is essential.

Lastly, You May Ask, Why Do We Bother to Even Write an Action Research Report?

It sounds paradoxical that while practitioners tend to have a great deal of knowledge at their
disposal, often they do not communicate their insights to others. Take education as an example:

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It is both regrettable and regressive if every teacher, no matter how professional he or she
might be, only teaches in the way they were taught and fails to understand what their peer
teachers know about their practice. Writing an action research report provides you with the
chance to reflect upon your own practice, make substantiated claims linking research to action,
and document action and ideas as they take place. The results can then be kept, both for the
sake of your own future reference, and to also make the most of your insights through the act of
sharing with your professional peers.

Suggestions for Writing the Action Research Report

There are five structural elements for an action research report Allan F. & Tarin W., 2007).
Although these elements will be described in a particular order, they need not be that way in
your report. In fact, they do not even need to be separated from one another.

1. The context
The first element of the action research report is a description of the context within which the
action research took place. Depending on the project that you do, the locus of the context can
be your classroom, your school, or your school district. It is possible that the context of the
project includes aspects of more than one of these. It is important to remember that the physical
description of the setting is important, but that there are other aspects that are important
depending on the project. For example, if your project focuses on working with parents or
students, a description of these populations should be included. If the project relates to an entire
district, salient features of the geographical and political area, as well as important features of
the schools are part of the relevant context.

2. Statement and Origin of your Research Focus

The statement of your research focus should answer one or more of the following questions:
� What did you investigate?
� What have you accomplished or attempted to accomplish in this study?
� What have been your goals?
This element of the report should also address the way in which your starting point developed.
That is
How did the idea originate?

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 How and why did it change through the year?
What impact did your research notebook group have on the development of your
starting point?
In addition, this section should include what you learned from reading the research literature
that informed your study.
3. Methods
This element of the report focuses on the way in which you investigated your practice situation.
� Describe what you did and why.
� What sort of data did you collect?
� How did you collect the data?
� What successes or difficulties did you have in carrying out this action research?
4. The Findings
The fourth element of the report states what it was that you accomplished and/or found out.
Remember that all action research projects involve actions so therefore there are effects of
those actions. And, every action research project results in the teacher coming to a new
understanding of his or her own educational situation. Therefore each report should contain
some description of what it was that you learned. Make sure to include any events,
circumstances or data that contradict what you had hoped to do or find out.

5. Implications
Although this element is labeled implications, it is not necessary that each project have far
reaching effects. These implications could be a statement of how participation in this research
has affected the ways in which you look at your teaching, your students, or your school. In
other words, do you see the educational world differently now, and how will that affect what it
is that you will do next?
Finally, include a paragraph describing the next step of this research. Is it complete? Is there
another scenario you wish to research? Explain how you would continue action research
following up on this study or developing a new idea. Consider possible supports (without an
action research course) and impediments to your efforts.
Overall, this structure is not dissimilar to what you may be familiar with -- the standard
research report. There is a general introduction that places the research within the field, a
statement of the problem or hypothesis, the method used, findings of the research, and finally,

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implications. But it can be significantly different because you may feel free to write in the first
person and to use a narrative style -- to tell a validated story. You may also feel free to write in
the formal style of scientific research. The choice is yours

The action research report format

Unlike most conventional research, the action research report need not follow a rigid format.
However, for a beginning researcher, you may wish to take comfort in a given structure. The
subsequent chapters in this book guide you through your research report writing based on the
format with conventional headings. Below is the format for your action research report with
suggested conventional headings. Also included is an example of how you can write using
unconventional headings and yet retain the basic structure of an action research report. You
may want to use the following headings as a guide and checklist to chart your progress as you
embark on gradually building up your research report. Take note of the use of unconventional
headings on the right.

Action research report with conventional done Implementation period (dates)

headings (tick)
Title Table of Contents List of Tables List Collaborating With Learners: Exploring
of Figures Abstract Acknowledgement The Role Of The Facilitation
Chapter 1: Introduction 1.0 The Old Became The New
1.1 The Context Of The Research 1.1 Bridging Theory And Practice
1.2 Reflections About Past Teaching 1.2 What I Wanted To Know
Experiences
1.2.1Statement of the Problem
1.2.2The Initial Survey
1.3 The Research Focus
1.4 Research Objectives
1.5 Research Questions
1.6 Importance of The Research
1.7 Limitations of The Research
1.8 Definitions And Terms

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Chapter 2: Review Of Relevant Literature What The Experts Say
2.1 Review of the Related Theories And
Models 2.2 Review of the Related Research
2.3 Conclusion
Chapter 3 : Methodology The way it was done
3.1 The Action Research Framework
3.2 Target Group
3.3 The Action Research Plan
3.4 Instrumentation
3.5 Data Collection Procedures
3.6 Data Analysis
3.7 Conclusion
Chapter 4 : Discussion of Findings 4.1 The 4.0 Exploring The Facilitator’s
Implementation of Research 4.2 Report of Role 4.1 Three Phases Of
the Findings 4.3 Discussion of Findings 4.4 Facilitator Role I. Control
Reflection On The Research Action Ii. Letting Go Iii. Collaboration
4.5 Conclusion 4.2 Facilitator Qualities
4.3 A Model?
4.4 A Friend?
4.5 A Mentor
Chapter 5 : Conclusions, Suggestions and 5.0. A Learning Experience
Recommendations
5.1 Summary of the Findings
5.2 Conclusions of the Research
5.3 Suggestions and Recommendations
References and Bibliography Appendices

4.3. Reflecting on the research process

Action research was born when social scientists and practitioners, “concerned not only with
the generation of scientific knowledge but also with its usefulness in solv‐ ing practical
problems, worked to bridge the gap between theory and practice” (Se‐ lener, 1997, p. 58). Kurt
Lewin’s work is generally taken as the starting point, when he wanted to use “research in a
71
‘natural’ setting to change the way that the researcher interacts with that setting” (Ferrance,
2000, p. 7). Lewin recognised the important role of participation in planned change processes,
and constructed an action research theory, describing action research as ʺproceeding in a spiral
of steps, each of which is composed of planning, action and the evaluation of the result of
actionʺ (Kemmis & McTaggart, 1988, p. 8). This spiral or cyclical process involved a “non‐
linear pattern of planning, acting, ob‐ serving, and reflecting on the changes in the social
situations” (Noffke & Stevenson, 1995, p. 2). Lewin argued that to ʺunderstand and change
certain social practices, social scientists have to include practitioners from the real social world
in all phases of inquiry” (McKernan, 1991, p. 10). Lewin’s (1946) model, amalgamating
research and action to enhance understanding and generate change, highlights that the intro‐
duction of action into the scientific model “by no means implies that the research needed is in
any respect less scientific or ‘lower’ than would be required for pure sci‐ ence” (Lewin, 1946,
p. 35). As action research is open‐ended research in which tech‐ niques are examined
systematically and scientifically, it starts with a concept, percep‐ tion, or idea that has been
developed, rather than starting with a fixed hypothesis. Central to this is the developmental
process of following through the perception or idea, seeing how it is progressing, and
constantly checking its development. Seen in this way, action research is a form of self‐
evaluation. It is important to view action research as an individual, or a group of individuals,
working together collaboratively to explore given areas of concern, acknowledge what they
know, and then generate new knowledge. Action research is often referred to as practitioner‐
based research as it involves practitioners, and is also known as self‐reflective practice as it
involves individuals or practitioners reflecting on their own work. This self‐reflection is a key
element within action research. Action re‐ searchers do not enquire solely into others’ lives,
but also simultaneously address their own functioning as researchers. McNiff (2002, p. 6)
captures this aptly in her statement that “action research is an enquiry conducted by the self into
the self”. The basic principle underpinning action research is that this research involves
“identifying a problematic area, imagining a possible solution, trying it out, evaluating it (did it
work?), and changing practice in the light of the evaluation” (McNiff, 2002, p. 7). This is a
basic problem‐solving process. However, to turn it into an action research process, researchers
need to state why they want to examine or explore a particular issue and collect information or
data to show the process. Such information or data act as evidence in terms of whether the
researchers believed they were moving in the direction they were anticipating reaching in the

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first place. Essentially, the methodology of action research is that researchers need to evaluate
what they are researching, and continually ensure that what they are researching is actually
working and reaching the desired objective/s. Action research cannot be conducted on a once‐
off basis, but is rather a continuous process – hence its cyclical or spiral nature. Instead of a
linear model, action research advances through cycles, ‘starting’ with reflection on action, and
proceeding round to new action which is then further researched. The protocol for action
research is iterative and cyclical in nature. Its intention is to cultivate a deeper understanding of
a particular situation, starting with the conceptualization of a problem or issue and progressing
through several interventions and evaluations. Kemmis (in Hopkins, 1985) provides a
diagrammatic representation of an action research protocol (Figure 1), with each cycle
comprising four steps: plan, action, observe, and reflect. This is the protocol used in the action
research projects within our Literacy and Employment project.

Action research is a deliberate and mindful process which needs data – this is a point that I took
from David Tripp’s work. Sometimes I am asked if ‘something’ that was done in the run of
practice could be framed as action research. Perhaps someone tried a new teaching strategy, or
introduced a new assessment technique, and looking back realised that their work appears to be
a bit like AR. In such cases I usually start a discussion to help them understand why it can’t be
AR. I ask a) if the project was deliberately designed as AR and was therefore guided by AR
principles, which includes having a strong ethical base, and b) whether there has been some
clear data collection, rather than retro-fitting the label of AR to thoughtful practice, or
reflection in- or on- action. Action research is more than a collection of reflections.
Still, there is a need to be reflective in the process of undertaking action research and in the
reporting of the work – but what might this mean? The cycle of research in Pedagogic AR, and
AR more generally, tends to involve key steps like reconnaissance, planning a course of action,
undertaking some action and undertaking a form of evaluation. In the diagram below I suggest
that reflection journey is an essential, parallel, and interwoven companion to the much cited
action research cycle (see for example Lewin in Smith 2020; Arnold & Norton, 2018).

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Two track model of PedAR
In this diagram I am suggesting that reflection shapes the research, and the research shapes the
reflection. At every stage of their project, the researcher should be asking reflective questions
to help them to make decisions and to forge a way forward. The research plan should not be
fixed, but instead it should always be seen as provisional and subject to change. One of the
reasons to change the plan may be because of realizations coming out of the reflective process.
Action researchers might also periodically pause to think how they themselves are being
changed by their work; this too can change the path of the research. A few examples will
probably help.

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4.4. Summary

In the teacher education programs, it is crucial to equip the teacher candidate with the necessary skills to
shape and reshape their knowledge of teaching and learning in their profession. Farrell (2014) stated
“much of a teacher’s early knowledge is developed initially in teacher education programs, and then
through teaching experiences and reflections throughout their careers” (p.1). Especially novice and
preservice teachers are sensitive about the actions and processes happening in the classroom and they do
not have enough experience to deal with the classroom context; thus, they can undergo negative
thinking and even at the end they can decide to leave the profession. These teachers need support to go
on this process to understand the local issues (Richards & Pennington, 1998; Vaughan & Burnaford,
2016). Volk (2009) expressed the place of action research in teacher education:

Reflection is defined as a complex phenomenon though there is no certain agreement on its definition.
Pisapia (2009) defines reflection as an “ability to use perceptions, experience and information” to be
able to form conclusions about what occurred in the past or is taking place now to assist in guiding
future actions (p. 27, cited in Cirocki, Tennekon & Calvo, 2014)). According to Richards and Farrell
(2005), reflection is “the process of critical examination of experiences, a process that can lead to a
better understanding of one’s practices and routines” (p.7, cited in Farrell, 2014). Also, Liakopoulu
(2012) stated that “reflection is a means of comprehending one’s own self, of identifying the
knowledge, values and perceptions that each teacher has, and a means of controlling and promoting
personal development and growth” (p.43). Moreover, reflection is an attribute of the higher order
thinking skills. Takavoli and Davoudi (2016) conducted a research and found that teachers with high
score of reflective thinking generated more questions on analysis and evaluation, corresponding to the
higher level of Bloom’s taxonomy. According to Semerci (2008), reflective thinking is an attribute for
teachers to interconnect the theory and practice. In this chapter, reflection is regarded as a process of
understanding the novice teachers’ views, ideas and attitudes towards action research employed as a
component of teacher training program in a university in Turkey.

Action Research has some unique characteristics which provide teachers a ground to employ any
questions in the context of their own setting which lies behind the assumptions as below (Anderson,
1994): 1. Action research is different from academic research though it borrows some methods from all
kinds of research. In other words, the contextual knowledge or the knowledge of the practitioners; i.e.
teachers, is represented through some systematic and scientific steps. 2. It is political in the sense that it
requires the understanding of the organizational aspects such as culture. Also, this research process
questions the academic ones conducted by the scholars or the policy makers within the context of the
action research conducted. Moreover, it needs the school organization support to provide the answers

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for the questions in the educational context. 3. It is based on qualitative methodologies despite the fact
that quantitative techniques are required in some parts. In quantitative ones, the one of the main purpose
is to generalize the findings into the population by working on the sample. However, in the action
research, the purpose is to meet the inquiry of the teachers in the specific setting and help them
understand that context. This makes the action research context-specific, which refers to qualitative
methodology. Moreover, the findings of the action research cannot be transmitted into other context
directly but they have some implications and suggestions to be regarded on the field. 4. It is bottom-up
since the teachers themselves make a proposal to make any change and development rather than the
outsiders. Also, throughout the research different voices such as the students and their parents are
included according to the research designed. 5. There is a room always for collaboration which can be
done in different ways. Teachers themselves can collaborate with each other; with the students; and/or
the school administrators. All of these assumptions are proofs that action research is the appropriate type
to use in the classroom setting for teachers. Hopkins (2002) also added three more principles: 193
Action Research as a Tool for Reflection in Teacher Education 1. Teachers are autonomous in
professional judgments 2. Curriculum and teaching are the focus of the research. 3. The traditional
research paradigm has little impact on the classroom practices. (Hopkins, 2002, p. 31-37)

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References

1. Allan Feldman and Tarin Weiss (2007). Writing the Action Research Report. University
of Massachusetts Amherst.
2. Xi'an Jiaotong (2012). A Practical Guide in Writing Your Action Research. Liverpool
University
3. Franco Vaccarino Margie Comrie Niki Murray Frank Sligo (2007). Action Research
Reflections: Massey University.
4. Seçil Dayıoğlu Öcal (2018). Action Research as a Tool for Reflection in Teacher
Education. Hacettepe University.

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