2.

5 Clay Minerals

Soil Minerals are natural inorganic compounds with definite physical, chemical, and

crystalline properties. They are classified as primary or secondary, silicates or non-silicates,

and crystalline or non-crystalline minerals. Bello (2013), primary minerals have not been

substantially altered chemically since deposition or crystallization from molten lava and

are usually found in the sand and coarse silt fractions. Secondary minerals form as a result of

the weathering of primary minerals and are found in the clay and fine silt fractions. Climatic

changes have a paramount effect in the formation and overall distribution of minerals in soils

of different regions, different soil horizons, and even different soil fractions. Therefore, the

mineralogical composition of an individual soil is "determined mostly by the make-up of the

parent material(s), the intensity and duration of the weathering regime. Sand and silt fractions

tend to be composed mainly of inherited primary minerals, while clay fractions are

dominated by secondary minerals, either formed in-situ or transported from other

environments.

According to Bello (2013), clay minerals are hydrous silicates, largely of. aluminium,

magnesium and iron, which, on heating, loose adsorbed and constitutional water and yield

refractory material at high temperatures. Plasticity is characteristic of clay minerals and it is

largely due to an affinity of the clay surface for water resulting from a net negative charge on

the surface of clay particle that causes it to adsorb water and other polar fluids. Clay minerals

are complex aluminium silicates composed of two basic units namely: silica tetrahedron

(silica sheet) and aluminium octahedron (gibbsite sheet). There are three main groups of clay

minerals:

 Kaolinite group: it consists of repeating layer of elemental silica-gibbsite sheet

in a 1:1 lattice. Each layer is about 7.2 Å thick. The layers are held together by

hydrogen bonding. The mineral is the most dominant part in residual clay deposit.

It is very stable with strong structure and absorbs little water. It is found in non-
 expansive soils such as laterite. They have low swelling and shrinkage response to

water content variation.

 Illite group: this consists of gibbsite sheet bonded to two silica sheets (2:1

lattice)} One at the top and the other at the bottom. Each layer is about 10 Å thick.

It is sometimes called clay mica. The illite layers are bonded by potassium

ions. The negative charge to balance the potassium ions comes from the

substitution of aluminium from some silicon in the silica sheets. This substitution

occurs with no change in the crystalline form (isomorphous substitution). Illite

tends to absorb more water than kaolinites and have higher swelling and

shrinkage characteristics.

 Montmorillonite group: it has a similar structure as that of illite, that is, one

gibbsite sheet sandwiched between two silica sheets. But in montmorillonite,

there: is isomorphous substitution of magnesium and iron for aluminium in the

gibbsite sheets. Each layer is about 9.6 Å thick. Also, potassium ions are not

present as in illite, and a large amount of water is attracted into the space between

the layers. It exhibit extremely high swelling and shrinkage characteristics.

All these minerals can be determined in the laboratory through the following methods: x-ray

diffractometry (XRD), differential thermal analysis (DTA), and electron microscopy.

2.6 Soil Improvement

This is a process whereby the physical and chemical properties of a soil are modified with

stabilization in order to suit the purpose for which a soil is meant for. Soil improvement has

been used in the building of roads, air craft runways, and recently liners and covers.

Effectively, soil improvement allows engineers to distribute a larger load with less material

over a longer life cycle (Osinubi, 2006). The simplest process consists of taking soil and

drying it in open air. It is the “pise” technique, rammed earth, adobe and brick dried in the
sun, widely used in majority of African countries. More elaborate processes can include heat

treatment, mixing soil with ordinary Portland cement, lime, agricultural or industrial wastes.

Some improvement methods are discussed below (Zhang et al, 2010).

2.6.1 Mechanical stabilization

In this procedure, soils of different gradations are mixed together to obtain the desired

property. This involves compaction of soil to effect its resistance, compressibility,

permeability and porosity. The soil is mechanically treated so that maximum air can be

eliminated with consequent increase in its density. With mechanical stabilization, the particle

size distribution constituting the material is not affected but its structure is changed because

the particles are redistributed (Houben and Guillaud, 1994). Mechanical stabilization is

widely used in road construction and requires prior analysis of the soil to determine the

optimum water content for better soil compressibility (Howel and Shackelford 1997).

2.6.2 Physical stabilization

This has to do with modifying the properties of soil by intervening with its texture

(granulometry or eletromosis treatments) that leads to the drainage of soil and thus

confer new structural properties to it (Houben and Guillaud, 1994). Physical stabilization

may also involve the introduction of synthetic fibres or fibres originating from plants,

animals and minerals into the soil. This method is used when there are reasons not to affect

the particle size distribution of the soil or if the material is sensitive to movements induced

by factors such as water action, thermal expansion, etc. These movements can then be

countered by frame made of fibres. The armature acts at a macroscopic level (on grain

aggregation), and not at the level; of individual grain (Houben and Guillaud, 1994).

2.6.3 Chemical stabilization

It refers to the addition of manufactured products into the soil in proper quantities to enhance

the properties of the soil. Materials such as cement, lime, bitumen, fly ash etc. are used as
chemical additives. Sometimes different fibers are also used as reinforcements in the soil

(Houben and Guilland, 1994).

However, soil modification is the addition of a stabilizer in low quantities-merely to change

its properties (Gidigasu, 1976, Osinubi, 1995). Such properties include particle size

distribution, plasticity characteristics, hydraulic conductivity and shear characteristics (c-o)

values). Modification is distinct from soil stabilization, that is, it does not consider strength

improvement (Kharade et al 2014).

Modifiers commonly used include lime, cement and bitumen. (Garber and Hoel, 1998; Joel

and Agbede, 2008; Osinubi, 1995; Gidigasu,, 1976) stated that cement and lime will change

the water film-on the soil particles, modify clay minerals to some extent and reduce soil

plasticity. Providing another purpose for modification, Osula (1991) Stated that the

purpose of lime as a modifier is to modify the soil properties and render it workable for use

as modified or for subsequent stabilization with cement or bitumen. There are: three major

ways of modifying /stabilizing soils for engineering use.

Modification occurs because calcium cations supplied by the modifier replace; the cations

normally present on the surface of the clay mineral, promoted by the high pH environment of

the modifier-water system. Thus the clay surface mineralogy is altered, producing plasticity

reduction, reduction in moisture holding capacity (drying), swfell reduction, improved

stability and the ability to construct a solid working platform as benefits (National Lime

Association, 2001).

Akawwi and Al-kharabsheh (2002), observed that the swelling and shrinkage potential of

soils are affected by mineralogical constituents and surrounding environment. Ingles and

Metacalf (1972) recommended 2-3% of hydrated lime for soil modification whereas Yoder

and Witczak (1975) recommended 0.5-4% lime'for the same process. The optimum amount

of lime for maximum strength gained in1 stabilizing soil with lime according to Eades and

Grim (1960) is 4-6% for kaolinite, about 8% for illite and montmorillonite.
For effective modification and subsequent stabilization of a soil with cement, the clay-grade

minerals should not be in excess of 30%. It becomes more difficult to achieve economic

stabilization/modification by use of cement due to greater difficulties in pulverizing and mixing

(Gillot, 1987).

Olugbebga and Akinwole (2010), studied the characteristics of lateritic soil stabilized with

bamboo leave ash (BLA) for highway construction. Results from tests show that addition of BLA

reduces the optimum moisture content, increases the maximum dry density, unsoaked CBR and

shear strength. It was therefore concluded that BLA has a good potential for stabilizing lateritic

soils in highway construction.

Kumar and preethi, (2014), use lime and rice husk ash (RHA) in treatment of soil. Lime and

RHA was mixed in different proportion, and CBR test was carried out on each with a curing

period of 4, 7 and 14 days. Conclusion was reached that addition of RHA alone gave an average

improvement of 60% when compared with virgin sample. With addition of lime, its CBR value

increased to a great extent which had been mentioned above 91%. As per the pavement design,

when the CBR increases, the subgrade thickness can be reduced. So, the RHA and lime can be

used to increase the CBR respectively.