Geography ( by JKSSB Study Fast (Iqbal Sir)

Rivers of India
Himalayan Rivers: Indus, Ganga & Brahmputra.

The Indus River System :-

 It originates from a glacier near Bokhar Chu in the Tibetan region in the Kailash
Mountain range.
 In Tibet, it is known as ‘Singi Khamban’; or Lion’s mouth.
 The Indus flows in India only through the Leh district in the Ladakh UT.
 Length = 3180 km (1114 km in India] • Rises in Tibet Near Mansarovar Lake.
 In J&k it's Himalayan tributaries are Zanskar Dras, shyok, Nubra Gilgit etc.
Important tributaries which Join Indus are:

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 Jhelum (725 km) - Originated from Verinag.

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 Chenab (1974 km) originated from Bara Lacha Pass (Himachal P).
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 Ravi (720 km) - Kullu Hills (Near Rohtang pass HP).
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 Sutlaj (1050) - Mansoravan Rakes lake Western Tibet.

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 Beas :- (470 km) - Near a place Rohtang Pass.

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The Ganga River System

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 Length – 2525 Km. It rises in the Gangotri glacier near Gaumukh in Uttarakhand where
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it is known as Bhagirathi.
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 At Devprayag, the Bhagirathi meets the Alaknanda; hereafter, it is known as the Ganga.
 The Ganga enters the Northern plains at Haridwar.
 Ganga flows through the states of Uttarakhand, U.P, Bihar and West Bengal
Panch Prayag
1. Rudraprayag : Alaknanda and Mandakini River.
2. Vishnuprayag : Alaknanda and Dhauliganga
3. Nandaprayag : Alaknanda meets Nandakini river.
4. Karnaprayag : Alaknanda River meets Pindar river.
5. Devprayag : Alaknanda River joins Bhagirathi
Tributaries:
 Yamuna (1375 km) largest right bank tributary join Ganga at Prayagraj (Allahbed).
 Tributaries of Yamuna are: Chambal, Hindon, Sind, Betwa, Ken ( from south side).
 Left Bank Tribularies :- Gomti, Ghaghra, Gandak, Kosi (Sorrow Bihar).
 Right Bank Tributaries :- Yamuna, Son, Damodar (Sorrow of Bengal)
• When Ganga reaches West Bengal, it gets divided into two distributaries
1. Bhagirathi which enters Bangladesh & called as Padma.
2. Hooghly it is joined by Damodar flows through Kolkata than Falls into Bay of Bengal.

The Brahmputra River System (Male River of India)

• Length = 2900 km (885 km in India) • Origin = Chemayungdung glacier (Kailash range) near
the Mansarovar lake.
• In southern Tibet, it is known as the Tsangpo, which means ‘the purifier.’ Enters in Arunachal
Pradesh - under the name Dihang. Other Names: Luit (Assam), Jamuna Bangladesh.
• Takes U-turn at Namcha Barwa.

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• Tributaries: Subansiri, Kameng, Dhansiri, Manas, Dibang, Lohit, Teesta.

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• Ganga and Brahmputra combined to form the world's biggest delta ''Sunderbans".
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• World's Largest River Island ''Majuli'' Iies on Brahmaputra. (Got a Status of distrist)
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Peninsular Rivers
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Eart Flowing Rivers (Delta forming Rivers).

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1. Godavari : (1465 km) (Dakshin Ganga /Vridha Ganga) (Largest Peninsular River). Rises in
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Nasik Hills [Maharashtra]"

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Tributaries : Indravati, Manjra, Pranhita, Penganga, Vanganga.

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2. Mahandi :- (850 km) -It rises in Raipur district of Chhattisgarh.

3. Krishna :- (1327 km): - Rises in Western Ghats near Mahableshwar (Maharashtra).
Tributaries : Dudhganga, Panchganga, Tungabhadra, Musi etc.
4. Cavery :- (805 km) Rises from Brahmagir range (Western Ghats)
Tributaries: Amravati, Bhawani, kabini, Lokpawni ete.
5. Chambal :- ( Rises from Vindhya M.P.).
6. Periyar :- Rises from Cardamon hill kerala)
West Flowing Rivers (Make Estuaries)
1. Narmada :- (1057 km) (Rises in Amarkantak (MP). Flows through Rift Valley b/w Satpura &
Vindhya Range. It is the largest west flowing river of the peninsular region flowing through a
rift valley between the Vindhya (north) and the Satpura Range (south).
It rises from Maikala range near Amarkantak in Madhya Pradesh.
Tributaries :- Hiran, Orsang, Barna and Kolar.
The Narmada basin covers parts of Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and
Gujarat
2. Tapti :- (724 km) (Rises from Satpura range in Betul Distt. M.P.). Also called Twin or
handmaid of Narmada. Flow through Rift Valley.
3. Sabarmati :- (Rises from Aravalli Rajasthan).
4. Mahi :- (Rises from Vindhyas in MP) It cuts tropic of Cancer twice.
5. Luni :- (Rises from Aravalli- Rajasthan) Also called Salt River. It finally lost in the mashy
grounds at Rann of Kuchh.

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Lake of India :-
1. Chilka Lake :- (Odisha) (Between Mahanadi & Godavari). Largest Brackish Water lakes. •
Largest Wintering ground for migratory birds. (Coastal Lagoon). In 1981, it got status of
India's First Wetland (under Ramsar Convention).
2. Wular Lake :- (J&K) - Largest Fresh Water lake of India. (2nd largest fresh-water lake of
Asia). Formed as of Tectonic Activities and is fed by Jhelum river. Tulbul Project at the Mouth
of the lake.
3. Vemband Lake :- (2033 sq km) - Longest lake of India. Located in Kerala.
4. Loktak lake :- (Manipur) - Keibul Lamjao (Only Floating National Park of the World is on
Loktak lake).
5. Sambhar Lake :- (Rajasthan) India's Largest Inland salt water Lake.
6. Pulicat Lake :- (Andhra Pradesh) Brakish W.L.)(Lagoon)

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7. Koller Lake :- (Andhra Pradesh) located between Godavari & Krishana Delte.

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8. Govind Ballabh Pant Sagar (UP) - Largest Artificial lake of India [Rihand Dam's Reservoir].
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9. Lonar Lake :- (Maharashtra) (Crater lake) - Created by Meteor impact.
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10. Pushkar Lake :- (Ajmer-Rajasthan) - Sacred lake of Hindu.

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11. Sasthamcuta lake : (Queen of Lakes ) : Kerala's Largest Fresh Water Lake.
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12. Periyar lake (Kerala)

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13. Rupkund Lake :- (Skeleton Lake/Mysterious Lake) Famous for Human Skeleton.
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14. Gurudongmar Lake :- Highest lakes in India, located at an altitude of 5,425 m (17,800 ft),
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in Sikkim.
Hydroelectric Projects of India
Power Plant River State
 Bhakra Nangal Sutlej River Himachal Pradesh & Punjab

 Tehri Bhagirathi Uttarakhand

 Hirakud. Mahanadi Odisha

 Nagarjunasagar. Krishna River. Telengana & Andhra Pradesh

 Sardar Sarovar. Narmada river. Gujarat

 Koyna Koyna River. Maharashtra

 Balimela. Sileru Odisha

 Idukki (Arc Dam) Periyar. Kerala

  Subansiri Subansiri. Arunachal Pradesh-Assam Border

 Dibang Dibang. Arunachal Pradesh

Some Important Points

 Highest/Tallest Dam in India: Tehri Dam (Height: 260.5 meters (855 feet)

 Hirakud Dam, Longest dam of India (25.79 kilometers)

 Koyna Hydroelectric Project is the largest completed hydroelectric power plant in India. It
has a power capacity of 1960 MW.

 Largest Dam in India (by volume/storage): Bhakra Dam.

 Largest Dam by Area Covered: Indira Sagar Dam - 13,000 sq. km

 Rihand Dam on River Rihand (Tributary of Son River) in UP Known as "Govind Ballabh Pant

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Sagar," the largest artificial lake in India.

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 Sardar Sarovar Dam is the world’s second-largest concrete dam.
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 Oldest dam (first dam) in India - Kallanai Dam built across the Kaveri river of Tamil Nadu
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 Doab :- refers to a fertile region created by the deposits of sediments from the rivers,
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making the land highly suitable for agriculture.

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 Examples :- Ganga-Yamuna Doab ,

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 Punjab Doabs:

• Bist Doab: Between Beas and Sutlej rivers. • Bari Doab: Between Beas and Ravi rivers.

• Rechna Doab: Between Ravi and Chenab rivers. • Chaj Doab: Between Chenab and Jhelum rivers.

• Sindh Sagar Doab: Between Jhelum and Indus rivers.

Types of drainage Based on Patterns

1. Dendritic Drainage: Resembles the branches of a tree. Forms on uniform rock surfaces with
gentle slopes. Example: Ganga River System.

2. Trellis Drainage: Tributaries join the main river at right angles. Forms in regions with alternating
hard and soft rocks. Example: Rivers in the Chambal Basin.
3. Radial Drainage: Rivers flow outward in all directions from a central high point (e.g., a hill or
volcano). Example: Rivers around the Amarkantak Plateau (source of Narmada and Son).

4. Centripetal Drainage: Rivers converge towards a central depression or basin.

Example: Rivers draining into the Sambhar Lake.

5. Parallel Drainage: Rivers flow parallel to each other, often on steep slopes.

Example: Streams in the Ladakh region.

6. Rectangular Drainage: Streams form a rectangular grid due to jointed rocks. Example: Rivers in
the Vindhya Range.

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 Crops in India
Cropping Seasons in India
1. Kharif Crop: (Summer Crops) (Monsoon Crops)
Sown in- June-July & Harvested in Sep-Oct.
Examples- Rice, maize, Millet (Bajra, Jowar) , cotton, jute, groundnut, Sugarcane, soybean,
Moong (Green Gram), Urad (Black Gram), Arhar,Tomato etc.
2. Rabi Crop:- (Winter Crops) :-
Sown in-Oct-Dec & Harvested: April-June.
Examples - Wheat, barley, Oats, peas, gram, mustard, Rapeseed, Linseed etc.
3. Zaid Crop: Sown and harvested: Mar-July (Between Rabi and Kharif)
Examples - Seasonal fruits (Watermelon, Muskmelon, Cucumber), Vegetables, Fodder Crops

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etc.

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MAJOR CROPS OF INDIA
1. Food grains: Rice, Wheat, Maize, Millets, Pulses. ba
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2. Cash Crops: Cotton, Jute, Sugarcane, Saffron, Oilseeds.

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3. Plantation crops: Tea, Coffee, Rubber, Coconut.

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4. Horticulture crops: Fruits and Vegetables.

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Top Producer States Top Producer States

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 Rice (Paddy) - West Bengal  Jute - West Bengal

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 Wheat - Uttar Pradesh  Cotton - Gujarat

 Maize - Karnataka  Tobacco- Gujarat
 Coffee - Karnataka  Groundnut - Gujarat
 Sugarcane - Uttar Pradesh  Bananas- Andhra Pradesh
 Potato - Uttar Pradesh  Fishes & Eggs - Andhra Pradesh
 Milk - Utter Pradesh  Onion - Maharashtra
 Mango. Utter Pradesh  Oranges & Grapes - Maharashtra
 Bamboos - Assam  Cashewnuts - Maharashtra
 Tea - Assam  Rubber, Black Pepper & Cardamon. - Kerala
 Pulses - Madhya Pradesh  Saffron - J&K
 Spices - Madhya Pradesh
India is the world's largest producer of :
 Cotton, Milk, pulses, Jute, Mica etc
India is also the second-largest producer of :
 Rice, wheat, sugarcane, , groundnuts, fruits, and vegetables

Revolution. Field

 Black Revolution - Petroleum

 Blue Revolution - Fish Production
 White Revolution. - Dairy, Milk.
 Yellow Revolution. - Oil Seed
 Brown Revolution. - Cocoa, Leather,
 Golden Revolution. - Overall Horticulture, Honey.
 Green Revolution. - Agriculture

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 Grey Revolution - Fertilizers.
 Pink Revolution. - Onion & Pharmaceutical ba
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 Red Revolution. - Meat & Tomatoes
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 Silver Revolution. - Egg & Poultry

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 Silver fibre Revolution - Cotton

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 Golden Fibre Revolution - Jute

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 Purple Revolution - Lavender

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GREEN REVOLUTION:- Great increase in production of food grains (especially wheat and rice)
by introduction of high-yielding varieties. (HYVs).
• Norman Borlaug - 'Father of Green Revolution' in world.
• Term green revolution was first used by William Gaud.
• Father of the Green Revolution in India. Mr. Swaminathan -

JHUM CULTIVATION :-(Slash and Burn Agriculture)/ (Shifting cultivation)

• Predominantly practiced in the northeastern states of India.
WHITE REVOLUTION: (Operation Flood) :-
• To increase in milk production in the country.
• Dr Varghese Kurian - Father of White revolution in india.
Climate of India
Weather is the short-term atmospheric conditions (daily or weekly), while
Climate is the long-term average of weather patterns over years.
India has Tropical Monsoonal Climate & has many regional variations based on pattern of
winds, temperature and rainfall, rhythm of seasons and degree of wetness or dryness.
Examples of regional variations in India
• In summers, temperature in Churu, Rajasthan goes up to 50°C while it hardly touches 19°C in
Tawang in Arunachal Pradesh
• On a December night, temperature in Drass (in Ladakh) may drop down to -40°C while
Chennai on the same night records 20°C.
 Mawsynram (in Meghalaya) receives highest Rainfall in India & World. This is World's
Wettest place.

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 Leh receives Lowest rainfall in India (less than 100 mm (4 inches)

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 Hottest Place of India :- Phalodi (51°C in 2016) or Churu (50.5°C in 2024) (In Thar
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desert - Rajasthan).
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 Coldest Place of India : - Drass (Ladakh UT) (-40° C)

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Factors determining the climate of India

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Latitude :-
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• Northern India lies in Sub-Tropical and temperate zones and the part of india lying South of
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Tropic of Cancer lies in Tropical zone.

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• Tropical zone being nearer to the equator experiences high temperature throughout the year.

Himalayan Mountains :-
▪ Mountains in North protects the Indian subcontinent from cold and chilly northern winds
originating from Arctic circle.
▪ The Himalayas trap the monsoon winds and force them to shed their moisture.
Distribution of Land and Water
▪ India is bordered by Indian Ocean on three sides and by high mountains in the North.
▪ As compared to landmass, water heats up or cools down slowly
▪ This differential heating creates different air pressure zones in different seasons
Distance from the Sea
▪ Areas away from the influence of sea face extreme climatic conditions. For ex – Delhi,
Kanpur, Amritsar etc.
Altitude
▪ Temperature decreases with height.
Physiography
▪ The windward sides of Western Ghats and Assam receive high rainfall while the Southern
plateau remains dry due to its leeward position. ( Leeward Side – The side of the mountain
which does not face the moisture burden is called leeward side. It generally remains dry)

MONSOON : • The word Monsoon has been derived from an Arabic word "Mausim",
which means seasonal reversal in the wind direction.

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Southwest Monsoon Season :- (Summer Monsoon) (June to September) :- Cause 80% Rainfall

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of India. The southwest monsoon, which is the main monsoon, comes in from the sea and
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starts making its way up India's west coast in early June. By mid-July, most of the country is
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covered in rain.
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• Southwest Monsoon first hits the Western Ghats of the coastal state of Kerala.
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Northeast Monsoon Season :- (Retreating Monsoon or Winter Monsoon)-(Oct-Nov)

• The northeast monsoon affects India's east coast during November and December. It's a
short but intense monsoon.
• The states of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, and Kerala receive most of their rainfall from the
northeast monsoon, while the rest of the country receives most of its rainfall from the
southwest monsoon.
Pre-Monsoon Showers :-

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1. Mango Showers: • The pre-monsoon showers in Karnataka and Kerala that help in the

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ripening of mangoes are known as April rains or Summer showers or Mango Showers.
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2. Cherry Blossom: • In Karnataka and associated region, the local
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thunderstorms are called as cherry blossoms. Caused due to the meeting of humid sea winds
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and hot dry local wind in the month of April & May.
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These showers help in the ripening of coffee plants and occurs during
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cherry blossom.
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3. Kal Baishakhi: • Pre monsoon Showers are known as Kal Baisakhi at

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West Bengal & Assam.

Norwesters: • The shallow cyclonic disturbances that travel to India
from Mediterranean sea and Persian gulf. Cause rainfall in the East India viz. Assam, West
Bengal, & Orissa during winter season.
Western Disturbances :- A western disturbance is an extratropical storm originating in the
Mediterranean region that brings sudden winter rain to the northern parts of the Indian (J&K).
• Western disturbances are important for the development of the Rabi crop, which includes the
locally important staple wheat.
Loo :- Hot, dry, and oppressing winds blowing especially in Northern plains of India UP, Bihar,
Rajasthan,Delhi.
Precipitation :- When the water vapour rises, it starts cooling. The water vapour
condenses causing formation of droplets of water. Clouds are just masses of such water
droplets. When these droplets of water become too heavy to float in air, then they come down
as precipitation

Rainfall :- Precipitation that comes down to the earth in liquid form is called rain. Most of
the ground water comes from rainwater.

Other forms of precipitation are snow, sleet (a mixture of rain and snow), hail (small balls of
ice that fall from the sky like rain)

Types of Rainfall:

Convectional rainfall :- Occurs when the ground heats up more than its surroundings, causing
the air to rise and cool, forming cumulus clouds. This type of rainfall is heavy but short-lived,
and is common in the summer.

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Orographic rainfall :- Also known as relief rainfall, this type of rainfall occurs when air rises
from highlands. ba
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Cyclonic rainfall :- Also known as frontal rainfall, this type of rainfall occurs when contrasting
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winds converge, causing air to move upwards.

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Clouds:- Clouds are created when water vapor, an invisible gas, turns into liquid water
droplets. These water droplets form on tiny particles, like dust, that are floating in the air.

Types of Clouds :

CIRRUS: Looks like a feather and are formed at high altitudes (8,000-12,000m). They are thin
and detached clouds having a feathery appearance. They are always white in colour & made
up mostly of ice crystals

Cirrocumulus clouds : Cirrocumulus clouds are thin, sometimes patchy, sheet-like clouds.
They sometimes look like they’re full of ripples or are made of small grains.

Weather prediction: Fair, but cold. However, if you live in a tropical region, these clouds could
be a sign of an approaching hurricane!

CUMULUS: Cumulus clouds look like cotton wool. They are generally formed at a height of
4,000-7,000 m.

STRATUS: Layer/sheet type of clouds. Brings dull weather.

Cirrostratus clouds : are thin, white clouds that cover the whole sky like a veil. These clouds
are most commonly seen in the winter, and can cause the appearance of a halo around the
sun or the moon.

Weather prediction: Rain or snow will arrive within 24 hours!

NIMBO STRATUS: Also called as 'sain clouds? shapeless gives continous

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STRATO CUMULUS: Indicator of fair / clearing weather.

ALTO: Middle-High ba
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1. ALTO STRATUS: Associated with bad weather - Continuous rain / snow.

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2. ALTOCUMULUS: Indicate fine weather

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NIMBUS: (Rain cloud) : Nimbus clouds are black or dark gray. They form at middle levels or
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very near to the surface of the earth.

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These are extremely dense and opaque to the rays of the sun.
Köppen's Climate Classification :- Wladimir Köppen based on temperature,

precipitation, and vegetation patterns divided climates into five major types :-

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E (Polar Type) :- Higher portions of Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh, where the
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hottest month's temperature anges from 0 to 10° C.
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Et (Tundra Type) :- Uttarakhand's mountainous terrain. The average temperature ranges from
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0 to 10 degrees Celsius.
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Dfc (Cold, Humid winters type with shorter summer) : Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, and portions
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of Assam
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Cwg (Monsoon type with dry winters) : Most of the Ganga Plain, eastern Rajasthan, Assam, and the
Malwa Plateau are affected.

BWhw (Hot desert type) :- estern Rajasthan

BShw (Semi-arid Steppe type) :- Some rain shadow portions of the Western Ghats, a considerable
portion of Rajasthan, and adjoining areas of Haryana and Gujarat.

Aw (Tropical Savanna type) Most of the peninsular plateau, with the exception of the Coromandel and
Malabar coastal regions.

As (Monsoon type with dry season in high sun period) - Coromandel coast-Coastal Tamil Nadu and
bordering Andhra Pradesh regions

Amw (Monsoon type with short-dry winter season) - South of Mumbai, on the western shore.
Koppen's Classification on Climate of J&K & Ladakh

1. Valley of Kashmir = Dfb (Severe Winter, humid climate, warm Summers.

2. Jammu = Cwa (Sub tropical Humid , hot Summer)

3. Ladakh = Dwd (extremely cold and dry winter and short cool summer) OR BWk (Cold dry
desert climate)

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 Physiography of India :-
1. Northern Mountains
2. Northern Plains
3. Peninsular Plateau.
4. Indian Desert.
5. Coastal Plains.
6. Islands.
1. Northern Mountains :- Indian subcontinent consist of three main types of mountain ranges,
categorized based on their geography, formation, and features:

I. Himalayas. II. Trans-Himalayas III. Purvanchal Hills

I. Himalayas :- (Abode of Snow) The Himalayas are the youngest and tallest mountain range in
the world.

A- Great Himalayas [Himadri]

B. Lesser Himalayas [Middle Himalaya/Pir Panjal/Himachal].

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D. Outer Himalayas [Shiwaliks].

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A. Great Himalayas :- : Also known as Himadri . It is the northernmost range. . Core of this
composed of granite. Average elevation extends up to 6000 m. ba
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HIGHEST PEAK OF THE GREATER HIMALAYAS

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Peak Country. Heights (in mtrs)

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1. Mt. Everest —. Nepal —. 8,848

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2. Kangchenjunga — India — 8,598

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3. Makalu —. Nepal —. 8,481

4. Dhaulagiri —. Nepal — 8,172

5. Nanga Parvat — India —. 8,126

6. Annapurna —. Nepal —. 8,078

7. Nanda devi —. India —. 7,817

8. Namchabarwa —. Tibet (China) —7,756

Kangchenjunga is the highest himalayas peak of India (lies in Sikkim)

B. Lesser Himalayas :- (Middle Himalayan/Himachal) : Average heigh = 3700-4500m

• Important Mountain :: Pir Panjal [longest], , Dhauladhar, Nag Tibba, Mussoorie..

•Important Hill Resorts :- Shimla, Ranikhet, Gulmarg, mussoorie, Nainital, Almora, Darjeeling.
C. Outer Himalayas :- (Shiwaliks) - Average Range - 900 - 1200m.

• Forms the Foothills & lies between the lesser Himalayas & Plains. It is Newest Range. Eg.
Jammu Hills

• Longitudinal Range lying b/w Lesser Himalayas & Shiwaliks is called - Duns eg. Dehra Dun.

II. Trans Himalayas :- Trans-Himalayas means "beyond the Himalayas" or "across the
Himalayas". Lie North of Great Himalayas. Important Ranges includes Karakoram, Kailash,
Ladakh, Zanskar etc. Trans himalayas are formed by sedimentary rock.

Highest Peak of Trans Himalayas is K2/Godwin Austin (8611) (in POK).

Largest Glacier of India is Slachin Glacier (lies in Nubra Valley - UT of Ladakh in Karakoram
Range)

III. Purvanchal Hills (Eastern Hills) :- Located in the northeastern states of India. Composed of
older and smaller hill ranges which are covered with dense forests and are home to a rich

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biodiversity & form the eastern extension of the Himalayas. Key ranges include:

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a) Patkai Hills. b) Naga Hills. c) Khasi Hills(Meghalaya). d) Garo Hills. e) Mikir Hills
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Note :- Pamir Knot "Roof of the World" :- Converging of Mountain Ranges:
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Himalayas (to the southeast), Kunlun Mountains (to the east), Tian Shan Mountains (to the north)
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& Hindu Kush (to the southwest).

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2. Northern Plains
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:- Formed by the deposition of sediments by the Indus, Ganga, and

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Brahmaputra rivers and their tributaries. These plains are one of the most fertile and densely
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populated regions in the world. Spread across Punjab, Haryana, Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West
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Bengal, and parts of Assam.

Bounded by the Himalayas in the north and the Peninsular Plateau in the south.

The Northern Plains are divided into three sections based on the rivers that shape them:

a. Punjab Plains: Formed by the Indus River system (Indus, Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, Sutlej).
Located in Punjab and Haryana.

b. Ganga Plains: Drained by the Ganga River and its tributaries (Yamuna, Ghaghara, Gandak,
Kosi). Covers Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and West Bengal.

c. Brahmaputra Plains: Found in Assam, formed by the Brahmaputra River.

Some Features of the Plains:

Bhabar: Narrow belt of coarse sediments deposited at the foothills of the Himalayas.

Terai: Wet and marshy region south of the Bhabar zone.

Khadar: Newer alluvial soil, found near riverbanks, highly fertile.

Bangar: Older alluvial soil, less fertile but better drained.

1. Pass: It is a natural gap or a route between a ridge, hill.

2. Range: large landmass consisting of mountains, ridges and peaks.

3. Peak: highest point or tip of a mountain range.

4. Valley: a depression or a flat land between two elevated areas.

5. Dun: Longitudinal valleys existing beween himachal and shiwaliks.

Doab: the alluvial land between two converging rivers. Example doab area in Punjab.

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3. PENINSULAR PLATUE :- Land covered with water on three sides is called a peninsula.
It is a part of Gondvana land. Triangular in shape. It is the oldest plateau not only in India but
also in the World. Average height is 600-900 m.

• Aravalli Mountain: Oldest Fold Mountains of India & World. Guru Shikar - Highest Peak (lies at
Mount Abu in Rajasthan). It lies between Delhi and Palanpur in Gujarat.

Highest Mountain Peaks of India :-

 Highest peak of Himalayas in India : Kangchenjunga

 Highest mountain peak in India : K 2 or Godwin Austen

 Highest peak of Aravalis : Gurushikhar

 Highest peak of Western Ghats : Anaimudi

 Highest peak of Eastern Ghats : Jindhagada Peak.

 Highest peak of Nilgiri (Blue Mountains): Dodabeta

 Highest peak of Andaman & Nicobar Plains : Saddle peak

Western Ghats ( Sahyadri)
1. The western ghats are continuous chains of mountains and can be crossed through passes only.

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2. The height ranges from 900-1600 meters.

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3. Most of the Peninsular rivers originate from western ghats.
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5. The onset of monsoon is felt by the western ghats.
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6. Highest Peak - Anamundi

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Eastern Ghats
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1. The Eastern ghats are not continuous and are cut by rivers falling into the Bay of Bengal.
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2. Their height is lower than the western ghats, height ranges from 600 to 900 meter
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3. No major river originates from Eastern ghats.

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4. The soil is not so fertile here.

5. The retreating of the monsoon is felt here in October and November.
6. Highest Peak - Jindhagada Peak

Vindhya Range: Stretches across central India, primarily through Madhya Pradesh, extending into
Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, and Chhattisgarh. Acts as a natural divide between northern India and
southern India.

Satpura Range: Lies south of the Vindhyas, spreading across Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, and
Chhattisgarh.

Narmada & Tapi Rivers flows through the rift valley between the Vindhya and Satpura ranges.

Deccan Plateau :- is a large and prominent landform in peninsular India. Covers a significant
portion of southern and central India. Lies between the Western Ghats (on the west) and the
Eastern Ghats (on the east). Bounded by the Satpura and Vindhya ranges to the north. States
Covered: Includes parts of Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Tamil Nadu,
Kerala, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, and Madhya Pradesh. Predominantly black cotton soil (regur) in
the western parts, ideal for growing cotton.

4. Indian Deserts :- The Indian Desert lies towards the western margin of Aravali Hills. It is
also called Thar Desert. It is the ninth largest desert in the world. It spreads over the states of
Gujarat and Rajasthan. This region has semi-arid and arid weather conditions. It receives less
than 150 mm of rainfall per year. The vegetation cover is low with thorny bushes. Luni is the
main river in this area. All other streams appear only at the time of rainfall otherwise they
disappear into the sand.

5. COASTAL PLAINS :- The coastal plains in India run parallel to the Arabian Sea & Bay of
Bengal along the Peninsular Plateau. The area between the western ghats and the Arabian sea is
called the western coastal plains. While that between the Eastern ghats and the Bay of Bengal is
called the Eastern coastal plain. The western coastal plain is a narrow belt along the Arabian sea
of about 10-20km wide.

Western Coastal Plains :-: Extends from Gujarat in the north to Kerala in the south, along the

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Arabian Sea. These are Narrow, ranging between 10-50 km. Rich in biodiversity. Lagoons and

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backwaters (e.g., Vembanad Lake in Kerala). Sandy beaches and estuaries. Sub-divisions:
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 Konkan Coast: From Maharashtra to Goa.
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 Kannada Coast: From Goa to Mangalore (Karnataka).

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 Malabar Coast: From Mangalore to Kerala.

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Eastern Coastal Plains :- Extends from West Bengal in the north to Tamil Nadu in the south,
along the Bay of Bengal. Wider than the western plains, ranging between 100-120 km. Sub-
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divisions:
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 Utkal Coast: Odisha and northern Andhra Pradesh.

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 Andhra Coast: Central Andhra Pradesh.

 Coromandel Coast: Tamil Nadu.

6. THE ISLANDS :- India has two main groups of Islands. There are 204 islands in Bay of
Bengal called as Andaman and Nicobar islands and 43 islands in Arabian Sea called as
Lakshadweep islands The Andaman & Nicobar island extend from north to south in Bay of
Bengal. They are bigger in size. An active volcano is located on the Barren Island in Andaman &
Nicobar group of islands. Lakshadweep islands are located near Malabar coast of Kerala in the
Arabian sea & is Coral in Origin.
Channels. Separates
 Eight Degree :- Minicoy and Maldives.
 Nine Degree :- Minicoy and Lakshadweep.
 Ten Degree :- Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
 Duncan Passage :- South Andaman and Little Andaman.
 Palk Strait :- India and Sri Lanka
 Radcliffe Line - India and Pakistan
 McMahon Line - India and China
 Arakan Mountains - India and Myanmar
 Kali River - India and Nepal
5 highest mountain peaks in India:
1. Kangchenjunga Peak : Located in Sikkim (8586 meters) highest in India.
2. Nanda Devi Peak : In ttarakhand (Height of 7816 meters)
3. Kamet Peak : In Uttarakhand ( Height -7756 meters,)
4. Saltoro Kangri Peak: In Ladakh (Height 7742 meters)
5. Saser Kangri Peak: In Ladakh (Height - 7672 meters.

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Political Divisions of India :-

🔍 Location: India lies in Northern & Eastern Hemisphere & lies between L
atitude 8°4' N to 37°6'N and from Longitude - 68°7' to 97°25' E

(29 difference - 8 to 37 N & 68 to 97 E).

🔍Time :- 82° 30' E Longitude taken as (IST) as it passes middle of India [Mirzapur UP) which is
5 hour 30 min ahead of (GMT). (Note: 1° of longitude corresponds to 4 minutes of time.)

🔍 Area :- 32,87,263 sq km (7th Largest Country).

India Stretches- 3214 km (North to South) & 2933 km (E-W)

Land Boundary of India (15200 km) •

Mainland has Coastline = 6100 km But Total Coast line = 7516 km (including Islands).

🔍 Southern most Point- Indra Point (Great Nicobar Island), while. Kanyakumari (cape Comorin)
is the southernmost point of Indian main land.

🔍 Northern most Point - Indra Col. (Ladakh)

🔍 Eastern most point = Kibatu (Arunachal Pradesh).
🔍 Western most Point = Guhar Moti (Katch-Gujarat)
🔍 Tropic of Cancer passes through 8 States :- (TRICK = GRaM JCB MiTr )
• Gujarat , Rajasthan, MP , Jharkhand , Chhatisgarh , WB , Mizoram & Tripura.

👉Standard Time Meridian (82˚5' E longitude) :- passes through five states of India. (Trick -

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MOUCA) They are Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Uttar Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, and Andhra Pradesh.
They both intersect at Koriya district in Chhattisgarh. ba
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INTERNATIONAL BOUNDARY SHARING STATE'S:-
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Bangladesh (5) - (4,096.7 km ) Assam, West Bengal, Mizoram, Meghalaya and Tripura.
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China (5) -(3,488 km) Ladakh, Sikkim, Himachal Pr, Uttarakhand and Arunachal Pr.
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Pakistan (5) ( 3,323 km) - Jammu-Kashmir, Ladakh, Rajasthan, Gujarat and Punjab.
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Nepal (5) (1,751 km )- Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal and Sikkim
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Myanmar (4) - (1,643 km) Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur and Mizoram.

Bhutan (4) - (699 km ) Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, West Bengal and Sikkim.

Afghanistan - (106 km) Wakhan Corridor (Ladakh)

STATES OF COASTLINE : Gujarat maximum Coastal Area

1. Gujarat. 2. Maharashtra , 3. Goa, 4. Karnataka , 5. Kerala., 6. Tamil Nadu , 7. Andhra

Pradesh 8. Odisha 9. West Bengal
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Indian States & Capitals :-

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There are 28 States and 8 Union Territories in India as on 2024
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State Capital
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Chhattisgarh. Raipur West Bengal Kolkata Assam Dispur

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Jharkhand Ranchi Odisha Bhubaneswar Arunachal Pradesh Itanagar

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Goa Panaji Andhra Pradesh. Amaravati Manipur Imphal

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Karnataka Bengalur Telangana Hyderabad Meghalaya Shillong

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Madhya Pradesh Bhopal Bihar Patna Mizoram Aizawl

Rajasthan. Jaipur Gujarat Gandhinagar Nagaland Kohima

Sikkim Gangtok Haryana. Chandigarh Tripura Agartala

Tamil Nadu Chennai Punjab Chandigarh

Uttar Pradesh Lucknow Kerala Thiruvananthapuram

Uttarakhand Dehradun Maharashtra Mumbai

(Winter) Gairsain (Summer)
Himachal Pradesh Shimla (S)
& Dharamshala (W)

Union Territories (UTs). Capital

1. Andaman & Nicobar Islands Sri Vijaya Puram (Earlier it was Port Blair)
2. Dadra & Nagar Haveli and Daman & Diu. - Daman
3. Lakshadweep Kavaratti
 4. Jammu and Kashmir Srinagar (Summer) Jammu (Winter)
5. Ladakh Leh
6. Chandigarh Chandigarh
7. Puducherry Pondicherry
8. Delhi New Delhi
Top 5 states of India by population Top 5 states of India by area :
1. Uttar Pradesh 1. Rajasthan
2. Maharashtra 2. Madhya Pradesh
3. Bihar 3. Maharashtra
4. West Bengal 4. Uttar Pradesh
5. Madhya Pradesh 5. Gujarat

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 Modern History of India (By JKSSB Study Fast- Iqbal Sir)
Advent of European
Portuguese (1498-1961) Capital – Cochin (Later on –Goa)
Vasco da Gama :
 reached Calicut in 1498.
 At that time, Calicut was ruled by the Zamorin.
 He established a factory at Cochin in 1502.
Francisco de Almeida :
 First Governor of Portuguese in India.
 Introduced the "Blue Water Policy" (meaning the Portuguese had power on seas only).
Alfenso de Albuquerque:
 He captured Goa (1510). Considered the real founder of the Portuguese colonial empire.
First to abolish the practice of sati.
Nino da Cunha :
 Transferred the capital from Cochin to Goa (1530). Captured Diu (1535) & Daman (1559).
Portuguese introduced: Printing press (in Goa, 1556),Tobacco, Tea, Coffee, Paper, etc.
Dutch (1602-1759) :

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 Country: Netherlands. Formation of Dutch East India Company (1602).
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 21-years monopoly on Dutch spice trade.
 Headquarters: Coromandel, Pulicat.
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 Setup factory at Masulipatnam (1605) and Pulicat (1610).
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English (1600-1947) :
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Country : Britain. English East India Company was Formed in 1599 & was given the Royal
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Charter by Queen Elizabeth I in 1600 to trade in the East.

 William Hawkins - Commanded the "Hector," the first British trading ship to land in India.
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Stayed in Jahangir's court (1607-11) but failed to get permission.

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 Sir Thomas Roe - Got permission from Jahangir to trade in India.

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 E.E.I.C. opened a factory at Surat (1613).

Danes (1616-1860) :
 Danish East India Company formed in 1616.
 Capital: Tranquebar (TN) & Serampore (Bengal).
French (1664) :
French East India Company formed in 1664 by Colbert.
Established a factory at Surat (1668). Capital: Surat & Pondicherry (1673).
Battle of Wandiwash (1760) - Third Anglo-French War. Resulted in a British victory over the
French.
Social & Cultural Uprisings
Brahmo Samaj : Founder "Raja Ram Mohan Roy" (in Calcutta, 1830). Started as - Atmiya
Sabha (1814), Brahmo Sabha (1828), and Brahmo Samaj (1830).
Abolition of Sati & Widow Remarriage Act. Established Vedanta College.
Titles: Father of Nationalism / Father of Indian Renaissance.
After his death, Debendranath Tagore became the leader of Brahmo Samaj.
Arya Samaj : Founder "Swami Dayanand Saraswati" (1875, Bombay). Slogan: "Go back to
Vedas"&"India for Indians" . Opposed untouchability, caste discrimination, child marriage.
Supported widow remarriage.
Ramakrishna Mission : Founder "Swami Vivekananda" (1897, Belur-Calcutta).
Swami Vivekananda (Narendranath Datta) attended the "Parliament of Religions" in Chicago.
Published two papers: Prabuddha Bharata (English) & Udbodhan (Weekly, Bengali).
Prarthana Samaj : Founder - Atmaram Pandurang (1867, Bombay).
Aim: To make people believe in "One God"& worship only One God. Prarthana Sabha was
founded by M.G. Ranade.
Dharma Sabha : Founder - Radhakanta Dev (1830).
Orthodox Hindus organized the Dharma Sabha under the leadership of Radhakanta Deb in 1830
in counter to Brahmo Samaj. Promoting Western education even to the extent of opposing the
abolition of sati.
Veda Samaj : Founder - Sridharalu Naidu. Called the Brahmo Samaj of South.
Young Bengal Movement : Founder - Henry Louis Vivian (1820).
Indian National Social Conference : Founders - M.G. Ranade and Raghunath Rao
(Bombay).

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Theosophical Society : By Madam H.P. Blavatsky (Russia) & Col. H.S. Olcott (New York).

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Servants of Indian Society: By Gopal Krishna Gokhale (1905, Bombay).
Harijans : Initiated by M. Gandhi (1931). ba
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Satya Shodhak Samaj : Founder - Jyotirao Phule.
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Peasant Uprisings
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Indigo Revolt (1859-60) – (Bengal) Started by Digambar Biswas and Vishnu Biswas.
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Peasants were forced to grow indigo unwillingly by the European factory-owners.

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The anger exploded in Govindpur village of Nadia District (Bengal) led by the Biswas brothers.
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Others who played an important role:

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- Harish Chandra Mukherjee: Editor of the newspaper "Hindu Patriot."

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- Dinabandhu Mitra: Writer of the play "Neel Darpan."

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Moplah Rebellion : (Malabar Region of Northern Kerala) (1836-1921)**

In the Malabar region, due to the oppression and exploitation of the Muslim Moplah peasants by
the Hindu Zamindars and British government.
Pabna Movement (1872-76) - East Bengal : In East Bengal's Pabna District (1872-76) due to the
oppression of peasantry by the Zamindars.
Bijolia Movement (Rajasthan) : The movement arose due to the imposition of 86 different types
of taxes on peasants. Key years: 1905, 1913, 1916, 1927.
Bardoli Satyagraha (1928) - Surat, Gujarat. Led by Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel. Organized by the
Kunbi-Patidar land-owning peasants and supported by the Mehta brothers and Vallabhbhai Patel.
Due to this, M. Gandhi gave the title of "Sardar" to Vallabhbhai Patel.

Governor Generals/Viceroys of India

Governor of Bengal (1767-78) : First Governor of Bengal: Robert Clive.
Governor General of Bengal (1773-1833) : First: Warren Hastings.
- After the Regulating Act of 1773, the post of Governor of Bengal changed to Governor General
of Bengal.
 Governor General of India (1833-58) : First: William Bentinck.
By the Charter Act of 1833, the post of Governor General of Bengal changed to Governor
General of India.
Viceroy of India (1858-1947) : First: Lord Canning. After the revolt of 1857, the company's rule
was abolished and India came under the direct control of the British Crown. The Government of
India Act 1858 was passed, which changed the title from Governor General of India to Viceroy of
India.
 Warren Hastings (1774-1785) First Governor General of Bengal.
 Lord Cornwallis (1786-1793) : Introduced Permanent Settlement of Bengal.
 Lord Wellesley (1798-1805) : Introduced Subsidiary Alliance (e.g., Hyderabad).
 Lord William Bentinck (1828-1835) : First Governor General of India. Outlawed the practice of
Sati & introduction of English education (in 1935) by Macaulay.
 Lord Dalhousie (1848-1856) : Introduced Doctrine of Lapse. Introduced Railway & Telegraph in
India. Called "Maker of Modern India."
 Lord Canning (1856-1862) : Revolt of 1857. Government of India Act 1858. First Viceroy of India.
 Lord Mayo (1869-1872) : Viceroy who was killed (in Andaman Islands). First census of India
(incomplete census) in 1872.
 Lord Lytton (1876-1880) : Delhi Durbar by Queen Victoria. Vernacular Press Act (1878).

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 Lord Ripon (1880-84) : Introduced the Dual System of Government. First complete census of

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India (1881). - Ilbert Bill (which sought to allow Indian judges to try British offenders). Known as
the Father of Local Self-Government (Panchayati Raj).
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Lord Dufferin (1884-1888) : Formation of Indian National Congress (1885).
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 Lord Curzon (1899-1905) : Partition of Bengal (1905). Swadeshi Movement (1905).
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 Lord Hardinge (1910-1916) : Capital shifted from Calcutta to Delhi (1911). Delhi Durbar.
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 Lord Chelmsford (1916-1921) : Jallianwala Bagh tragedy (1919). Montague-Chelmsford

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Reforms (Government of India Act 1919). Rowlatt Act, Khilafat Movement, Non-Cooperation
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Movement.
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 Lord Reading (1921-1926) : Chauri Chaura Incident (1922). M.K. Gandhi imprisoned for the first
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time.
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 Lord Irwin (1926-1931) : First Round Table Conference, Simon Commission, Gandhi-Irwin Pact,
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Dandi March.
 Lord Willingdon (1931-1936) : Second Round Table Conference, Communal Award (by British
PM Ramsay MacDonald), Poona Pact (between M.K. Gandhi and Dr. B.R. Ambedkar).
 Lord Linlithgow (1936-1943) : Cripps Mission visited India, Quit India Movement.
 Lord Wavell (1943-1947) : Shimla Conference, Cabinet Mission Plan.
 Lord Mountbatten (1947-1948) : Last Viceroy of India, Indian Independence Act passed.
 C. Rajagopalachari (1948-1950) : First and last Indian Governor-General of free India.
Revolt of 1857 (First War of Independence / Sepoy Mutiny)
Causes
1. Political Cause:
 Doctrine of Lapse (By Lord Dalhousie).
 Nana Sahib was refused a pension, as he was the adopted son of Peshwa Baji Rao II.
 Awadh was annexed in 1856, on charges of maladministration.
 Satara, Jhansi, Nagpur & Sambhalpur were annexed owing to the "Doctrine of Lapse."
2. Social & Religious Cause :
 Abolition of Sati (1829) (by Lord William Bentinck).
  Widow Remarriage Act.
 Christian missionaries were allowed to enter India.
3. Economic Causes :
 High rate of taxation (zamindari, ryotwari & mahalwari).
 Discriminatory tariff policy against Indian products.
 Destruction of traditional handicrafts.
4. Military Causes :
 Racial discrimination.
Indian soldiers were paid low salaries and couldn’t rise above the rank of subedar.
5. Immediate Cause (Enfield Rifle) :
 Indian sepoys were given cartridges greased with cow and pig fat, which they had to tear
with their teeth.
Outbreak of Revolt
 On 29th March 1857, Mangal Pandey (a sepoy in the 34th Bengal Native Infantry
Regiment) killed two British officers, Hugeson and Baughi (at Barrackpore, Bengal). He
was hanged on April 8, 1857.
 On May 10, 1857, the Sepoy Mutiny at Meerut started and spread throughout the country.
Important Contemporary Leaders

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Centre Indian Leaders Britishers (who suppressed the movement)

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Delhi Bahadur Shah Zafar & Bakht Khan Nicolson & Hudson
Bareilly Khan Bahadur Khan -
Kanpur Nana Sahib & Tantia Tope ba
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Lucknow Begum Hazrat Mahal Campbell
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Jhansi Rani Lakshmi Bai & Faizabad Hugh Rose

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Maulvi
Bihar Kunwar Singh & Amar Singh Taylor
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Allahabad Liyakat Ali Col. Nell

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Fate of the Leaders :

 Bahadur Shah Zafar: Arrested & deported to Rangoon (where he died).
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 Nana Sahib & Begum Hazrat Mahal: Escaped to Nepal.

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 Rani Lakshmi Bai: Died in the battlefield.

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 Tantia Tope: Captured & executed.

Causes of Failure :
 Scindia of Gwalior, Holkar of Indore, Nizam of Hyderabad, Raja of Jodhpur, Nawab of Bhopal,
rulers of Patiala, Sindh & Kashmir provided support to the British.
 Comparative lack of efficient leadership.
 Military equipment of sepoys was inferior.
Impact of Revolt :-
 End of East India Company's rule.
 India became a colony of the British Government (Queen Victoria) by the Government of India Act
1858.
 Divide & Rule policy was initiated.
 British government changed the proportion of armed forces (armed forces dominated by British
soldiers).
Indian National Congress (INC)
Formed by A.O. Hume in 1885 (during Lord Dufferin's rule). W.C. Banerjee - First President of
INC.
First Session of INC held at Gokuldas Tejpal Sanskrit College (Bombay, 1885). Attended by 72
delegates.
Important Sessions of INC
 1885 – Bombay : W.C. Banerjee (72 delegates)
 1886 – Calcutta : Dadabhai Naoroji (436 delegates)
 1887 – Madras : Badruddin Tyabji (First Muslim President)
 1889 – Allahabad : George Yule (First English President)
 1907 – Surat : Ras Bihari Ghosh (Surat Split)
 1917 – Calcutta : Annie Besant (First Woman President)
 1920 –Nagpur : C Vijayaranghavacharia
 1924 – Belgaum : M.K. Gandhi (Only time he presided)
 1925 – Kanpur : Sarojini Naidu (First Indian Woman President)
 1929 – Lahore : Jawaharlal Nehru (Purna Swaraj Declaration)
 1938 – Haripura : Subhas Chandra Bose

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 1947 – Meerut : J.B. Kripalani

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Partition of Bengal (1905) by Lord Curzon ba
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 Created East Bengal and Assam out of the province of Bengal, reducing the size and
influence of old Bengal.
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 Calcutta Corporation Act (1899): Reduced Indian control of the local body.
 University Act (1904): Reduced elected members in university bodies.
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 Sedition Act and Official Secrets Act (1904): Curtailed freedom of expression.
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Swadeshi Movement (1905) :

Anti-partition movement in Bengal.
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Indian National Congress (INC) adopted the Swadeshi call at Banaras Session (1905) presided
by G.K. Gokhale.
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Resolution passed to boycott British goods; bonfires of foreign goods.

Other Movements and Events
 Abhinav Bharat Society and Mitra Mela by V.D. Savarkar (1904).
 Anushilan Samiti (Bengal) (1902): by Satish Chandra basu.
Muslim League (1906) :
 Founded by Aga Khan and others who supported the partition of Bengal and opposed the
Swadeshi Movement.
 In December 1906 at Calcutta, INC under Dadabhai Naoroji adopted "Swaraj" (self-
government) as its goal.
Surat Split (1907) :
Split in INC during the Surat Session (1907)
Moderate Leaders : Dadabhai Naoroji, Ferozeshah Mehta, G.K. Gokhale, M.M. Malviya, Badruddin Tyabji,
Tej Bahadur Sapru, W.C. Banerjee, Ras Bihari Ghosh, etc.
Extremist Leaders : Lal, Bal, Pal (Lala Lajpat Rai, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal) & Aurobindo
Ghosh.
Controversy over the elected president of INC, extremists supported Lala Lajpat Rai.
 Bomb Attacks and Incidents : Khudiram Bose and Prafulla Chaki attempted to
 assassinate Magistrate Kingsford in Muzaffarpur (1908). Prafulla Chaki committed
suicide, while Khudiram Bose was hanged.
 Alipore Bomb Conspiracy: Aurobindo Ghosh and Barindra Ghosh arrested and
imprisoned.
 Rashbehari Bose and Sachin Sanyal attempted a bomb attack on Viceroy Harding (1912).
Indian Councils Act (Morley-Minto Reform) (1909) : Introduced Separate Electorate for
Muslims.
Events in the Yaer 1911 :
 Delhi Durbar (1911) Held for King George V and Queen Mary.
 Capital of India shifted from Calcutta to Delhi (1911).
 Partition of Bengal was revoked (1911).
 National Anthem (Jana Gana Mana) written in Bengali by Rabindranath Tagore (1911).
Ghadar Party (1913) : Founded by Lala Hardayal, Taraknath Das, Sohan Singh, AHM
Barakatullah, Kartar Singh, Rashbehari Bose. Headquarters in San Francisco, USA. Published
weekly newspaper ‘The Ghadar’, slogan "Angrezi Raj ka Dushman".
Komagata Maru Incident (1914) : Japanese ship chartered by Gurdit Singh Sandhu to bring
Indian immigrants to Canada (376 passengers). Canadian government restricted them; only 24
passengers were allowed to stay. Ship returned to Calcutta in 1914; police fired on protesters at

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Budge Budge, resulting in 19 deaths. Known as the "Budge Budge Riot".

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Mahatma Gandhi's Entry to India
Birth : October 2, 1869, at Porbandar, Gujarat & Death : January 30, 1948, by Nathuram Godse.
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Went to South Africa in 1893 (at 24 years of age). Founded Natal Indian Congress in Africa (1894).
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Returned to India on January 9, 1915 (at 46 years of age). Wrote autobiography My Experiments with
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Truth.
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Home Rule Movement (1916) : Two Home Rule Leagues were established:
1. All India Home Rule League by Bal Gangadhar Tilak.
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2. Home Rule League by Annie Besant.

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Objective: Self-government for India within the British Empire.

 Bal Gangadhar Tilak : Slogan: "Swaraj is my birthright and I shall have it." Newspapers:
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*Kesari (Written in marathi) & Maratha (Written in English).

 New India and Commonweal by Annie Besant.
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 In 1921, Indian Home Rule League changed its name to "Swarajya Sabha".
Lucknow Pact (1916) : Reunited extremists and moderates of the Indian National Congress
(INC).
Muslim League and INC joined forces.
Champaran Satyagraha (1917) : First Civil Disobedience movement. European planters forced
cultivators to grow indigo on 3/20th of their holdings (Tinkathia system). Gandhi, invited by
Rajkumar Shukla, encouraged peasants to practice Satyagraha. Resulted in the Champaran
Agrarian Act, abolishing the Tinkathia system.
Ahmedabad Mill Strike (1918) : Dispute between mill owners and workers over "Plague Bonus".
Workers demanded adequate compensation due to inflation. Gandhi initiated his first hunger
strike, leading to acceptance of the tribunal's award of 35% bonus.
Kheda Satyagraha (1918) : Peasants distressed due to failure of crops, high prices, and drought.
Government ignored appeals for remission of land revenue. Gandhi advised peasants to fight
unto death. Government eventually agreed to recover revenue only from those who could pay,
ending the movement.
August Declaration (1917) : British policy announced after the Lucknow Pact aimed at
increasing Indian participation in every branch of administration, affirming India as an integral
part of the British Empire.
Rowlatt Act (1919) : Officially known as the Anarchical and Revolutionary Crimes Act. Rowlatt
Commission, headed by Judge Sidney Rowlatt. Critically opposed by Mahatma Gandhi, dubbing
it the "Black Act". Gave the government powers to arrest and imprison suspects without trial for
up to two years, suspending the writ of habeas corpus. Led to the arrest of prominent leaders Dr.
Satyapal and Dr. Saifuddin Kitchlu, sparking widespread protests. All-India Hartal organized on
April 6, 1919, by Swami Shraddhanand in protest.
Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (April 13, 1919) : General Dyer opened fire on a crowd gathered at
Jallianwala Bagh in Amritsar, killing 379 people. Hunter Commission was appointed to
investigate the massacre. Sardar Udham Singh assassinated Michael O'Dwyer in 1940 in
retaliation. General Dyer died in 1927. Rabindranath Tagore renounced his knighthood in protest.
Khilafat Movement (1920) : Led by Ali Brothers, Mohammad Ali and Shaukat Ali. Protested
British mistreatment of Turkey after World War I, a major cause being the Treaty of Sèvres.
Mohammad Ali started the English weekly "The Comrade" and the Urdu daily "Hamdard".
Non-Cooperation Movement (1920) : First mass-based political movement under Gandhi.
Formally launched on August 1, 1920. Commenced on the same day as the news of Bal
Gangadhar Tilak's death.

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- "Tilak Swaraj Fund" announced in 1921 in honor of Tilak's legacy.

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Movement Envisaged
 Surrender of titles & honorary offices.
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 Resignation from nominal offices & posts in local bodies.
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 Refusal to attend government darbars or boycott of government schools by students and
st

courts by lawyers.
Fa

 Refusal of the general public to join military and other government jobs. Boycott of
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foreign goods.
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Key Leaders' Actions:

St

 CR Das, Motilal Nehru, C. Rajagopalachari, etc., gave up their legal practice.

B

 S.C. Bose resigned from the civil service.

SS

Other Actions:
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 Formation of Volunteer Corps (unofficial police force) in 1921, declared illegal by the
government.
 Someshwar Prasad Chaudhary led peasants in anti-indigo cultivation protests in Bengal.
Chauri Chaura Incident (1922) : A mob in Chauri Chaura, Gorakhpur (UP), clashed with police,
resulting in the burning of 29 policemen on February 5, 1922. This led to the suspension of the
Non-Cooperation Movement.
Swaraj Party (1923) : Suspension of the Non-Cooperation Movement caused a split within the
Congress during the Gaya Session in 1922 (President: CR Das).
Pro-changers (Swarajists) aimed to end the boycott and participate in legislative councils,
while no-changers opposed council entry. Swarajists: CR Das, Motilal Nehru, NC Kelkar, Amjad
Khan.
No-changers: Rajendra Prasad, C. Rajagopalachari, Vallabhbhai Patel, MA Ansari.
CR Das and Motilal Nehru resigned from Congress and formed the "Congress-Khilafat Swarajya
Party" (Swarajist Party) in 1923.
1923 Elections: Swarajist Party won 42 out of 104 seats in the Central Legislative Assembly.
Swarajists gained a majority in Central Provinces, emerged as a significant force in Bengal,
Bombay, United Provinces (Uttar Pradesh), Assam, etc. Vithalbhai Patel was elected as Speaker
of the Central Legislative Assembly in 1925.
Vaikom Satyagraha (1924-25) : Movement in Travancore (Kottayam), Kerala, aimed at securing
entry for all Hindus into public roads around the Vaikom Temple, which were restricted based
on caste.
Kakori Train Robbery :- (9th August 1925). Carried out by members of the Hindustan Republican
Association (HRA) . Main Leaders Involved: Ram Prasad Bismil, Ashfaqulla Khan , Chandrashekhar
Azad, Rajendra Lahiri, Roshan Singh. Ram Prasad Bismil, Ashfaqulla Khan, Rajendra Lahiri, and Roshan
Singh were sentenced to death.

Bhagat Singh & Rajguru: Shot dead John Saunders (S.P. of Lahore) (1928). Threw bombs in the
Central Legislative Assembly in Delhi against the Public Safety Bill & Trade Dispute Act (1929).
 Bhagat Singh shouted the slogan "Inquilab Zindabad" (slogan coined by Hasrat Mohani).
 Bhagat Singh, Rajguru, and Sukhdev were hanged on March 23, 1931, at Lahore jail.
Simon Commission (1927) : "Statutory Commission" consisting of 7 British members; no
Indians appointed. Indian National Congress decided to boycott the Simon Commission during
the Madras Session (1927). Protests included the slogan "Simon Go Back". Government
responded with brutal repression and police attacks. Lala Lajpat Rai ("Punjab Kesari") was

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severely beaten in a lathi charge in Lahore, leading to his death in 1928.

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Nehru Report (1928) : All Parties Conference (Bombay - 1928) Lord Birkenhead challenged
ba
Congress to draft a Constitution for India. All Parties Conference convened after this challenge
(Iq
to draft a proposed constitution (Nehru Committee draft). Nehru Report submitted on August
28, 1928, at the Lucknow Conference of all parties; opposed by Jinnah.
st

Key Points of Nehru Report

Fa

Dominion status for India. Joint electorates with reserved seats for minorities. Linguistic
y

provinces. Protection of fundamental rights. India to be a federation with a bicameral legislature.

ud

Revolutionary Activities
St

Chapekar Brothers (1897) ; Shot dead Mr. Rand and Lt. Ayest
B

Hindustan Republican Association (HRA) : (1924) Leaders: Ram Prasad Bismil, Sachindra Nath
SS

Sanyal, Jogesh Chandra Chatterjee

JK

Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA) : Founded in 1928. Leaders:

Chandrashekhar Azad, Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev Thapar, others
Lahore Session (1929) : Date: 19th December 1929. President: Jawaharlal Nehru . Declaration:
"Purna Swaraj" (complete independence) adopted as the ultimate goal.
Event: Unfurling of the newly adopted Tricolour Flag on the banks of the Ravi River. Significance:
26th January 1930 fixed as the first Independence Day.
Dandi March (1930) : (Salt Satyagraha) : Purpose: To break the salt laws imposed by the British
(Salt Act).
Start Date: 12th March 1930 from Sabarmati Ashram, Ahmedabad. Arrival: Reached the coastal
village of Dandi on 6th April 1930. Action: Mahatma Gandhi picked up a handful of salt,
breaking the law, marking the beginning of the Civil Disobedience Movement.
 Khudai Khidmatgar : Leader: Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan. Role: Trained 50,000 non-violent activists
known as "Khudai Khidmatgars" in North-West Frontier Province.
 C. Rajagopalachari :Action: Organized a salt march on the East Coast in protest against the Salt
Laws.
 Sarojini Naidu : Achievement: Became the first woman to be arrested during the Salt March.
First Round Table Conference : (12th November 1930) in London. Purpose: To discuss the
Simon Commission and Indian constitutional reforms. Participants: Attended by the Muslim
League, Hindu Mahasabha, and Liberal parties; boycotted by the INC. Representative: Col. Kailas
Narain Haksar attended the conference.
Gandhi-Irwin Pact (1931) : Outcome: Ended the Civil Disobedience Movement as INC agreed to
participate in the Second Round Table Conference. British Concessions: Released political
prisoners and allowed villages to produce salt for local consumption.
Karachi Session of INC (1931) : Resolution: Passed resolutions on fundamental rights and
national economic policy.
Second Round Table Conference (1931) : Gandhi's Role: Represented INC and traveled to
London to meet with British Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald.
Gandhiji's Trip to London (1931) on Ship SS Rajputana along with followings
 Companion: Mirabehn (representing Indian Women)
 Delegate: Sarojini Naidu (representing Indian Women)
 Business Community Representative: G.D. Birla
 Issues at the Second Round Table Conference (1931)
Deadlock: Mainly on the issue of minority representation
Demand: Separate electorates for Muslims, Depressed Classes, Christians, and Anglo-Indians
Communal Award (16th August 1932) : Announcement: Made by Ramsay MacDonald

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Recognition: Declared Depressed Classes as minorities with entitlement to separate

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electorates
Gandhiji's Protest : Action: Started a fast unto death in Yeravda Jail (Poona) against the
Communal Award. ba
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Poona Pact : (25th September 1932) : Signed by: Dr. B.R. Ambedkar (on behalf of Depressed
st

Classes) and M.K. Gandhi (on behalf of Congress). Outcome: Abandoned separate electorates
Fa

for Depressed Classes; increased reserved seats in Provincial legislatures (from 71 to 148);
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reserved 18% seats for Depressed Classes in Imperial legislature

ud

All-India Anti-Untouchability League :

St

 Establishment: Founded in 1932 (1st October) by Mahatma Gandhi

B

 Later named: "Harijan Sevak Sangh"

SS

 Publication: Started the weekly "Harijan" in 1933

JK

Third Round Table Conference (1932) : Outcome: Inconclusive due to the absence of most
national leaders in prison. Result: Led to the passing of the Government of India Act 1935
Attendance at RT Conferences : Representatives: Dr. B.R. Ambedkar and Sir Tej Bahadur Sapru
attended all three Round Table Conferences.
All India Kisan Congress (Akhil Bharatiya Kisan Sabha) :Founder: Sahajanand Saraswati
Government of India Act 1935 : Purpose: Constitutional reforms based on the Simon
Commission reports. Description: J.L. Nehru likened the reforms to "a car with all brakes and no
engine"
Features of the Government of India Act 1935 :
Bicameral Legislature:
- Upper House: Council of States (by direct election)
- Lower House: Federal Assembly (by indirect election)
Three Lists for Legislative Purposes: 1. Federal, 2. Provincial & 3. Concurrent.
 All India Federation and Provincial Autonomy
 Abolition of Dyarchy in Provinces and introduction of Dyarchy at the Centre
 Residual Powers vested with the Viceroy
 Establishment of the Federal Court (later the Federal Supreme Court)
Provincial Elections of 1937 : Outcome: Indian National Congress (INC) won in 8 out of 11
provinces. INC formed ministries in eight provinces, except Bengal, Punjab, and Sindh.
Mahatma Gandhi and Subhas Chandra Bose :
 Gandhi's Acknowledgment: Called S.C. Bose "Prince among the Patriots"
 Bose's Tribute: Referred to Gandhi as "Father of the Nation" in a radio broadcast from
Rangoon in 1944
Demand for Pakistan :
 Origin: Proposed by Urdu poet Mohammad Iqbal in 1930 for Muslim-majority regions
 Term Coined: Chaudhary Rehmat Ali in 1933 introduced the term "Pakistan"
 Muslim League Resolution: Passed at Lahore Session (1940) advocating Jinnah's Two-
Nation Theory
August Offer (8th May 1940) :
 British Initiative: Aimed to secure Congress support in World War II
 Response: INC Session in Ramgarh, Bihar (under Abul Kalam Azad), passed a resolution
supporting the offer
 Proposal: Provisional National Government setup promise by Lord Linlithgow, termed the August
Offer
Cripps Mission (1942) : Purpose: British government sent Sir Stafford Cripps to negotiate
terms with Indian leaders

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Main Proposals:

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1. Indian Union to be granted Dominion status after the war and be free to participate in the United Nations

ba
2. Constituent Assembly to be convened after the war to frame a new constitution
3. Defense and Viceroy's powers to remain in British hands until the end of the war
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Congress Objections
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Criticisms:
Fa

- Offered Dominion status instead of immediate and complete independence

- Representation of Princely States by nominees instead of elected representatives
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- Lack of provision for provinces to secede, contradicting the principle of national unity
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- Absence of immediate transfer of power

St

Reaction from Congress

- Gandhi's Description: Described Cripps' proposals as "a post-dated cheque," to which Nehru added "on a crashing
B
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bank"
Quit India Movement (1942) : Launched by Mahatma Gandhi at Mumbai's Gowalia Tank Maidan
JK

on August 8, 1942. Slogan: "Do or Die". Outcome: Leaders of Congress, including Gandhi, were
imprisoned in Operation Zero Hour.
Gandhi's Location: Gandhi was kept at Aga Khan Palace in Poona during this period
Underground Revolutionary Activities :
 Participants: J.P. Narayan, Aruna Asaf Ali, and Usha Mehta operated the underground
Congress Radio from Gowalia Tank Maidan
 Not supported by Muslim League and Communist Party of India
 C.R. Formula (1944) : Origin: Prepared by C. Rajagopalachari as a proposal for Congress-
Muslim League cooperation. Purpose: Aimed at addressing Muslim League's demand for
Pakistan.
Azad Hind Fauj (Indian National Army or INA) was a military force formed by Indian nationalists
during World War II to fight against British rule in India. It was founded in 1942 at Singapore under the
leadership of Captain Mohan Singh with support from the Japanese in Southeast Asia. Later, it was
reorganized and led by Subhas Chandra Bose, who became its most prominent leader. Bose took
charge in 1943 and gave the INA its famous slogans like "Chalo Dilli" (March to Delhi) and "Jai Hind".
All India Forward Bloc and the Rani of Jhansi Regiment
Wavell Plan (1945) : End of World War II; pressure from the United States on the UK to resolve
India's political deadlock. Announcement: Made public on June 14, 1945, by Lord Wavell
Proposals:
1. Full self-government
2. Viceroy's executive council composed entirely of Indians, except for the Viceroy himself
3. External affairs portfolio to be managed by Indians, except for frontier tribal matters
4. Equal representation of Muslims and caste Hindus in the executive council
5. Executive council to form an interim national government
Shimla Conference (June 1945) : Participants: All political leaders were released and invited to
attend
Duration: Negotiations lasted for about two weeks with intermittent breaks
Reasons for Failure
- Congress Position: Strongly supported acceptance of the Wavell Plan
- Minority Quota Issue: Congress proposed one Muslim, one Parsi, one Christian, and two Hindus out of a quota of
five, but Jinnah opposed this formula
General Election (1945-46) : Post-War Election in Britain. Outcome: Winston Churchill's
Conservative Party lost, and Clement Attlee's Labour Party won the election. Appointment: Sir
Pethick Lawrence appointed as the new Secretary of State for India by the British government
Naval Mutiny (1946) : Reason: Poor living conditions and food quality. Support: Aruna Asaf Ali
openly supported the sailors. Resolution: Ended with the intervention of Sardar Vallabhbhai
Patel

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Cabinet Mission Plan (1946) :

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- Announcement: British Prime Minister Lord Attlee declared the Cabinet Mission would visit India
ba
- Members: Included Lord Pethick Lawrence (Head), Sir Stafford Cripps, and A.V. Alexander
(Iq
Key Provisions :
st

1. Union of India
Fa

- Rejected demand for separate Pakistan

- Proposed a federal Union with three groups of provinces:
y

- Group A: 6 Hindu-majority provinces (Bombay, Bihar, Madras, Orissa, UP)

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- Group B: 3 Hindu-majority provinces (Sindh, Punjab, NWFP)

St

- Group C: Assam and Bengal

2. Constitution Making Body
B
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- Constituent Assembly: Total of 389 seats (292 from British India provinces, 93 from princely states)
- Seat allocation based on population, divided among various communities (General, Muslims, Sikhs)
JK

3. Interim Government
- Composition: 14 members (6 from Congress, 5 from League, 1 each from Indian Christian, Sikh, Parsi)
- Formation: Interim Government established on September 2, 1946, with Jawaharlal Nehru as Vice President
and the Viceroy acting as its President
Direct Action Day (16-Aug-1946)
Occurrence: Marked by large-scale violence between Muslims and Hindus in Calcutta (Bengal)
Outcome: Led to significant casualties and heightened tensions, with the Muslim League
advocating for Pakistan.
Direct Action Day (16-Aug-1946) - Great Calcutta Killing, "Black Day"
Mountbatten Plan (June 3, 1947) : Announcement: Lord Mountbatten presented his plan on
June 3, 1947. Division: India to be partitioned into India and Pakistan, effective from August 15,
1947
Partition and Independence (1947) - British PM Atlee
Appointment: Sir Cyril Radcliffe appointed as Chairman for Partition Commission
Role: Mountbatten continued as Governor-General of India, Jawaharlal Nehru became Prime
Minister, and Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel became Home Minister.
Lord Mountbatten : became the first Governor-General of the new dominion of India.
He served as the last British Governor-General of India from 15th August 1947, until 15th June
1948.
C. Rajagopalacharya :- became the first Indian Governor-General of independent India. He
assumed office on 21st June 1948.

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Ancient History (By Iqba Sir (JKSSB Study Fast)
1. Pre-historic (Stone Age) 7. Jainism
2. Indus Valley Civilization 8. Gupta Period
3. VedicAge 9. Sangam Age.
4. Pre-Maurya Empire- Magadha 10. Southern Kingdoms.
5. Mauryas Empire 11. Muslim Invasions.
6. Budhism

Indus Valley Civilization (IVC), also known as Harappan Civilization.

Time period = 3300-1300 BCE, and its mature period of 2600-1900 BCE.
Dholavira is the most recent Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) site to be added to the UNESCO World Heritage list,
in July 2021.
Great Bath at Mohenjodaro
The Harappan Civilization extended:
West : Sutkagendor on the Makran coast of Pakistan
East : Alamgirpur on the Hindon River, near Delhi
North : Manda in Jammu
South : Daimabad in Maharashtra
Major Harappan Site sand their Excavators
Name of Sites. River. Year. Excavators
 Harappa Ravi 1921. Daya Ram Sahni

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 Mohenjodaro Indus 1922. RD Bannerjee
 Sutkagendor Indus 1927. RL Stine lS
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 Chanhudaro Indus
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 Kalibangan Ghaggar 1953. A Ghosh

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 Ropar Sutlej 1953 YD Sharma

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 Lothal. Bhogava SR Rao

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 Alamgirpur Hindon 1958. YDS harma

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(Sites). (States)
B

 Ropar - Punjab
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 Alamgirpur - Uttar Pradesh

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 Kalibangan - Rajasthan
 Dholavira - Gujarat
 Banawali. - Haryana
Vedic Age :
Vedas originated from "Vidhi" Meams Knowledge. Also called Shruti (to hear)
Types of Vedas
1. Rigveda
2. Samaveda
3. Yajurveda
4. Atharvaveda
1. Rigveda (Knowledge of Hymns): Oldest veda among all. Contains 1028 Hymnus is divided into 10
Mandalas.
2. Samaveda (Knowledge of Melodies): Collection of Melodies meaning (a series of musical tones that are
grouped together as a single entity).
3. Yajurveda (Knowledge of Sacrificial Formulas): Deals with procedure for the performance of sacrifices.
4. Atharvaveda (Knowledge of Everyday Life): Veda of magical formulas.
Jainism
There were 24 Tirthankaras (teachers) & the first Tirthankara was Rishabh Nath. The last - 24th
Tirthankara was Vardhaman Mahavira.
 Vardhaman Mahavira.
 Birth - Kundagrama near Vaishali.
 Parents - Siddhartha and Trisala.
 Married to Yasoda and had a daughter Anojja or Priyadarsana.
 He attained Kaivalya (highest spiritual knowledge) at the age of 42 under Sal tree.
 First Sermon - At Pava . Died at Pava near Rajagriha at the age of 72.
 Mahavira's symbol was a lion.
Jainism has two main sects:
1. Digambara (Sky-Clad) : Monks renounce all possessions, including clothing.
2. Svetambara (White-Clad) : Monks wear simple white clothing.
Jain Council :
1. First Jain Council : - Held at Patliputra in 3rd Century B.C. and was presided by Sthulbhadra.
2. Second Jain Council :- Held at Vallabhi in 512 A.D. and was presided by Devardhi Kshmasramana.
Jain Literature : The sacred books of the Jain religion are known as Jain Agam or Agam Sutras (Written in
Prakrit language.
Buddhism
Buddha's Life :- Gautama, the Buddha also known as Siddhartha, Sakyamuni and Tathagata.
 Born in 563 BC (widely accepted), at Lumbini, near Kapilvastu, capital of the Sakya republic.

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 Left home at the age of 29 and attained Nirvana at the age of 35 at Bodh Gaya.
ba
 Attained Nirvana or Enlightenment at 35 at Uruvela, Gaya in Magadha (Bihar) under the Pipal
(Iq

tree.
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 Delivered his first sermon at Sarnath.

Fa
y

 He attained Mahaparinirvana at Kusinara in 483 BC.

ud
St

 His first sermonis called 'Dharmachakrapravartan' or 'Turning of the Wheel of Law'.

B
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 Attained Mahaparinirvana at Kushinagar (identical with village Kasia in Deoria district of

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U.P.) in 483 B.C. at the age of 80 in the Malla republic.

Buddist Councils
 1st council. Rajgriha. 483 BC. Ajatshatru
 2nd council. Vaishali. 383 BC. Kalasoka
 3rd council. Patliputra. 250 BC. Ashoka
 4th council. Kashmir. 72 AD. Kanishka
Buddhist texts :- Tripitaka is a collection of Buddhist texts that includes scripture, commentary,
history, and disciplinary manuals. The word "Tripitaka" is Sanskrit for "Three Baskets" and refers to the three
main divisions of the text:
Vinaya: Contains rules and regulations for the daily lives of bhikkhus and bhikkhunis
Sutta: Contains the teachings and sayings of the Buddha
Abhidhamma: Contains explanations and commentaries of Buddhist doctrines
Pre-Mourya Age : Magadha Empire
During 6 to 4 century BC Magadh emerged as Most Powerful Mahajanapada out of 16 Mahajanapadas.
Magadha Empire consists of 3 Dynasties:
[Link] Dynasty [Link] Dynasty [Link] Dynasty
 Bimbisara  Sisunaga  Mahapadma Nanda
 Ajatshatru  Kalasoka  Dhana Nanda
 Udayin
Haryanka Dynasty :
1. Bimbisara : Founder
 He is contemporary to Gautam Budha & Mahavira.
 Build City of Rajgir (Capital), First king have standing Army.
2. Ajatashatru : Son of Bimbisara.
 He was patricide kill his father.
 He destroyed Vaishali Bult-Rajagriha-also fortified it to meet treat from Avanti.
 He patronised first Buddhist Concil & Buddha bied dusing his reign.
3. Udayan: Son of Ajatashatur. Son of fisteshet.
 Built fort upon confluence of Gangs & Son rives at Patliputra
 Transfer Capital to Patliputra. He was assassinated by Sisunaga.
Sisunaga Dynasty:
1. Sisunaga : Avanti was captured by him. Shift Capital to Vaishali.
2. Kalasoka : Shift capital to Patliputer. He Conducted 2nd Buddhist council.
Nanda Dynasty :
Mahapadma Nanda :
He is called the “first historical emperor of India.”
He is also called “Sarva Kashtriyantaka” (destroyer of all the kshatriyas).
Dhana Nanda :
After Mahapadma Nanda, his eight sons ascended the throne. However, the most notable among them was

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the younger son Dhana Nanda.
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Dhana Nanda was a follower of Jain religion. Pataliputra was the capital of Dhana Nanda.
ba
He had 20,000-Equestrian, 200,000 - Infantry, 2,000- chariot and 3,000 trained elephants.
(Iq

Dhana Nanda was the last ruler of the Nanda dynasty. During the reign of Dhanananda, Alexander invaded
st

India.
Fa

Alexander the Great conquered India during his reign 326 BC but because of Nanda's large army, he did not
y
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dare to invade Magadha.

St

Maurya Empire :
B
SS

Chandragupta Maurya (322-298 B.C.)

JK

Apianus tells us that in 305 BC, Chandragupta Maurya defeated Selecus Nikator at the bank of river Indus, who
surrendered a vast territory including Aria (herat), Arachosia (Kandhar), Gedrosia (Baluchistan) & Paropanisade
(Kabul), in return for 500 elephants.
After the treaty with Selecus Nikator, the boundary of empire reached up-to Hindukush.
Megasthenese was a Greek ambassador sent to the court of Chandragupta Maurya by Selecus Nikator.
Chandragupta adopted Jainism and went to Chandragiri Hill, Sravanbelgola (Karnataka) with Bhadrabahu,
where he died by slow starvation.
• Under Chandragupta Maurya, for the first time, the whole of Northern India was united.
Bindusara: (298-273 В.С.)
Chandragupta Maurya was succeeded by his son Bindusara.
He is known by different names like Madrasar, Simhasena and Amitrochates
• King of Syria Antiochus I sent his ambassador Diamakus to the court of Bindusara. Antiochus I asked for
sweet wine, dried figs and a sophist. Wine and figs were sent but sophists were not.
• Bindusara patronized Ajivika sect.
Ashoka: Ashoka The Great
The Succeeded Bindusara after bloody war of succession killing several of his brothers.
He officially assumed the power into 269 BC.
Kalinga War, fought in 261 BCE, was a major military campaign led by Emperor Ashoka of the Maurya Empire.
It took place in the region of Kaling in which more the 100 thousand people were killed
The war and its fatal causalities shook Ashok from inside and he woved not to wage anymore wars and he
became a Buddhist. Baptized by Monk Upagupta.
In order to propagate peace and order in the empire he preached his Dhamma popularly known as " ASHOKA'S
DHAMΜΑ
Historical Writers and Chroniclers
Kalhana (12th century CE)
Famous work: Rajatarangini (River of Kings), a historical chronicle of Kashmir.
Banabhatta (7th century CE)
Famous work: Harshacharita, a biography of Emperor Harsha.
Also wrote Kadambari, a classical Sanskrit prose romance.
Harisena (4th century CE)
Court poet of Samudragupta.
Composed the Allahabad Pillar Inscription, detailing the conquests of Samudragupta.
Kautilya (Chanakya) (4th century BCE)
Famous work: Arthashastra, a treatise on statecraft, economics, and military strategy.
Megasthenes (4th century BCE)
A Greek ambassador to the Mauryan court.
Famous work: Indica, which describes India during Chandragupta Maurya's reign.
Valmiki – Wrote - Ramayana
Vyasa - Wrote Mahabharata
Aryabhata (5th century CE)
Famous work: Aryabhatiya, a treatise on astronomy and Mathematics (Zero-0)
Charaka (1st century CE)
Famous work: Charaka Samhita, a foundational text on Ayurveda. Greatest scholar of Medical Science during

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Panini (4th century BCE) lS
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Famous work: Ashtadhyayi, a foundational work on Sanskrit Grammar.

Bhavabhuti (7th–8th century CE)
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Famous plays: Uttararama-charita and Malatimadhava.

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Kalidasa (5th century CE)

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Known as one of the greatest Sanskrit poets and playwrights.

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Famous works: Abhijnanashakuntalam, Raghuvamsha, and Meghaduta.

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Gupta Empire
Sri Gupta : He is the founding ruler of the Gupta Dynasty. He reigned between 240 CE-280 CE . He used the title
of 'Maharaja'
Ghatotkacha : He was the son of Sri Gupta. He, too, like Sri Gupta, adopted the title of 'Maharaja'
Chandragupta I :- (319 CE and 335/336 CE)
He is attributed with the start of the Gupta Era. He took the title of 'Maharajadhiraja'
He married the Lichchavi princess Kumaradevi.
Samudragupta :- (335/336 CE-375 CE)
He was called 'Napolean of India'. Allahabad Pillar Inscription, also known as the Prayag Prashasti,
was composed by Harisena (Court Poet).
Chandragupta II :-
He had Navratnas, or 9 Gems, in his Court (Kalidas etc)
He popularly took up the title 'Vikramaditya'
Kumaragupta I :-
He is said to have founded Nalanda University
He was also known as Shakraditya
Skandagupta
He was a follower of Vaishnavism
He successfully defeated the Hunas, but this battle dented his empire's coffers
Vishnugupta :- He is the last known ruler of the Gupta Dynasty, who ruled from 540 AD to 550 AD.
Sangam Age
Name Emblem Capital Region Greatest Rulers Imp. products
1. Cholas Tiger Kaveripatnam Northern Tamil Nadu Karikala Chola Cotton
2. Pandya Fish Madhurai Southern Tamil Nadu Negunjeliyan Pearl
3. Chera Bow & Arrow Vanji Kerala Senguttavan [Red Chera] Pepper

Tripartite Struggle :- was a series of wars that took place in northern India between the 8th and 12th
centuries. The conflict was fought over the control of Kannauj, which was a symbol of imperial status over the
Ganges plain. The three dynasties involved in the struggle were the Palas, the Pratiharas, and the Rashtrakutas:
PRATIHARAS
NAGABHATTA I (730-760 CE) :- Defended Western India from invasion of Arabs. Defeated by Rashtrakuta king
Dhruva.
NAGABHATA II (805–833 CE) : He conquered Kannauj and the Indo-Gangetic Plain as far as Bihar from the
Palas.
Bhoja I/ Mihir Bhoja (836-885) :- Greatest ruler of Pratiharas. Recovered Kanauj (aka Mahodaya) which
remained the capital of the Pratihara empire for almost a century. Devotee of Vishnu, adopted title ‘Adivaraha’

RASHTRAKUTAS
DANTIDURGA (753-756 CE) :: Founder, set up capital at Manyakhet.

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KRISHNA I (756- 774 CE) :- Built the Kailasanath temple at Ellora.
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DHRUVA (780-793 CE) :: Kanauj expedition - defeated Pratihara king Vatsaraja and the Pala king Dharmapala.
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GOVINDA III (793-814 CE) :- Defeated Nagabhata II and Dharmapala. Shattered the union of the Ganga, Chera,
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Pandya, and Pallava rulers in south India

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AMOGHAVARSHA (814-878 CE) :-Follower of Jainism.

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PALAS
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GOPALA (AROUND 750 CE) :- Founder of the dynasty. Built Odantpuri University (in Bihar).
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DHARMAPALA (770-810 CE) :- The Pratihara ruler was defea- ted by the Rashtrakuta ruler Dhruva, and Dhruva
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then re- turned to the Deccan, It allow- ed Dharmapala to occupy Kanauj.

Later Nagabhatta II defeated Dharmapala. Revived Nalanda University and founded the Vikramshila University.
DEVAPALA (810-850 CE) :- Extended his control over Pragjyotishpur (Assam) and parts of Orissa.

CHOLA KINGDOM (850 – 1279 CE)

The Chola empire which arose in the ninth century brought under its control a large part of the peninsula. It
was founded by Vijayalaya in Tanjore. The Cholas developed a powerful navy which enabled them to conquer
Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Its impact was felt even by the countries of Southeast Asia. The Chola empire may
be said to mark a climax in south Indian history.

KAKATIYA KINGDOM :- Established by Rudradeva (PrataparudraI) in 1158 CE. Warangal was the capital
of Kakatiyas. They faced Islamic invasion from 1310 (by Alauddin Khilji) and ultimately came under control of
Delhi Sultanate in 1323 (invasion by Sultan Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq).
VIJAYANAGARA EMPIRE (1336 -1646 CE) :- It was founded in 1336 CE by Harihara and Bukka of
the Sangama dynasty (at the instance of their Guru Vidyaranya).
BAHAMANI KINGDOMS (1347-1526 CE) :- Ala-ud-Din Bahman Shah (aka Hasan Gangu). Founded the
Bahmani kingdom in 1347 CE with Gulbarga as its capital.
Medieval History of India
Muslim Invasions
Mohammad Bin Qasim invaded India and conquered Sindh Province in 712 AD. He belonged to
Umayyad Empire of Arab.
Mahmud of Ghazni, who invaded India 17 times. Mahmud of Ghazni (971–1030 CE) was a prominent ruler of
the Ghaznavid Empire. Notable victories included the sack of the Somnath temple in 1025 CE and the
conquest of Punjab. Scholars like Al-Biruni, who wrote Kitab al-Hind was associated with his court.
Mohammad Ghori, who invaded India and founded the Delhi Sultanate
Battle of Tarain (1191-1192)
• First Battle of Tarain :- Prithviraj Chauhan & Ghori (1191) in which Ghori was defeated.
• Second Battle of Tarain :- Prithviraj was captured and killedy by Ghori.

Delhi Sultanate: - ( 1206 to 1526 A.D) :-

Five dynasties ruled in Delhi Sultanate: ( Trick :- Gudh Kha TaSLe Me)
 Slave Dynasty (1206-1290 CE) - Founder - Qutub-ud-din Aibak
 Khaliji (1290-1320 CE) - Founder Jalaluddin Khilji
 Tughlaq (1320-1413 CE) - Founder Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq

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 Saiyyad (1414-1451 CE) - Khizr Khan lS
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 Lodhis (1451-1526 CE) - Bahlol Lodhi

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Slave (Ghulam) Dynasty :- (1206-1290 CE)

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Qutub-ud-din Aibak (1206 – 1210 CE) :- Founded Slave dynasty.

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He Made Lahore capital. He is Known as ‘lakh Baksh’ or giver of lakhs as he gave a lot of liberal
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donations. He died while playing Polo or Chaugan

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He Started construction of the Qutub Minar dedicated to Sufi Saint, Khwaja Qutubuddin Bakthiyar
Kaki – later completed by Iltutmish.
Shamsuddin Iltutmish (1210-1236):-
He Shifted capital from Lahore to Delhi.
He introduced Silver tanka & Copper jital. (Coins)
He Created Turkan-i-chahalgani ( forty powerful military leaders, the forty).
Razia Sultan (1236-40):
1st and only female Muslim ruler of medieval India.
Balban (1266-1287):
He broke the power of the Forty.
Introduced Persian festival Nawrouz.
Separated Diwan-i-wizarat (Finance Department) from the Diwan-i-Arz (Military Department).
Introduced Sijada (prostration) and Paibos (kissing the Sultan’s feet) to prove his superiority over the
nobles.
KHALJI DYNASTY (1290-1320 AD)
Jalauddin Khalji (1290-1296 CE): Founder of Khilji Dynasty
Was murdered by his son-in-law Alauddin Khalji in 1296 and usurped the throne.
Alauddin Khalji (1296-1316 CE):
He was the first sultan of the delhi sultanate who separated religion from politics. He proclaimed
“Kingship knows no kinship”.
Patronized poets like-Amir Khusrau and Mir Hasan Dehlv.
He adopted the title of Sikander-i-Azam and gave Amir Khusrau the title of Tuti-i-Hind (Parrot of India).
He defeated Mongols in the battles of Jalandhar (1298), Kili (1299), Amroha (1305) and Ravi (1306).
Malik Kafur was his slave – general. He led a series of expeditions in the southern part of India,
against the Yadavas (1308), Kakatiyas (1310), Hoysalas (1311) etc.
TUGHLAQ DYNASTY (1320-1414 AD)
Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq (1320-1325): Founder of Tughlaq dynasty. Took title: Ghazi
1st Sultan to start Irrigation. Built a strong fort called Tughlaqabad near Delhi.
Mohammad Bin Tughlaq (1325-1351):
He defeated Mongols. Appointed official on the basis of merit in the Delhi Sultanate.
Ibn-Batuta (native of Morocco) was contemporary of Muhammad Tughlaq.

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During reign 3 major kingdoms of South India emerged: Vijayanagar, Bahamani, and Madurai.
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1. Transferred capital from Delhi to Devagiri (Daulatadab). Shifted back after 2 years because of
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lack of water supply.

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2. Taxation in the Doab: He increased land revenue to 50% in the Doab area
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3. Token Currency– Issued bronze coins at par with the value of the silver tanka coins in the Delhi
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Sultanate. He had also introduced the copper currency system. Later withdrew both.
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4. Launched the Khorasan project to counter the threat of Chinese incursions – Failed.
5. Quarachi expedition – launched in Kumaon hills to counter the threat of Chinese incursions –
failed.
Firoz Shah Tughlaq (1351-1388):
Made jizya a separate tax. Earlier it was part of land revenue. Only children, women, disabled
exempted.
Nasiruddin Muhammad (1390-1398):
He was the last ruler of the Tughlaq dynasty.
Taimur’s invasion (1398) during his reign weakened the Delhi Sultanate.
SAIYYAD DYNASTY (1414-1450 AD)
Khizr Khan (1414-1421): Before departure of Timur from India, He appointed Khizr Khan as Governor
of Multan. He captured the Delhi Sultanate and founded the Sayyid dynasty in 1414.
He died in 1421 and was succeeded by Mubarak Shah (1421-1433 CE). Muhammad Shah (1434-1443
CE). Next ruler Alauddin Alam Shah (1445-1451) was the weakest of the Sayyid princes. He handed
over the throne to Bahlul Lodi and retired to Badaun.
LODHI DYNASTY (1451-1526 AD) The Lodi dynasty was an Afghan dynasty
Bahlul Khan Lodi was the founder and Sikandar Lodi succeeded him.
Sikandar Lodi (1489-1517): He founded the city Agra and transferred the capital from Delhi to Agra.
Sikandar was orthodox and a bigot king. He reimposed the Jizya on Hindus.
Ibrahim Lodi (1517-1526): He was the last Lodi Sultan of Delhi Sultanate.
Ibrahim was defeated in 1526 at the Battle of Panipat.

MUGHAL EMPIRE (1526 -1857) – (Trick :-:BHAJSA)

Babur: (1526-1530 AD) founder of the Mughal Empire and He was related to Timur from his
father’s side and to Chengiz Khan through his mother.
Battles of Babar Trick :- Pani pi ke Khana kha ke Chanderi chali Ghagra pehanke
First Battle of Panipat (1526) – Babur decisively defeated Ibrahim Lodhi. It Replaced the Lodhi and
established the Mughal Empire in India.
Reasons for Babur’s victory: Alternatively resting one wing of Army, Services of two ottoman master
gunners – Ustad Ali & Mustafa, Use of Gunpowder, scientific use of cavalry & artillery tactics –
Tulughma and the araba, effective use of Cannons.

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Battle of Khanwa (1527) – Babur defeated Rana Sangha and assumed title of Ghazi
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Battle of Chanderi (1528) – Medini Rai was defeated and with this resistance across Rajputana was
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Battle of Ghagra (1529) – Babur defeated Mahmud Lodhi who aspired to the throne of Delhi.
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Babur popularized gunpowder, cavalry and artillery in India. (Gunpowder used earlier in India, but
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Babur popularized its use).

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HUMAYUN (1530-40 & 1555-56)

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At the battle of Chausa (1539) & battle of Kanauj (1540) Sher Shah Suri defeated Humayun and
forced him to flee India.
For sometimes he took shelter at the Iranian king. In 1555, following the breakup of Suri Empire he
recaptured Delhi but died next year.
Humayun’s sister, Gul Badan Begum, wrote “Humayun-Nama”.
SHER SHAH SURI (1540-45)
Founder of Sur dynasty and second Afghan Empire (after Lodhi).
Sher Shah’s rule lasted for five years.
AKBAR (1556-1605)
He succeeded the throne after his father Humayun’s death.
In 1556, in the second battle of Panipat, he defeated Hemu (Sur’s wazir).
Between 1556-60, Akbar ruled under Bairam Khan (Khan-i-Khanam).
Battle of Haldighati (1576)- Akbar defeated Rana Pratap following most of the Rajput rulers accepted
Akbar’s suzerainty.
Akbar defeated Gujarat ruler Muzaffar Shah. To commemorate this victory, he built Buland Darwaza
at Fatehpur Sikri.
Navaratna of Akbar:
1. Birbal - Foreign Minister
2. Abul Fazl - Prime Minister
3. Faizi - Education Minister
4. Raja Todar Mal - Finance Minister
5. Raja Man Singh - Chief of Army
6. Tansen - Singer
7. Abdur-Rahim Khan-l-Khana - Defence Minister.
8. Fakir Aziao-Din - Religious Head
9. Mulla Do-Piyaza - Home minister

JAHANGIR (1605-1627)
Built Moti Masjid at Lahore. Laid Shalimar and Nishant gardens in Kashmir..
Captain Hawkins and Thomas Roe visited his court. Thomas Roe got the Farman for setting up an
English factory at Surat. Farman was sealed by Shah Jahan..
SHAHJAHAN (1628-1658)

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Three years after accession, his beloved wife Mumtaj Mahal died in 1631.
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During his reign a war of succession among his sons broke out & Finally Aurangzeb emerged
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victorious.
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Built Taj Mahal in 1632-33 ,Jama Masjid in Delhi, Moti Masjid & Red Fort etc
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AURANGZEB (1658-1707)
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He assumed the title Alamgir, World Conqueror. He was also called Zinda Pir.
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During his reign, the Mughal Empire reached its greatest extent, ruling over nearly the entire Indian
subcontinent.
Indian Culture & Heritage
Festivals of India Tribes of India
Assam Bihu, Ambubachi Mela, Majuli Arunachal Pradesh Apatanis, Singpho,
festival Abhors/Adi.
Arunachal Apatani, Dree, Siang Bihar Gond, Birjia, Santhals
Pradesh
Nagaland Hornbill, Nagada Kerala Urali
Sikkim Saga Dawa, Losoong Manipur Kuki, Meitei
Goa Siddi. Meghalaya Khasi, Garo.
Himachal Pradesh Gochi Mizoram Lushai
Kerala Onam Sikkim Lep itchas, Bhutia.
Meghalaya Nongkrem, Ahaia Tripura Chakmas
Tamid Nadu Pongal Goa Siddi
Punjab Baishakhi, Lohri
Odisha Rath Yatra

Classical Dances of India Folk Dances of India

1 Bharatanatyam Tamil Nadu Ras Leela Uttar Pradesh
2 Kathak Uttar Pradesh Garba Gujarat
3 Sattriya Assam Ghoomar Rajasthan
4 Kathakali Kerala Ghumura Odisha

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5 Mohiniyattam Kerala Bihu Assam
6 Kuchipudi Andhra Pradesh Lavani lS Maharashtra
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7 Manipuri Manipur Pulikali Kerala
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8 Odissi Odisha Karakattam Tamil Nadu

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9 Chhau West Bengal Rouf & Hikat J&K

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Music
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Shehnai : Bismillah Khan. Santoor : Shiv Kumar Sharma

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Tabla :- Alla Rakha, Zakir Hussian. Flute : [Link]

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Veena : Chitti Babu. Sarangi : Pandit Ram Narayan

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State List of Indian Festivals

 Andhra Pradesh - Dasara, Ugadi, Deccan Festival, Brahmotsavam
 Arunachal Pradesh - Dree, Pongtu, Losar, Murung, Solang,Mopin,Monpa festival
 Assam - Ambubachi, Bhogali Bihu, Baishagu, Dehing Patkai
 Bihar - Chhath Puja, Bihula
 Chhattisgarh - Maghi Purnima, Bastar Dussehra
 Goa - Sunburn festival, Ladain, Mando
 Gujarat - Navratri, Janmashtami, Kutch Utsav, Uttarayana
 Himachal Pradesh - Rakhadumni, GochiFestival
 Haryana - Baisakhi
 J&K - Refer GK of J&K for detail
 Jharkhand - Karam Utsav, Holi,Rohini,Tusu
 Karnataka - Mysore Dasara, Ugadi
 Kerala - Onam,Vishu
 MP - Lok-rang Utsav,Tejaji,Khujarahofestival
 Meghalaya - Nongkremfestival,Khasisfestival,Wangla,SajibuCheiraoba
 Maharashtra - Ganesh Utsav,Gudi Padva
 Manipur - Yaoshang, Porag,ChavangKut
 Mizoram - Chapcharkut Festival
 Nagaland - Hornbill festival, Moatsu Festival
  Odisha - Rath Yatra, Raja Parba, Nukahai
 Punjab - Lohri, Baisakhi
 Rajasthan - Gangaur, Teej, Bundi
 Sikkim - Losar, Saga Dawa
 TamilNadu - Pongal, Thaipusam, Natyanjali Festival
 Telangana - Bonalu, Bathukamma
 Tripura - Kharchi Puja
 WestBengal - Durga Puja
 Uttaranchal - Ganga Dussehra
 UttarPradesh - Ram Navmi, Ganga Mahotsav, Navaratri, Khichdi.
Monuments :-
Khajuraho :- A group of monuments constructed by the Chandela dynasty between the 9th and 11th
centuries

National Flag :- It is a horizontal tricolor of deep saffron (kesaria) at the top, white in the middle and dark
green at the bottom in equal proportion. The National Flag of India was designed by Pingali Venkayya in
1921 and The National Flag was adopted on 22nd July 1947. Ratio of the width of the flag to its length is
two to three (2:3).
Saffron (Strength and Courage) , White (Peace and Truth) &Green (Fertility, Growth and Auspiciousness).
24 Spokes - Wheel of the Law
National Anthem :- (Jana-gana-mana) composed originally in Bengali by Rabindranath Tagore, was
adopted in its Hindi version as the National Anthem of India on January 24, 1950.

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It was first sung on December 27, 1911 at the Kolkata Session of the Indian National Congress.
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National Song :-:The National song of India is Vande Mataram. It was composed by the famous poet,
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Bankim Chandra Chaterjee in the year 1875. Rabindranath Tagore sang Vande Mataram in 1896 at the
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NationalEmblem:-
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pitoliscrownedbytheWheeloftheLaw(DharmaChakra).
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National Calendar :- The National Calendar is based on the Saka Era, with Chitra as its first month.
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National Flower :- Lotus National Animal :- Royal Bengal Tiger

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National Fruit :- Mango National Aquatic animal :- River dolphin

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National River :- Ganga National Bird :- Indian peacock

National Tree :- Indian Banyan

Literature
Writters Books/Newspapers/Journals
 M.K. Gandhi Young India, Harijan, Navjivan, Hind Swarajya, My Experiments With Truth
 Bal Gangadhar Tilak Kesri & TheMaratha
 AnnieBesant Commonweal, New India
 Jawahar Lal Nehru Discovery of India, Meri Kahani
 [Link] Wings of Fire (Autobiography), Al Hilal, India Wins Freedom etc
 Lala Lajpat Rai Unhappy India
 Dr. Rajendra Prasad India Divided
 Veer Savarkar The Indian War of Independence
 Bhagat Singh Why I am an Atheist
 Ravindra Nath Tagore Geetanjali, The Post Office
 KeshavChandraSen. Indian Mirror,
 DinbandhuMitra Neel Darpan
 MuhammadIqbal Tarane Hind
 Valmiki Ramayana
 VedaVyasa Mahabharata-
Paintings Region
 Madhubani Painting. Bihar
 Phad. Rajasthan
 Warli paintings. Maharashtra
 Patachitra. Orissa
 Kalighat paintings. Kolkatta
 Jharnapatachitra. West Bengal
 Machilipatnam Kalamkari Andhra Pradesh
Embroidery Styles City/State.
 Phulkari. Punjab
 Baluchari. Murshidabad (West Bengal)
 Kantha Embroidery. West Bengal and Bihar
 Kota Rajasthan
 Pochampalli. Andhra Pradesh.
 Shamilami. Manipur
 Zardozi Varanasi, Lucknow, Surat, Ajmer, Bhopal & Hyderabad
 Chikankari Lucknow (Uttar Pradesh)
 Kashida. Jammu and Kashmir

Caves in Maharashtra
 Elephanta Caves:-(UNESCO WHS) at Mumbai (Maharashtra). Built by : Kalachuris and Rashtrakutas.

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Dedicated to : Lord Shiva
 Ellora Caves:-(UNESCO WHS) at Aurangabad (Maharashtra). lS
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Built by : Rashtrakutas. Dedicated to: Hindu, Buddhist and Jain.
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 AjantaCaves:-(UNESCOWHS)atAurangabad(Maharashtra).
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Ramsar Sites in India

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Ramsar Sites:-A' Ramsar site' is a wetland of international importance under the Ramsar Convention, also
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known as the Convention on Wetlands ,an intergovernmental environmental treaty established by UNESCO
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on 2 February 1971 and named after the city of [Link],itcameintoforceon1February1982.

The highest number of Ramsar sites in India is in Tamil nadu(18), followed by Uttar Pradesh (10sites)
Chilika Lake (Odisha) and Keoladeo National Park (Rajasthan) were recognised as India's first Ramsar sites.
World Wetlands Day 2 February
Theme 2025 : ''Protecting Wetlands for Our Common Future''
India has 85 Ramsar sites (as of now january 2025)
NewlyaddedRamsarSitesinAugust2024
JoinedinAugust2024
[Link] Bird Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu (83rd)/2024
[Link] Bird Sanctuary , Tamil Nadu (84th)/2024
[Link] Reservoir, Madhya Pradesh (85th)/2024

WorldHeritageSitesInIndia:-
There are 43 World Heritage Sites in India.
The first sites to be listed were the Ajanta Caves, Ellora Caves ,Agra Fort ,and Taj Mahal(1983)
The most recent sites listed in 2023 & 2024 were:-
41-Santiniketan- West Bengal
42-Hoysalas Temple- Karnataka
43-India's 43rd UNESCO World Heritage Site = Moidams of the Ahom Dynasty in Assam.
FOREIGN TRAVELERS OBSERVATION OF INDIA
MEGASTHENES (Greek) :- Visited India between 302 to 288 BC as an ambassador of Greek warrior
Seleucus I Nikator during the reign of Chandragupta Maurya. Book Indica.
FA-HIEN (Chinese) : Visited India during the Gupta period around 400 AD during the period of
Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya). Book "Record of Buddhistic Kingdoms"
HIUEN TSANG (Chinese) :- Came to India through the Silk route in between 629-644 AD during the reign of
Harshavardhana, Book Si-Yu-Ki:
AL-BIRUNI (Arab) :- In Court of Mahmud Ghazni. Book - Kitab-ul-Hind/Tahqiq-i-Hind (in Arabic).
IBN BATTUTA (Arab) :- Came to India in 1332-33 AD during the reign of Muhammad Bin Tughlaq. Book
'Rihla'(in Arabic).
MARCO POLO ( Italian) :- Visited South India in 1294 A.D during the reign of Pandyan ruler of Madurai,
Madverman, Kulshekhara. Book - "The Travels of Marco Polo", "The Book of Sir Marco Polo".
NICOLO DE CONTI (Italian) :- Came to India in 1420-1421 AD. Visited the Vijayanagara kingdom during the
reign of Devaraya I.
WILLIAM HAWKINS (1608-1611 AD) (English) :- He came to India in 1608 and travelled to Agra in the court
of Mughal Emperor Jahangir to negotiate for the establishment of a factory at Surat.
SIR THOMAS ROE (English) From 1615 to 1619, he stayed at the court of the Mughal Emperor Jahangir.
The main objective of his mission was to get protection of the factory of British East India Company at
Surat.
FRANCOIS BERNIER (French) :- A doctor, political philosopher and historian. Came to India in 1656 and
stayed here for 12 years in the Aurangzebn rule.

State Official Languages

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 Assam Bodo, Assamese
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 Kerala Malayalam
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 Goa Konkani
 Karnataka Kannada
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 Sikkim English, Nepali, Sikkimese Lepcha

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Classical languages of India : Total = 11 Languages

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 Tamil  News added in 2024

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 Sanskrit  Marathi
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 Telugu  Pali (Buddhist)

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 Kannada  Prakrit (Jainism )

 Malayalam  Assamese
 Odia  Bengali
 Science (by JKSSB Study Fast)
Biology
Vitamins. Scientific Name DeficiencyDiseases
VITAMINS :- Discovered by Fun Vitamin A (Retinol). - Night blindness
Fat soluble - K, E, D, A Vitamin B1 (Thiamine) - Beri-beri
Water soluble - B, C Vitamin C (Ascorbic acid) - Scurvy
 In the Sunlight - Vitamin D Vitamin D (Calciferol). - Rickets
Vitamin K (Phylloquinone) - Excessive bleeding due to injury
Vitamin E (Tocopherol). - Sterility (Infertility)
Important Facts About Human Body:
Total No. Of Bones in Human body - 206 Normal body temperature: 37 degree Celsius
Largest Bone in the body: Femur (thigh bon Normal Heart Beat (Pul;se Rate) : 72 beats per minute
Smallest Bone in the body: Stapes in ear Largest Muscle in the body: Gluteus Maximus or Buttock
Largest Part in the Body. - Skin Muscle
Largest Gland: Liver Smallest Muscle in the body: Stapedius
Largest Endocrine Gland: Thyroid gland Largest Artery: Aorta
Hardest part in human Body - Enamel of Teet Largest Vein: Inferior Vena Cava
Normal Blood Pressure (B.P.): 120/80 mm H Longest Cell: Neurons (nerve cells)
Universal blood donor: O Minimum distance for proper vision: 25 cm
Universal blood recipient: AB
Father's of Subjects
 Genetics. - G J Mendel  English. - Geoffrey Chaucer
 Evolution. - Charles Darwin  Mathematics - Archimedes
 Biology (Zoology) - Aristotle  History. - Herodotus
 Chemistry. - Antoine Lavoisier  Geography. - Eratosthenes
 Botany. - Theophrastus  Economics. - Adam Smith
 Physics. - Albert Einstein

Nutrition: - The process of taking in and utilizing food for producing energy for growth and
development is known as nutrition. Modes of Nutrition: - There are mainly two modes of
Nutrition.
1. Autotrophic Nutrition.
2. Heterotrophic Nutrition.
1. Autotrophic Nutrition: - In this mode of nutrition organisms prepare their own food from the
simple inorganic material like carbon dioxide and water with the help of sunlight.
Example: All green plants, some bacteria.
Photosynthesis: The process of preparing food from simple inorganic materials like CO2 and
H2O with the help of sunlight is known as photosynthesis. Food generally prepared in the green
parts of plant because green parts of plant have chlorophyll which absorbs sunlight.
Equation which express photosynthesis is: -
6CO2 + 6H20 - Sunlight Chlorophyll - C6H12O6 + 602
2 Heterotrophic Nutrition: In this mode of nutrition organisms cannot prepare their own food.
They depend on other organisms for food.
Example: - All animals, fungi etc.
Types of Heterotrophic Nutrition: - It is of three types: -
Saprophytic Nutrition: In Saprophytic organisms obtain their food from decaying organic matter
of dead plants, dead animals etc. E.g. Fungi, Bacteria.
Parasitic Nutrition: - In parasitic nutrition organisms derives its food from the body of other
living organisms. E.g. Plasmodium, Louse etc.
Holozoic Nutrition: - In this type organisms intake whole food and then digest that food. E.g.
Human beings and many other
Human Circulatory system: -
Comprise of Heart, Blood. & Blood vessels.
Heart: Human Heart has 4 Chambers ( 2 auricles &2 ventricles). It is a muscular, pumping
organ. It is located almost middle of thoracic cavity. Somewhat titled towards left lung.
Size:-12x9x6 cm in dimension.
Weight: -300 gm (Male) & 250 gm (female)
Shape & Color: - Conical in form looks reddish brown in color.
Blood: Study of blood is known as hematology. PH of blood is 7.5. Blood consists of watery
fluid called Plasma & have 3 types of cells.
Red Blood Corpuscles (RBC, s) or Erythrocytes It transport gases (oxygen & carbon dioxide)
White Blood Corpuscles (WBC, s) or Leucocytes. Help in immune system.
Blood Platelets or thrombocytes. Helps in blood clotting.
Blood Vessels: - generally three blood vessels are found.
Arteries: Carry blood away from the heart for distribution to the body. All arteries contain
oxygenated blood except pulmonary artery. Largest artery - Aorta.
Veins: Bring blood from the body back to heart. All veins carry deoxygenated blood except
pulmonary veins. Largest Vein - Vena Cava.
Capillaries: These are smallest blood vessels which carry blood from different parts of the body
and drains into the veins.
Transportation in Plants: There are two main conducting tissues in a plant.
(a) Xylem :- Carries water & minerals from the roots to other part of the plant.
(b) Phloem :- Carries product of photosynthesis from leaves to the other part of the plant.
Excretion in human beings: The process of the removal of the harmful metabolic wastes from
the body is called excretion. Excretory system includes :-
1. Kidneys ( Nephron: Each kidney has a large number of filtration units called nephrons.
Nephron is the structural and functional unit of Kidney).
2. Urinary Bladder 3. Ureter 4. Urethra
Ecosystem: Ecosystem is defined as interaction of living organisms with their non living
environment. Term Ecosystem was coined by Tansley 1935.
Components of Eco-System:-
1. Abiotic components: - Abiotic components of an eco-system consist of non living
substances and factors like - temperature, wind, soil type, humidity, precipitation, light,
Carbon, Nitrogen, topography, pH of the soil, etc.
2. Biotic components: These constitute all the living members of an eco-system. Eg. Plants,
animals and micro organisms. These are of three types:
A. Producers
B. Consumers
C. Decomposers
A. Producers :- Producers are organisms that can make their food eg. Green plants and
some bacteria. All of these are green in color because they contain chlorophyll that absorbs
the energy from the sun and uses it to produce its food. This is known as photosynthesis.
B. Consumers :- Organism that cannot produce its own food and must eat other plants
and/or animals to get energy. Consumers are also known as heterotrophs. They are
classified as :
PRIMARY CONSUMERS. These are herbivores and feed directly on producers i.e. green
plants. Primary consumers vary with the type of an ecosystem. For example, in a forest
ecosystem, deer or giraffe is a primary consumer whereas in a grassland ecosystem, cow
or goat is a primary consumer.
SECONDARY CONSUMERS: These are carnivores and feed on primary consumers and
producers. For example, dogs, cats, birds etc.
TERTIARY CONSUMERS: These are top carnivores that feed on primary and secondary
consumers and producers. For example, lion, vulture etc.
a. Herbivores- they feed on plant species (primary producers) eg- rabbit, insects
b. Carnivores- they food on herbivores and other carnivores eg- frog, snake
c. Omnivores- they feed on both plants and animals. Eg- humans
d. Detritivores- they feed on parts of dead organisms, waste of living organisms etc. Eg-
earthworms, ants.
3. Decomposers - they derive their food by breaking down the complex organic molecules
to simple organic compounds and finally to inorganic nutrients. Eg- bacteria, fungi.
Food chain: The transfer of food, energy from producers through a series of organisms
with repeated eating and being eaten is known as a food chain.
Grass - Grasshopper - Frog - Snake - Hawk
Types of food chains: There are 2 types of food chains:
a. Grazing food chain: This type of food chain starts from the living green plants. Depends
directly on solar energy.
Grass - Rabbit - Lion
b. Detroiter's food chain: This type of food chain goes from dead organic matter into micro
organisms and then to organisms which feed on detritivors (decomposers) and predators.
Such eco-systems are not dependent on direct solar energy.
Ex: bacteria and fungi feeding on dead organic matter and are eaten by small fish which act
as prey to large fish or birds.
• Dead and Decay micro-organisms - small fish - big fish.
Food webs : A complex network of interconnected food chains of different tropic levels in
a Biotic community is termed as a food web.
Ozone Layer depletion :-
The ozone layer present in Stratosphere which protects the earth from the sun's ultraviolet
(UV) radiation.
CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons) released into the atmosphere react chemically with ozone
molecules and are depleting the layer.
Dobson Unit used to Measure ozone layer thickness.
Biodegradable waste. :- Substances that are broken-down by biological processes are
said to be biodegradable.
Example: Dead animals and plants, sewage, paper, wood, eels of vegetables and fruits etc
Non-biodegradable waste :- Substances that are not broken-down by biological
processes are said to be non-biodegradable.
Example: Plastic bags, glass, bottles, empty tin cans, DDT, insecticides, pesticides etc.
Biomagnification: The increase in the concentration of the harmful chemicals in the body of
an organism per unit its mass at each successive trophic level in a food chain is known as
biomagnification.
3 R's :- Reduce, Reuse, Recycle.
Communicable Diseases :- are caused by the organism (insect, virus, or
bacterium). They are contagious and can be transmitted from one person to another. In
Human's Infectious disease are further of four types:-

1) Viral disease. 2) Bacterial disease. 3) Protozoan disease. 4) Fungal disease

Bacterial Diseases
Disease. Pathogen
 T - Typhoid - Salmonella typhi
 T - Tetanus. - Clostridium tetani
 T - Tuberculosis - Mycobacterium Tuberculosis
 P - Pneumonia. - Streptococcus pnomonia
 P - Plague. - Yersinia pestis
 P - Pertussis. - Hemophilea pertussis.
 C - Cholera. - Vibro cholera
 L - Leprosy. - Mycobacterium leprea.
Viral Diseases
Disease. Pathogen
 Smallpox. Variola Virus
 Chicken pox. Varicella zoster
 Common cold. Rhino virus or corona virus
 Influenza/Flu. Orthomixovirus
 Mumps. Paramyxovirus
 Encephalitis. Arbo virus (encephalitis virus)
 AIDS. HIV virus or Retro virus
 Dengue fever. Dengue virus (arbovirus)
 Rabies (Hydrophobia). - Rhabdovirus or Rabies virus
 Hepatitis. Hepatitis A, B, C virus

Non-communicable Diseases :- Including heart disease, stroke, cancer, diabetes and

chronic lung disease, are collectively responsible for 74% of all deaths worldwide.
Physics
Important Si Units
Unit Name. SI Unit Unit Name. SI Unit
 Length. metre  Luminous intensity. Candela
 Mass. kilogram  Force. Newton
 Time. second  Energy, Work, Heat. Joule
 Electric current. Ampere  Power. Watt
 Electric charge Coulomb  Frequency. Hertz
 Electric potential. Volt  Resistance. Ohm.
 Temperature. kelvin  Radioactivity. Becquerel
 Amount of substance mole

Important Instruments with Function Inventions. Inventor

 Ammeter - Measures Current. 1. Air conditioner. Willis Carrier
 Anemometer. - Measures velocity of the win 2. Electricity. Benjamin Franklin.
 Barometer - Atmospheric pressure. 3. Watch. Peter Henlein
 Fathometer - Measures the depth of the ocean.
4. Radio. Guglielmo Marcon
 Galvanometer - Electric current of low magnitude
5. Electric bulb. Thomas Edison
 Hygrometer. - Humidity in the air.
 Pyrometer - Measures ery high 6. Ball Point Pen. John Loud
temperature 7. Telescope. Hans
 Seismograph. - Intensity of earthquake Lippershey
shocks 8. Television. John Logie Baird
 Sphygmomanometer - Measures blood pressure. 9. Mobile phone. Martin Cooper
 Stethoscope. - Analyse heart and lung soun 10. Type writer. Christopher Sholes

Human Eye :-
 Iris :- The colored part of the eye that helps regulate the amount of light that enters is the
iris.
 Pupil: the hole in the center of the iris that regulates how much light is let into the eye.
 Cornea: the transparent, protective front part of the eye that refracts (or bends) light and
helps you focus
 Lens: a transparent, biconvex (curved outward on both sides) that helps light focus onto
the retina
 Retina: a nerve layer at the back of the eye that is light-sensitive, taking light and converting
it into signals that are sent to the brain via the optic nerve.
 Macula: a small area in the center of the retina that helps us see fine detail
 Optic nerve: located in the back of the eye, this nerve transmits electrical signals from the
retina to the brain
 Vitreous: a transparent gel that fills the interior of the eye, helping it keep its shape.
Human Eye :- Least distance of distinct vision is 25 cm. Primary Colours- Blue, Red, Green.
1. Myopia or short sightedness- far objects cannot see clear.
Correction : By using concave lens is used.
2. Hypermetropia or Long-sightedness - Near objects cannot see clear.
Correction : By using convex lens.
3. Presbyopia - in elder person, both far and near cannot see clear.
Correction : By using bifocal lens.
4. Astigmatism :- A common imperfection in the eye's curvature.
With astigmatism, the front surface of the eye or the lens inside the eye is curved differently in
 one direction than the other.
Correction : By using Cylinderical lens.
5. CATARACT: The image can not be seen distinctly because eye lens become milky and cloudy.
Correction by Surgery.
Spherical Mirror :- Spherical mirrors are of two types.
1. Concave mirror. 2. Convex mirror
• Image formed by a convex mirror is always virtual, erect and diminished.
• Image formed by a concave mirror is generally real and inverted.
Uses of Concave Mirror (i) As a shaving mirror. (ii) As a reflector for the head lights of a
vehicle, search light. (iii) In ophthalmoscope to examine eye, ear, nose by doctors. (iv) In
solar cookers.
Uses of Convex Mirror. (i) As a rear-view mirror in vehicle because it provides the maximum
rear field of view and image formed is always erect. (ii) In sodium reflector lamp.
 Total Internal Reflection :- Sparkling of diamond, mirage and looming, shinning of air
bubble in water and optical Fiber are examples of total internal reflection.
 SI Unit of Power of lens is Diopter
 Twinkling of Star is due to atmospheric Refraction.

Chemistry
IMPORTANT 100 ONE-LINERS ON METALS AND NON METALS
 First used by man - Copper
 Most abundant metal in the earth crust. - Aluminium
 Most abundant metal in human body. - Calcium
 Best conductor of electricity. - Silver
 Most malleable metal. - Gold
 Metalused in filament of Bulb - Tungsten (highest melting point)
 Metal which is liquid at room temperature - Mercury
 Non-metal which is liquid at room temperature - Bromine
 Alloy used to make heating coils (Heaters) - Nichrome
 Metal found in haemoglobin of Blood - Iron
 Metal found in Chlorophyll. - Magnesium
 Most reactive metal - Potassium
 Metal kept in kerosene oil - Sodium and Potassium
 Compound is known as Fool's gold - Iron pyrites
 Strongest/Hardest Substance on earth - Diamond
 Poorest conductor of heat among Metal - Lead
 Purest form of commercial iron - Wrought iron
 Common Names. Chemical Elements with Symbols
Name  Iron (Fe)
 Baking Soda. Sodium Bicarbonate/  Sodium (Na)
Sodium hydrogen carbonate  Silver (Ag)
 Washing Soda. Sodium Carbonate  Tin (Sn)
 Bleaching Powder. Calcium oxychlorite  Antimony (Sb)
 Table Salt. Sodium chloride  Tungsten (W)
 POP (Plaster of Paris) Calcium  Gold (Au)
Sulphate Hemihydrate  Mercury (Hg)
 Marsh gas. Methane (CH4)  Lead (Pb)
 Muriatic Acid. Hydrochloric Acid (Hcl)  Potassium (K)
 Aspirin. Acetyl Salicylic Acid  Copper (Cu)
 Quick lime. Calcium oxide (CaO) Elements. Ores
 Dry Ice. Solid Carbondioxide  Aluminium. - Bauxite
 Chalk (marble). Calcium Carbonate  Mercury. - Cinnabar
 Vinegar Acetic Acid  Iron. - Haemetite
 Lead. - Galena
 Environment & Ecology (By Iqbal Sir)
JKSSB Study Fast
Ecosystem : "Eco-system is defined as interaction of living organisms with
their non living environment. Term Ecosystem was coined by Tansley 1935.
• Study of ecosystems is called as Ecology & term ecology was coined by
Ernest Heackel.
Components of Eco-System :-
1. Abiotic components
2. Biotic components
1. Abiotic components: - Abiotic components of an eco-system consist of
non living substances and factors like - temperature, wind, soil type, humidity,
precipitation, light, Carbon, Nitrogen, topography, pH of the soil, etc.
2. Biotic components: These constitute all the living members of an eco-
system. Eg. Plants, animals and micro organisms. These are of three types:
A. Producers
B. Consumers
C. Decomposers
A. Producers :- Producers are organisms that can make their food eg. Green
plants and some bacteria. All of these are green in color because they contain
chlorophyll that absorbs the energy from the sun and uses it to produce its
food. This is known as photosynthesis.
B. Consumers :- Organism that cannot produce its own food and must eat
other plants and/or animals to get energy. Consumers are also known as
heterotrophs. They are classified as :
PRIMARY CONSUMERS. These are herbivores and feed directly on
producers i.e. green plants. Primary consumers vary with the type of an
ecosystem. For example, in a forest ecosystem, deer or giraffe is a primary
consumer whereas in a grassland ecosystem, cow or goat is a primary
consumer.
SECONDARY CONSUMERS: These are carnivores and feed on primary
consumers and producers. For example, dogs, cats, birds etc.
TERTIARY CONSUMERS: These are top carnivores that feed on primary and
secondary consumers and producers. For example, lion, vulture etc.
a. Herbivores- they feed on plant species (primary producers) eg- rabbit,
insects
b. Carnivores- they food on herbivores and other carnivores eg- frog, snake
c. Omnivores- they feed on both plants and animals. Eg- humans
d. Detritivores- they feed on parts of dead organisms, waste of living
organisms etc. Eg- earthworms, ants.
3. Decomposers - they derive their food by breaking down the complex
organic molecules to simple organic compounds and finally to inorganic
nutrients. Eg- bacteria, fungi.
Attributes of eco-system are:
I. Food Chain & Food Web.
II. Energy flow
III. Ecological pyramids
V. Ecological succession
Food chain: The transfer of food, energy from producers through a series of
organisms with repeated eating and being eaten is known as a food chain.
 Grass - Grasshopper - Frog - Snake - Hawk
Types of food chains: There are 2 types of food chains:
a. Grazing food chain: This type of food chain starts from the living green
plants. Depends directly on solar energy.
 Grass - Rabbit - Lion
b. Detroiter's food chain: This type of food chain goes from dead organic
matter into micro organisms and then to organisms which feed on detritivors
(decomposers) and predators. Such eco-systems are not dependent on direct
solar energy.
Ex: bacteria and fungi feeding on dead organic matter and are eaten by small
fish which act as prey to large fish or birds.
• Dead and Decay micro-organisms - small fish - big fish.
Food webs : A complex network of interconnected food chains of different
tropic levels in a Biotic community is termed as a food web.
The complexity of any food web depends upon the diversity of organisms in
that ecosystem.
Thus, each species of any eco-system is indeed kept under some sort of a
natural check so that the eco- system may remain balanced and this is the
significance of a food web.
Ecological pyramids: The graphical representation of structure and function
of tropic levels of an ecosystem.
Ecological pyramids are of three types:
1. Pyramid of Numbers
2. Pyramids of Energy and
3. Pyramid of Biomass
Biomagnification- It is a process in which the increase in the concentration
of the non-biodegradable material or any fertilizer accumulates or toxic
elements from one tropic level to next in the food chain.
Ex:- DDT (dichloro diphenyl trichloro ethane) is an insecticide used for killing
insects. Excess usage of this non-biodegradable chemical makes the soil over
nourished and its concentration increases as it passes along the food chain.
Energy flow: There is a flow of energy from one trophic level to the other in a
food chain.
• According to 10 percent law of Lindman, only 10% is available for the next
level remaining 90% of the captured energy is lost as heat in the previous level
and
• Energy flow is unidirectional:
Ecological succession : It is an orderly process of community development
that involves changes in species structure of community processes." Finally it
ends in a stabilized eco-system.
The community which develops as initial community is known as pioneer
community.
The transitory communities are called as "seral stages" or developed stages.
When a system gets stabilized i.e. the final community which lasts for a longer
period is known as "climax community"

Hydrosere (Hydrarch): This type of succession start in a water bodies like pond
and culminates in a climax community which is forest.

Lithosere: A Xerosere on Rock: It start with bare rock and culminate into a
forest stage.
BIODIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION
Biodiversity is defined as "the variety and variability among all groups of living
organisms and the ecosystems in which they occur."
THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY
The five main threats to biodiversity are
• Habitat loss.
• Pollution.
• Overexploitation.
• Invasive species (Exotic / alien species)
• Climate change.
CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY
Biodiversity is one of the important tools for sustainable development. The
commercial, medical, genetic, aesthetic, and ecological importance of
biodiversity emphasizes the need for its conservation.
There are two types of biodiversity conservation:
1. In-situ conservation
2. Ex-situ conservation
1. In-Situ Conservation :- In-situ conservation involves protection of flora and
fauna within its natural habitat. The natural habitats or ecosystems under in-
situ conservation are called "protected areas".
1. National parks
2. Biosphere reserves
3. Wildlife sanctuaries
States/UT National parks.
 Arunachal Pradesh - Namdapha National Park
 Assam. - Kaziranga , Dibru-Saikhowa , Manas National Park, Nameri.
Orang National Parks.
 Bihar - Valmiki National Park
 Chhattisgarh - Indravati National Park
 Gujarat - Gir Forest , Blackbuck National Parks.
 Haryana - Sultanpur National Park
 Himachal Pradesh - Pin Valley , Great Himalayan National Park
 Jammu & Kashmir - Dachigam National Park, Kishtwar National Park ,
Salim Ali National Park, Kazinag National Park
 Karnataka - Nagarhole National Park, Bandipur National Park
 Kerala - Silent Valley National Park, Periyar National Park
 Madhya Pradesh - Bandhavgarh National Park, Kuno Nationla Park ,
Pench National Park, Kanha National Park, Madhav National Park
 Manipur - Keibul Lamjao National Park
 Meghalaya - Nokrek National Park
  Odisha - Simlipal National Park
 Rajasthan - Keoladeo National Park, Sariska National Park, Ranthambore
National Park

2. Ex-situ conservation :- Ex-situ conservation involves protection of flora and

fauna outside their natural habitats. This type of conservation is mainly done
for conservation of crop varieties and wild relatives of crops.
Examples : Aquariums, Botanical gardens, cryopreservation, DNA banks, zoos,
etc
Biodiversity Hotspots :- The term 'biodiversity hotspot' was first coined by
Norman Myers (1988).
• Out of the 36 biodiversity hotspots in the world, 4 are in India. These hotspots
are:
1. The Himalayas.
2. The Western Ghats.
3. The Indo-Burma region.
4. The Sundaland.
Red Data Book :- The Red Data Book is a public document that is created
for recording endangered and rare species of plants, animals. Currently, IUCN
(International Union for Conservation of Nature) maintains the Red Data Book.
Red Data Book Categorized Species into 8 categories;
1. Extinct.
2. Extinct in the wild (EW).
3. Critically endangered (CR).
4. Endangered (EN).
5. Vulnerable (VU).
6. Near Threatned (NT).
7. Conservation Dependent (CD)
8. Least Concern (LC)
9. Data Deficient (DD).
10. Not Evaluated (NE).
Ozone Layer:
Three atoms of oxygen make Ozone gas (03). The occurrence of Ozone gas in
the stratosphere makes the ozone layer that protects Earth from Sun's
ultraviolet radiation.
• Ozone is measured as Dobson units.
Ozone layer depletion refers to the thinning of the protective ozone layer in the
atmosphere.
• Chemical compounds that cause ozone layer depletion are called Ozone
Depleting Substances (ODSs).
• Examples of ODSs are chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs),
hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), carbon tetrachloride, methyl chloroform,
hydrobromofluorocarbons, halons, etc.
• Chlorofluorocarbons or CFCs are the main cause of ozone layer depletion.
These are released by solvents, spray aerosols, refrigerators, air-conditioners,
etc.
EUTROPHICATION :- Eutrophication is a general term describing a process
in which nutrients accumulate in a body of water, resulting in an increased
growth of microorganisms that may deplete the water of oxygen. Although
eutrophication is a natural process, manmade or cultural eutrophication is far
more common and is a rapid process caused by a variety of polluting inputs
including poorly treated sewage, industrial wastewater, and fertilizer runoff.[3]
Such nutrient pollution usually causes algal blooms and bacterial growth,
resulting in the depletion of dissolved oxygen in water and causing substantial
environmental degradation.
Conventions & Protocols
COP28 :- (Conference of the Parties) held from 30 Nov. to 13 Dec. at Expo
City, Dubai, United Arab Emirates.
COP 29 :- Will be held from 11 to 22 Nov. 2024 in Baku, Azerbaijan.
Ramsar Convention (Convention on Wetlands) :- Adopted in the city of Iran,
Ramsar in 1971. Currently, there are 80 Ramsar sites in India
Vienna Convention :- It is a convention for the Protection of Ozone Layer. It
was adopted in 1985. It came into force in 1988.
Montreal Protocol :- It is an international environment protocol on
substances that deplete the Ozone Layer. It was adopted in 1987. It came into
force in 1989.
Kigali Agreement :- It is an amendment to the Montreal Protocol. It was
adopted in 2016. It came into force in 2019.
Kyoto Protocol :- It is an international protocol to reduce greenhouse gas
emissions. It was adopted in 1997. It came into force in 2005.
World Heritage Sites in India:- Thereare 42 World Heritage Sites in India.
The first sites to be listed were the Ajanta Caves, Ellora Caves, Agra Fort, and
Taj Mahal (1983) The most recent sites listed in 2023 were :-
41-Santiniketan- West Bengal
42-Hoysalas Temple- Karnataka
 World of Sports

Sports Events :-
 Olympics 2024 – Paris (France)
 Olympics 2028 -- Los Angeles (USA)
 FIFA World Cup 2022 - Qatar
 FIFA World Cup 2026. - Canada, US & Mexico.
 FIFA World Cup 2034 - Saudi Arabia
 ICC Cricket World Cup 2023 –INDIA (Winner -Australia & Runner-up India)
 ICC Cricket World Cup 2027:- South Africa, Zimbabwe & Namibia.
 ASIAN GAMES 2026 - Aichai & Nagoya (JAPAN)
 Commonwealth Games 2026 : held at Glasgow, Scotland

🔍D. Gukesh :- who shattered Garry Kasparov's long-standing record to become the youngest World
Chess Champion

🔍 Abhinav Bindra in men’s 10m air rifle shooting - Beijing 2008. He won First individual Gold Medel in
Olympics.

🔍 Karnam Malleswari created history and became the first Indian woman to win a medal at the
Olympics. During the 2000 Sydney Games, Karnam Malleswari lifted 110kg in the snatch and 130kg in
the clean and jerk categories for a total of 240kg and finished the competition with a bronze medal.

🔍 Sakshi Malik is an Indian freestyle wrestler. At the 2016 Summer Olympics, she won the bronze
medal in the 58 kg category, becoming the first Indian female wrestler to win a medal at the Olympics.

NATIONAL GAME

 England. Cricket  Srilanka. Volley ball

 Australia. Cricket  Bangladesh. Kabaddi
 India. Hockey  Russia. Football and Chess
 Pakisthan. Hockey  China. Table Tennis
 Brazil. Football  Japan. Judo
 France. Football  Canada. Ice Hockey
 USA. Baseball  New Zealand. Rugby Union
 Spain. Bulls Fighting

Sports Grounds. NUMBER OF PLAYERS IN VARIOUS GAMES

Games. Grounds Game. Number of Players
 Athletics.- Track  Polo. 4
 Badminton.- Court  Basketball. 5
 Basketball. - Court  Volleyball. 6
 Table Tennis. Court  Kabaddi. 7
 Baseball.- Diamond  Water polo. 7
 Golf - Course  Baseball. 9
 Boxing.- Ring  Kho kho. 9
 Cricket.- Pitch (Field)  Hockey. 11
 Football.- Field  Cricket. 11
 Football. 11
 Rugby. 15

 Major Dhyan Chand. "The Wizard" or the "Magician of hockey

 P.T. Usha. "Payyoli Express" & the "Golden Girl
 Milkha Singh. Flying Sikh
 Harbajan Singh The Turbanator
 Sachin Tendulkar God of Cricket or Master Blaster
 Rohit Sharma Hitman
 M S Dhoni, "Captain Cool"

Sports Terminologies

Cricket :- LBW, Maiden over, Stumped, Hat-trick, Leg Bye, follow on, Googly, Gulley, Silly Point, Duck,
Run, Drive, no ball, Cover point, Leg Spinner, Wicket Keeper, Pitch, Crease, Bowling, Leg-Break, Hit –
Wicket, Bouncer, Stone-Walling, Rubber, Ashes.

Football :- Dribble, Off-Side, Penalty, Throw-in, Hat-Trick, Foul, Touch, Down, Drop Kick, Stopper

Hockey :- Bully, Hat-Trick, Short corner, Stroke, Striking Circle, Penalty corner, Under cutting, Scoop,
Centre forward, Carry, Dribble, Goal, Carried.

Badminton :- Service, Deuce, Smash, Drop, Let, Game, Love, Double Fault.

Baseball :- Pitcher, Strike, Diamond, Bunting, Home Run, Put Out.

Boxing :- Jab, Hook, Punch, Knock-out, Upper cut, Kidney Punch.

Chess :- Gambit, Checkmate, Stalemate, Check.

Golf :- Hole, Bogey, Put, Stymie, Caddie, Tee, Links, Putting the green.

Shooting :- Bag, Plug, Skeet, Bull's eye

Table Tennis :- Smash, Drop, Deuce, Spin, Let, Service

Volley Ball :- Blocking, Doubling, Smash, Point, Serve, Volley

Wrestling :- Freestyle, Illegal Hold, Nearfall, Clamping

List of Sports Trophies/ Cups

Cricket :- Ashes Cup, Asia Cup, Ranji Trophy,, Deodhar Trophy, Duleep Trophy, Vijay Hazare Trophy ,
ICC World Cup, Irani Trophy, Jawaharlal Nehru Cup, Rani Jhansi Trophy, Sharjah Cup etc.

Hockey :- Dhyanchand Trophy, Nehru Trophy ,Aga Khan Cup, Sultan Azlan Shah Cup, Maharaja Ranjit
Singh Gold Cup, Sindhia Gold cup, Murugappa Gold Cup, Wellington Cup etc, Stanley Cup

Football :- FIFA World Cup, Rovers Cup, Durand Cup, Santosh Trophy, Bandodkar Trophy, Merdeka Cup,
Confederation cup, DCM Trophy, Rovers Cup, B. C. Raj Trophy (National Championship),, Jules Rimet
Trophy, Kalinga Cup, , IFA Shield, Scissor Cup, Subroto Cup, Sir Ashutosh Mukherjee Trophy, Todd
Memorial Trophy, Vittal Trophy, UEFA Champions League

Badminton :- Thomas Cup (men) , Uber Cup (women), Amrit Diwan Cup, Asia Cup, Chaddha Cup,
European Cup, Harilela Cup, Ibrahim Rahimatillah Challenger Cup, Konica Cup, Sophia Cup, Kitiakara
Cup, Malaysian Open, Yonex Cup

Table Tennis :- Asian Cup, Marcel Corbillon Cup, Pithapuram Cup (men), Swaythling Cup (men),
Travancore Cup (women), U Thant Cup, Berna Bellack Cup, Corbillion Cup (women), Electra Gold Cup,
Gasper-Giest Prize, Grand Prix, Jayalaxmi Cup (women), Kamala Ramanunjan Cup, World Cup.

Lawn Tennis :- Davis Cup, Australian Open, French Open, Wimbledon, US Open, Heineken Cup

Golf :- Walker Cup, Canada Cup, Eisenhower Trophy, Inter-Continental Cup, Muthiah Gold Cup, Nomura
Trophy, Paralamdi Trophy, President's Trophy, Prince of Wales Cup, Ryder Cup, Solheim Cup, Topolino
Trophy, Waterford Crystal Trophy, World Cup.
 Economics by Iqbal Sir ( JKSSB Study Fast)
Census 2011
Father of Census - Henry Walter. 🔎 Census 2011 data was released on "31" March-2011" by
Union Home Secretary and RGCCI (Registrar General and Census Commission of India)
(Ministry of Home Affairs).
🔎 Census-2011 : was 15th census of India [ 7th after independence] [Transgender also
counted)
🔎 Motto of Census-2011 :- "Our Census our future".
🔍 First Census - 1872. (Lord Mayo). 🔍 1st Complete Census -1881 (Lord Rippon).
Facts about Census-2011 : India:
🔎 Decadal growth rate = 17.4 %. 🔎 Density of Pop. = 382/[Link]
🔎 Sex Ratio of India = 943 (child Sex Ratio= 914). 🔎 Literacy Rate. = 74.04%
🔎 No. of Districts = 640. • Highest Pop. Distt. = Thone (Maharashtra)• Lowest Pop Distt -
Dihang Valley (Arunachal Pradesh).
• Population : Highest = UP. Lowest = Sikkim
• Area : Largest = Rajasthan Smallest = Goa
• Pop. Density : Highest = Bihar (1106/sq. km) . Lowest = Arunachal P.(17/[Link])
• Literacy: Highest = Kerala & Lowest = Bihar
• Sex Ratio: Highest = Kerala. & Lowest = Haryana
• Pop. Growth Rate : Highest = Meghalaya. & Lowest = Nagaland

Inflation :- Persistant Rise in the General Level of Prices. Demand-Supply-mis match. •

Purchasing Power of Currency falls.

• Money supply increases.

Causes of Inflation: There are two types of Inflation on Causes base.

Demand Pull Inflation. Cost Push Inflation

"Too much Money Chasing few goods". . • Raw material cost Increases

•Aggregate Demand increases Causes • Factor Payment increases [Rent, wages,

Demand Pull Inflation. & Raw Material)

• Money supply increases. • Disaster

• Goods Supply decreases. • Indirect Taxes Increases.

Demand Rise due to :- • Increase price of Inputs.

• Black Money , Increase population, • Hoarding of commodities

Increase Schemes & govt. exp., Direct
• Low growth of Agricultural Sector.
taxes decreases, Interest rate of banks
decreases , More employment & High • Interest rates were increased by RBI
wages. Depreciation of rupee.

• Bottleneck Inflation: When supply falls desitically while demand remains same.

• Stafflation: Inflation-co-exist with recession & Unemployment.

• Inflationary Cap: Actual Aggregated Demand exceeded level of National Income. (Real GDP >
Potential GDP)

• Phillips Curve: Relation Inflation & Unemployment.

Important Terms related to Inflation

Disinflation: Reduction in the rate of inflation

Deflation: Persistent decrease in the price level (negative inflation)

Reflation: Price level increases when the economy recovers from recession based on value of
inflation.

Types of Inflation :-

1. Creeping inflation – If the rate of inflation is low (upto 3%)

2. Walking/Trotting inflation – Rate of inflation is moderate (3-7%)

3. Running/Galloping inflation – Rate of inflation is high (>10%)

4. Runaway/Hyper Inflation – Rate of inflation is extreme

5. Stagflation: Inflation + Recession (Unemployment)

Measurement of Inflation
1. Wholesale Price Index:-

It measures the changes in the prices of goods sold and traded in bulk by wholesale
businesses to other businesses. Published by the Office of Economic Adviser, Ministry of
Commerce and Industry. It is the most widely used inflation indicator in India.

Major criticism for this index is that the general public does not buy products at wholesale
prices. • The base year of All-India WPI is 2011-12.

2. Consumer Price Index :-

It measures price changes from the perspective of a retail buyer. It is released by the National
Statistical Office (NSO).

The CPI calculates the difference in the price of commodities and services such as food,
medical care, education, electronics etc, which Indian consumers buy for use. Base Year for
CPI is 2012.

Banking System in India :

• Bank of Hindustan (1910) - 1st Bank to be established in India (Calcutta)

• Outh Commercial Bank (1881) - 1st bank with limited liability.

• Panjab National Bank (1894) (at Lahore) -1st Purely Indian bank.

• Imperial Bank of India (1921) - formed by amalgamation of three Presidency banks. vize
Bank of Bengal, Bank of Bombay & Bank of Madras.

• After taking over by govt. in 1955, its Name changed to State Bank of India (SBI)

• SBI considered the oldest functional bank of India

• Reserve Bank of India (RBI). Headquarter at Mumbai. Central bank of Country. Established in
-1935 (Hilton Young Commission). Nationalized in 1949.

• First Governor Sin Smith (1935-37). First Indian Governer = CD Deshmukh. Present Governor
of RBI - Shaktikant Das (2023).

Nationalization of Banks: 14 Large commercial banks were Nationalized in 1969. And in 1980
= 6 more private sector banks were Nationalized.

• In 2019 - a few banks merged into another bank :-

Anchor Bank Amalgating Bank

1. Canara Bank - Syndicate Bank

2. Punjab N Bank - Oriental Bank & United Bank of India.

3. Bank of Baroda - Vijaya Bank & Dena Bank.

4. Union Bank of India - Andra Bank & Corporation Bank

5. Indian Bank - Allahabad Bank.

Interest Rates
Repo Rate : is the rate at which commercial banks borrow money from the central bank of a
country (which in the case of India is the Reserve Bank of India or RBI). (For short term {0-14}
with security)

Bank rate :- is the rate charged by the central bank for lending funds to commercial banks.
(For long term without Security)

Reverse Repo Rate : As the name implies, reverse repo is the inverse contract to the repo rate.
The reverse repo rate is the rate at which the RBI borrows funds from the country's
commercial banks.

SLR: Statutory liquidity ratio or SLR refers to the minimum percentage of deposits that needs
to be maintained by commercial banks in the form of liquid assets, cash, gold, government
securities, etc. SLR is essentially a portion of the bank’s. (In 2023 SLR = 18%)

CRR: Cash reserve ratio or CRR is a portion of a commercial bank’s total deposits that needs
to be maintained at the central bank of the country (which is RBI in India).

Sustainable Development Goals :-

• Sustainable Development was given by- "Brundtland Commission" in ''Our common Future"
(1987). The SDG agenda was accepted by all members of the UN in 2012 at Rio De Janerio.

• SDG implemented in 2015 (came into effect from 1-1-2016) for 15 years till 2030. • SDG -
has- 17 Goals, 169 targets & 304 Indicators.

• 3-Pillars of SDG Economy, Social & Environment.

• Triple Bottom Line" (also known as the 3Ps,) of Sustainability are - People, Planet and Profit.
• Agenda Title "Transforming our world" (2030 Agenda).

Categories of SDGs • Aspirant - (0-49). • Performer - (50-64) • Front Runner - (65-94) •

Achiever - (100)

SDG India Index-2023 by NITI Ayyog.

Top Performers - Kerela . Top Performer UT Chandigarh.

Worst Performance Bihar. Rank of J&K = Front Runner. (Score -66)

SDG Index 2023

• Highest - Finland [85.9] followed by Sweden & Denmark.

• India's Rank = 112 [Score 63.45] (Performer)

17 SDGs are:

1. No poverty. 2. Zero hunger. 3. Good health and well-being. 4. Quality education. 5.

Gender equality. 6. Clean water and sanitation. 7. Affordable and clean energy. 8.
Decent work and economic growth. 9. Industry, innovation and infrastructure. 10. Reduced
inequalities. 11. Sustainable cities and communities 12. Responsible consumption and
production 13. Climate action. 14. Life below water. 15. Life on land. 16. Peace, justice,
and strong institutions 17. Partnerships for the goals

Poverty
1. Absolute Poverty: A condition where household income is below the necessary level to
maintain basic living standards (Food, Shelter, housing).

2. Relative Poverty :- From social perspective, Living standard compared with surroundings.
Measures income inequality.

Poverty Index 2023

Lowest Poverty - Kerala - (0.71%)

Highest Poverty - Bihar - (51.9%)

Committees Estimating Poverty

1. Alagh Committee: 2. Lakdwala Committee. 3. Tendulkar Committee 4. RangarJan

Committee

Unemployment Types :-
1. Structural Unemployment: by mismatch between the Jobs available in the market. and the
skills of the available worker.

2. Frictional Unemployment :- Occur when workers move from one job to another job.

3. Cyclical Unemployment : In the businesses cycle- where unemployment rises during

recession & decline with economic growth.

4. Seasonal Unemployment : Occurs during certain seasons of year-Agricultural labours.

5. Disguised Unemployment :- More people are employed then actually needed. eg. Agricultors
& magamind seeders.
Economics
 Economics word has come form a Greek word “Oikonomia” which means house hold
management.

Father of Economics – ADAM SMITH

 Dadabhai Naoroji proposed the 'drain of wealth' hypothesis in 1867, claiming that
Britain was draining India of all its wealth. Poverty and Un-British Rule in India, a book
that he wrote, stated this theory.

 Father of Micro economics – Adam Smith - Theory of moral sentiments.

 Father of Macro Economics – J M Keynes (book: General theory of employment

interest and money, 1936)

 Terms microeconomics and macroeconomics coined by – Ragnar Frisch

 Definition – Economics is social science concerned with the production, distribution

and consumption of goods and services (optimal use).

3 Sectors in Economy

1. Primary Sector – deals with Agriculture, Mining like extraction, cultivation, domestication
rearing of animals, etc.,

2. Secondary Sector – deals with the production and conversion of raw material,
manufacturing and industry.

3. Tertiary Sectors – Provide support to primary and secondary sector provide services like
telephone, transport, banks, warehousing, telecommunication, internet etc.,

Types of Economy

1. Capitalist Economy :- (Market Economy) Full privatization main focus on profit. Example –
USA, Germany, Canada, UK

2. Socialist Economy :- (Command economy / centrally planed economy) Focuses on society

welfare owned by the government . Example - China, North Korea, Russia, Thailand

3. Mixed Economy :- Partial privatization and partial owned by government. Example – India,
Pakistan, Bhutan

4. Traditional Economy :- Based on agriculture in rural areas Example - Africa.

National Income:-
Methods of Measurement of National Income

GDP (Gross Domestic Product):The total monetary value of all final goods and services
produced within the geographical boundary of the country during a particular period (Generally
one year). In GDP, we consider all goods/ services produced by both resident citizens and
foreign nationals who reside in India and the income of Indians abroad are excluded.

 GDP (Factor Cost ) = GDP (Market Price) minus indirect taxes plus subsidies.

 GDP (FC) = GDP (MP)- Indirect Taxes + Subsidies

 GDP (FC) = GDP (MP) - Net Indirect Taxes

 GDP (Market Price) = GDP (Factor Cost) + indirect taxes - subsidies.

GNP (Gross National Product):The total value of the final goods and services produced by
Indians in India and abroad during a particular period. GNP includes the value of goods
produced by resident and non-resident citizens of a country, whereas the income of foreigners
who reside in India is excluded.

Net National Product (NNP): It is calculated by deducting depreciation from Gross National
Product (GNP), i.e., NNP = GNP – Depreciation.

Nominal GDP :- In Nominal GDP, the value of all goods and services is calculated at the
Current Price while. Without any effect of inflation.

Real GDP :- In real GDP the value of all goods and services is calculated at the Base Year Price.
Real GDP is the inflation-adjusted GDP of a country.

GDP DEFLATOR :-(GDP Price Deflator or Implicit Price Deflator) :- It measures the impact of
inflation on the GDP of an economy during a period of one specific fiscal year. GDP Deflator is
a factor by which Normal GDP is adjusted to calculate Real GDP.

Formula of GDP: GDP Deflator = { Normal GDP/ Real GDP} × 100

Monetary Policy & Fiscal Policy

Monetary Policy Fiscal Policy

Definition

It is a financial tool that is used by the central It is a financial tool that is used by the central
banks in regulating the flow of money and the government in managing tax revenues and
interest rates in an economy policies related to expenditure for the benefit
of the economy
 Managed By

Central Bank of an economy Ministry of Finance of an economy

Measures

It measures the interest rates applicable for It measures the capital expenditure and taxes
lending money in the economy of an economy

Focus Area

Stability of an economy Growth of an economy

Impact on Exchange rates

Exchange rates improve when there is higher It has no impact on the exchange rates
interest rates

Targets

Monetary policy targets inflation in an Fiscal policy does not have any specific target
economy

Impact

Monetary policy has an impact on the Fiscal policy has an impact on the budget
borrowing in an economy deficit

REVENUE DEFICIT :-

Excess of Govt. Revenue Expenditure over Revenue Receipts.

Revenue Deficit = Revenue Expd. - Revenue Receipts.

FISCAL DEFICIT :-

A fiscal deficit is a shortcoming in the income of a government as compared to its spendings.

It is the difference between the total income of the government and the total expenditure
incurred by it.

Fiscal Deficit = Total Expenditure - Total receipts (excluding borrowings)

Economic Reforms

Economic reforms refer to the fundamental changes that were launched in 1991 with the plan
of liberalising the economy and quickening its rate of economic growth. The Narasimha Rao
Government, in 1991,(Finance Minister Dr. Manmohan Singh) started the economic reforms in
order to rebuild internal and external faith in the Indian economy.

The essential features of the economic reforms are – Liberalisation, Privatisation, and
Globalisation, commonly known as LPG.
Census & Demography
Census 2011
🔍 Father of Census - Henry Walter.
🔍 Census 2011 data was released on "31" March-2011" by Union Home Secretary and RGCCI
(Registrar General and Census Commission of India) (Ministry of Home Affairs).
🔍CM Chandramauli was the Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India for the
2011 Indian Census.
🔍 Census-2011 : was 15th census of India [ 7th after independence] [Transgender also
counted)
🔍 Motto of Census - 2011 :- "Our Census our future".
🔍 First Census - 1872. (Lord Mayo). 🔍 1st Complete Census -1881 (Lord Rippon).
🔍 Socio-Economic and Caste Census (SECC) was conducted in 2011 for the first time since
1931.
🔍 Year of Great Divide" in the demographic history of India - 1921. Before this year, the
population was not constant, sometimes it increased and at Kother times it decreased.
Facts about Census-2011 : India:
Population
🔍Population of India (2011) - - 121.05 crore
🔍Percent of the World Population - 17.5%
Population :
🔍State - Highest = UP. Lowest = Sikkim
🔍 UT - Highest = Delhi. Lowest = Lakshadweep
 Urban Population - 31.36% & Rural Population 68.84%
 State with Largest Rural population - Uttar Pradesh
 State with Highest Urban population - Maharashtra.
 Highest Pop. Distt. = Thone (Maharashtra)•
 Lowest Pop Distt - Dihang Valley (Arunachal Pradesh)
Sex Ratio
 Sex Ratio of India = 943.
 Child Sex Ratio = 919.
  States with Highest Sex Ratio - Kerala (1084)
 States With Lowest Sex Ratio - Haryana (879)
 UT with Highest Sex Ratio - Pudduchery (1037)
 UT with Lowest Sex Ratio - Daman & Diu (618)
 State with Highest Child Sex Ratio - Auranchal Pradesh
 States With Lowest Child Sex Ratio - Haryana
Literacy Rate
🔍Literacy Rate of India - 74.04% (women = 65.46% & Men = 82.14%)
 States With Highest Literacy Rate - Kerala
 States With Lowest Literacy Rate - Bihar
 UT with Highest Literacy Rate - Lakshadweep
 UT with Lowest Literacy Rate - Dadar & Nagar Haveli
Growth Rate
🔍 Decadal growth Rate of India = 17.4 %.
🔍 State with Highest Growth Rate = Meghalaya.
🔍 State with Lowest Growth Rate = Nagaland.
🔍 UT with Highest Growth Rate = Dadar & Nagar Haveli
🔍 UT with Lowest Growth Rate = Lakhadweep
Population Density
🔍 Population Density of India = 382/[Link]
🔍 State with Highest Pop. Density = Bihar (1106/sq. km) .
🔍 State with Lowest Pop. Density = Arunachal Pradesh.(17/[Link])
🔍 UT wth Highest Pop. Density = Delhi (11320)
🔍 UT with Lowest Pop. Density = Andaman & Nicobar
Tribe

 Bhil is the most populous Tribe.

 States & UT with Highest SC Population - Uttar Pradesh ( In %age = Punjab)

 States & UT with Highest ST Population - Madhya Pradesh ( In %age = Mizoram)

Transport & Communication in India

ROAD TRANSPORT
 Sher Shah Suri built - Shahi (Royal) road later was renamed as Grand Trunk (GT)
Road during the British period, connecting Calcutta and Peshawar.

 At present, GT Road extends from Amritsar to Kolkata.

 India has the second-largest roadways in the world only after. United States.

 Maharashtra has the highest highways by length in the country.

ROAD TRANSPORT:- are classified the roads into four categories -

1. National Highway. 2. State Highway 3. District roads.4. Village roads.

• National Highways :- are specified by Yellow and White color milestones.

• State Highways are specified by Green and White color milestones. • City roads are
specified by black and white color milestones.

• Rural Roads are specified by orange and white milestones.

ASSOCIATED OFFICES

1. National Highways Authority of India (NHAI):- This is an autonomous body under the
Ministry of Surface Transport was operationalized in Feb 1995.
2. Border Road Organisation (BRO):- Established in 1960 for improvement of
strategically important roads along the northern and north-eastern boundary of the
country (Border Areas).

3. National Highways & Infrastructure Development Corporation Ltd. (NHIDCL): In

2014, the Cabinet, approved the setting up and operationalization of NHIDCL to
exclusively carry out the task of construction/ up-grading/widening of National
Highways in parts of the country which share international boundaries with
neighboring countries.

4. Indian Academy of Highway Engineers (IAHE):- • This is a registered Society which

was set up in 1983 with the objective of fulfilling need for training of Highway
Engineers in the country.

IMPORTANT NATIONAL HIGHWAYS

 NH 1 - Jammu and Kashmir, Ladakh

 NH 2-Assam, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram

 NH 3- Punjab, HP, Ladakh.

 NH 44 (Longest NH in India) (3,745 Kms)- J&K, HP, Punjab, Haryana, Delhi, UP,
MP, Maharashtra, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, TN

 NH 27 :- an East - West National highway in India that starts in Porbandar and

ends in Silchar, the highway passes through the states of Gujarat, Rajasthan,
Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Assam

National Highways FACTS

• Longest National Highway: NH 44 (3,745 km) from Srinagar to Kanyakumari.

• Shortest national Highway: NH 327B (1.2km) in West Bengal.

• NH 44 and NH 27 cut each other at Jhansi in UP.

• Maharashtra has the highest highways by length in the country.

IMPORTANT HIGHWAY PROJECTS

National Highways Development Project (NHDP) is a project to upgrade,

rehabilitate and widen major highways in India to a higher standard. • The project was
started in 1998 under the leadership of Prime Minister, Atal Bihari Vajpayee.

• Govt has planned to end the NHDP program in early 2018 and consume the ongoing
projects under a larger Bharatmala Project.
PHASES OF NHDP

The project is composed of the following phases:

1. Phase 1: The Golden Quadrilateral (GQ: 5,846 km) connecting the four major cities
of Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai and Kolkata at a cost of the Rs.300 billion, funded largely by
the government's special petroleum product tax revenues and government borrowing.
In January 2012, India announced the four-lane GQ highway network as complete.

2. Phase II: North-South and East-West corridors comprising national highways

connecting four extreme points of the country. The North-South and East-West
Corridor (NS-EW: 7,142 km) connecting Srinagar in the north to Kanyakumari south,
and Silchar in the east to Porbandar in the west,

NATIONAL HIGHWAY GRID

1. North-South Corridor :- stretches from Kashmir to Kanyakumari.

2. East-West Corridor :- connects Porbandar in Gujarat with Silchar in Assam.

3. Golden Quadrilateral (GQ):- Highway network connecting the four metro cities in
India - i.e. Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai and Kolkata.

INDIAN RAILWAYS
 India's rail network is the fourth largest and second busiest in the world. The
first train in India was started by Lord Dalhousie on April 16, 1853, from Bombay
to thane. .

 Bori Bunder (Mumbai) was the first railway station in India.

 Indian Railways was nationalized in 1951.

 The platform at Hubballi Railway Station is the world's longest station, 1.5 km.

 Mathura junction is the largest railway junction in India,

RAILWAY ZONES AND THEIR HEADQUARTERS

 Longest railway zone - Northern Railways.

 Indian Railway has 18 zones including the Kolkata metro zone.

1. Central - Mumbai 13. West Central - Jabalpur

2. Northern. - Delhi 14. East Central-Hajipur

3. Southern - Chennai 15. South East Central - Bilaspur

4. Eastern - Kolkata 16. North East Frontier - Guwahati

5. Western. - Mumbai 17. Kolkata Metro - Kolkata

6. North Eastern - Gorakhpur 18. South Coastal- Visakhapatnam

7. South Eastern - Kolkata Important Metros:

8. South Western - Hubli • Kolkata (First metro system in India)

9. North Western - Jaipur • Delhi (Largest Metro)

10. East Coast -Bhubaneshwar • Bangalore (Wifi Enabled)

11. North Central - Allahabad • Mumbai (Public-Private Partnership)

12. South Central - Secunderabad • Gurgaon (India's first fully privately

financed metro)

AIR TRANSPORT SYSTEM IN INDIA

 Air transport is the fastest and costlier mode of transport.

 First commercial flighat in India was a brief demonstration flight of about 15

minutes from the United Provinces Industrial and Agricultural Exhibition in
Allahabad, across the Yamuna River to Naini, a distance of 9.7 kilometres (6 mi).

 JRD Tata was the first person to take a solo flight from Mumbai to Karachi in
1931.

 In 1995, the International Airport Authority of India and the National Airports
Authority were merged to form the Airports Authority of India.

 The authority manages the Civil Aviation Training College at Allahabad and the
National Institute of Aviation Management and Research at Delhi.

 Indian Airlines - Nationalized in 1953

 Indira Gandhi International Airport is the busiest airport in India. It has the
longest runway of 4km.

 Juhu Aerodrome Airport in Mumbai founded in 1928 is the first and oldest
airport in India.

 State with Maximum International Airports: Uttar Pradesh 5 (3 operational and 2

under-construction).

 State with Maximum OPERATIONAL International Airports: Kerala- 4

 Jammu Airport - Domestic

 Sheikh-ul-Alam International Airport Srinagar - International.

 NATIONAL WATERWAYS OF INDIA

 NW -1 - Allahabad-Haldia:- stretch of NW-1 Ganga-Bhagirathi-Hooghly river

system. Length 4,503 KM

 NW -2 - Sadiya-Dhubri :- stretch of the Brahmaputra River (Assam)

 NW -3 - Kottapuram-Kollam :- stretch of the West Coast Canal, Champakara

Canal, and Udyogmandal Canal (Kerala).

 NW -4 - Kakinada-Pondicherry along Godavari and Krishna River system

 NW -5 - Talcher-Paradip (Odisha)

 NW -6 - Lakhipur to Bhanga on the River Barak (Assam-Proposed)

Ports in India
Kolkata :- Only Riverine Port. Also known as Syama Prasad Mookerjee Port/ Diamond Harbour

Jawahar Lal Port (Nava Seva) :- Largest container port & Fully Mechanized Port.

Kamarajar Port (Ennore Port) : - 1st Corporate Port. First major port in India registered as a company.

Mundra Port :- Largest privately owned port in India

Mumbai Port (Maharashtra) :- Natural deep-water port. Oldest and one of the busiest ports in India

Kandla Port (Deendayal Port, Gujarat) :- Tidal port & Major port for exporting oil, grain, and textiles

Chennai Port (Tamil Nadu) :- Gateway to South India’s industrial and manufacturing hub

Krishnapatnam Port (Andhra Pradesh) :- India's deepest port.

Visakhapatnam Port (Andhra Pradesh) :- Second Deepest port in India

Tuticorin (Tamil Nadu) :-

Haldia Port :- West Bengal

Marmagoa Port :- In Goa

Paradip Port (Odisha) :- Artificial deep-water port

 Types of Soil
Alluvial soil: (43%) :-

 Widespread in northern plains and river valleys. Indus-Ganga-Brahmaputhra plain, Narmada-

Tapi plain and They are depositional soil – transported and deposited by rivers, streams, etc.
 Humus, lime, and organic matter are present. Highly fertile.
 New alluvium is termed as Khadar and old alluvium is termed as Bhangar.
 Color: Light Grey to Ash Grey.
 Rich in: potash & Poor in: phosphorous.
 Wheat, rice, maize, sugarcane, pulses, oilseed, etc. are cultivated mainly.
Red soil: (Omnibus Soil)
 Seen mainly in low-rainfall areas. Porous, friable structure.
 Poor in - Phosphate, manganese, nitrogen, humus, and potash.
 Rich in - Iron & Aluminium
 Color: Red because of Ferric oxide(Iron).
 Wheat, cotton, pulses, tobacco, oilseeds, potatoes, etc. are cultivated.
Black soil / Regur soil/Cotton soil :-
 Regur means cotton – the best soil for cotton cultivation.
 Most of the Deccan is occupied by Black soil (Maharashtra, Gujarat, Western parts of
Madhya Pradesh).
 High water retaining capacity.
 Rich in: Iron, lime, calcium, potassium, aluminum, and magnesium.
 Deficient in: Nitrogen, phosphorus, and organic matter.
Laterite soil: Name from the Latin word ‘Later’ which means Brick (It becomes so soft when wet and so hard
when dried). In the areas of high temperature and high rainfall.
 Formed as a result of high leaching.
 Rich in: Iron and Aluminum and Deficient in: Nitrogen, Potash, Potassium, Lime, Humus
 Color: Red color due to iron oxide.
 Rice, Ragi, Sugarcane, and Cashew nuts are cultivated mainly.
Desert / arid soil: Deposited mainly by wind activities. High salt content.
 Lack of moisture and Humus. Kankar or Impure Calcium carbonate content is high which
restricts the infiltration of water.
 Nitrogen is insufficient and Phosphate is normal. Color: Red to Brown.
Saline and Alkaline Soils: Saline and alkaline soils are found in coastal areas and arid regions. They have
high levels of salts and alkalis, making them unsuitable for most crops.
 These soils can be reclaimed for agriculture through drainage and soil amendments.
Indian Polity (By JKSSB Study Fast)
Making of Indian Constitution
 Idea of constitution was given by MN-Roy (1934).
 Constituent Assembly formed on 6 Dec. 1946 (by-Cabinet Mission Plan)
 First Meeting of Constituent Assambly held on - 9-Dec-1946.
 Sacchinand Sinha first temporary presèdent of C.A.
 Dr. Rajindra Prasad - President of Continent Assembly on 11 Dec 1946.
 Drafting Committee was formed on August 29, 1947, which had 7- members
 Chairman of Drafting Committee (father of Constitution) - Dr. BR Ambedkar.
 Constitutional Advisor - BN Rau

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ba
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st
Fa
y
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 Constituent Assembly of India had a total of 389 members before 1947 :

St
B

292 members represented the British provinces , 93 members represented the princely states
SS

& 4 members represented the Chief Commissioner's provinces of Delhi, Coorg, British
JK

Balochistan & Ajmer-Merwara.

 389-member assembly reduced to 299 after the partition of India.
 Constitution India adopted on - 26 Nov-1949 (Election, Parliament & Citizenship).
 Finally came into force on (completely adopted) - 26 Jan 1950.(Republic Day)
 Adopted National Flag on- 22-July-1947.
 Adopted National Anthem & N. Song - 24th Jan-1950
 Constitution of India Completed in - 2 years, 11 months a 18 days. (Cost RS. 64 lakhs)
 Sources of Indian Constitution:-
1. Government of India Act, 1935 5. Canada
 Federal structure  Federal system with a strong center
 Office of the Governor  Residuary powers with the center
 Public Service Commissions  Appointment of Governors by the
 Administrative framework center
2. British 6. Australia
 Parliamentary system of government  Concurrent list
 Rule of law  Freedom of trade, commerce etc
 Legislative procedure  Joint sitting of Parliament
 Single citizenship 7. Germany
 Cabinet system Suspension of Fundamental Rights during
 Writs emergencies
 Bicameralism 8. USSR

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3. United States (USA) Fundamental duties

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 Fundamental Rights Five-year plans
 Independence of the judiciary ba
9. South African :
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 Judicial review Procedure for Amendment of the
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 Preamble Constitution
Fa

 Impeachment of the President Election of members of the Rajya Sabha

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 Removal of S. Court & H.C Judges 11. France

St

 Post of Vice President Ideals of liberty, equality, and fraternity

B

4. Irish 12. Japan :- "Procedure established by law"

SS

Directive Principles of State Policy (DPSP)

JK

Method of election of the President

Constitution Committees
 Drafting Committee Dr. B.R. Ambedkar
 Steering Committee
 Ad-hoc Comittee on National Flag Rajendra Prasad
 Finance & Staff Committee
 Committee on Rules of Procedure
 Union Power Committee
 Union Constitution Committee Jawaharlal Nehru
 States Committee
 Committee on Functions of C.A GV. Mavalankar
 Fundamental Rights Sub. Committer JB Kriplani
 Advisory Committee on [Link]. Vallabhai Patel
 Minorities & Tribal Area Committee
Constitution of India :-
The Constitution was adopted by the Constituent Assembly on November 26, 1949, and came
into effect on January 26, 1950.
 Original - 395 articles, 22 parts, 8 schedules. Current - 448 articles, 25 parts, 12 schedules

 Amendments - 106 amendments since 1950

Preamble :- Introduction / Preface to the constitution

 Idea of preamble taken from USA & Languages of preamble taken from Australia

 Preamble is based on the Objective Resolution, which was introduced by Jawaharlal Nehru on

December 13, 1946, and adopted by the Constituent Assembly on January 22, 1947.
 Preamble was Amended only once by 42nd Constitutional Amendment, 1976, which added

3 words : SOCIALIST, SECULAR & INTEGRITY.

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Amendability of Preamble:
ba
Berubari case (1960) :- Court stated that 'Preamble is the key to open the mind of the makers' but
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it can not be considered as part of the Constitution. Therefore it is not enforceable in a court of law.
st

Keshaunanda Bharti Case (1973)

Fa

Supreme Court held that," Preamble is the part of the constitution & can be amended. subject to
y
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the condition tion that no amendment is done to the basic features of the Constitution.
St

Preamble
B
SS

WE, THE PEOPLE OF INDIA, having solemnly resolved to constitute India into a SOVEREIGN
JK

SOCIALIST SECULAR DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC and to secure to all its citizens:

JUSTICE, social, economic and political;
LIBERTY of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship;
EQUALITY of status and of opportunity;
and to promote among them all
FRATERNITY assuring the dignity of the individual and the unity and integrity of the Nation;
IN OUR CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY this twenty-sixth day of November, 1949, do HEREBY ADOPT,
ENACT AND GIVE TO OURSELVES THIS CONSTITUTION.

Parts of the Indian Constitution

Part I : The Union and its Territory
Part II : Citizenship
Part III : Fundamental Rights
Part IV : Directive Principles of State Policy
Part IVA: Fundamental Duties (added by the 42nd Amendment)
Part V: The Union (covering the President, Vice-President, Parliament, and Union Judiciary)
Part VI: The States (including State Executive, Legislature, and Judiciary)
Part VII: States in the B category (repealed by the 7th Amendment)
Part VIII: The Union Territories
Part IX: The Panchayats
Part IXA: The Municipalities
Part IXB: Cooperative Societies (added by the 97th Amendment)
Part X: The Scheduled and Tribal Areas
Part XI: Relations between the Union and the States
Part XII: Finance, Property, Contracts, and Suits
Part XIII: Trade, Commerce, and Intercourse within the Territory of India
Part XIV: Services under the Union and the States
Part XIVA: Tribunals

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Part XV: Elections
ba
Part XVI: Special Provisions relating to Certain Classes (SC/ST, OBC, etc.)
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Part XVII : Official Language
st
Fa

Part XVIII : Emergency Provisions

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Part XIX : Miscellaneous

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Part XX : Amendment of the Constitution

St

Part XXI : Temporary, Transitional, and Special Provisions

B
SS

Part XXII : Short Title, Commencement, Authoritative Text in Hindi, and Repeals
JK

Trick -1 : (for PART 1 – PART 10)

U Can Fly Directly From US to UP to Meet Children of Sharma
U- Part I : Union and its Territory
Can - Part II : Citizenship
Fly - Part III : Fundamental Rights
Directly - Part IV : Directive Principles of State Policy
From - Part IVA: Fundamental Duties (added by the 42nd Amendment)
U - Part V: The Union (covering the President, Vice-President, Parliament, and Union Judiciary)
S - Part VI: The States (including State Executive, Legislature, and Judiciary)
To - Part VII: States in the B category (repealed by the 7th Amendment)
U- Part VIII: The Union Territories
P- Part IX: The Panchayats
Meet - Part IXA: The Municipalities
Children of - Part IXB: Cooperative Societies (added by the 97th Amendment)
Sharma. - Part X: The Scheduled and Tribal Areas

Trick 2 :-(for 11 to 16) Read From The Start To End Please

Read - Part XI: Relations between the Union and the States
From - Part XII: Finance, Property, Contracts, and Suits
The - Part XIII: Trade, Commerce, and Intercourse within the Territory of India
Start - Part XIV: Services under the Union and the States
To - Part XIVA: Tribunals
End - Part XV: Elections.
Please - Part XVI: Provisions relating to Certain Classes (SC/ST, OBC, etc.)

Trick 3 : (17 to 22) LEMATS

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L- Part XVII : Language
E - Part XVIII : Emergency Provisions ba
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M - Part XIX : Miscellaneous
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Fa

A - Part XX : Amendment of the Constitution

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T - Part XXI : Temporary, Transitional, and Special Provisions

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S - Part XXII : Short Title, Commencement, Authoritative Text in Hindi, and Repeals
St
B
SS

Trick -1 : - U Can Fly Directly From US to UP to Meet Children of Sharma (Part -1 to 10 )

JK

Trick 2 :- for 11 to 16) - Read From The Start To End Please

Trick 3 : (17 to 22) - LEMATS

12 Schedules of the Indian Constitution

Trick : TEARS OF OLD PM
1. T : Territories
2. E : Emoluments & Salaries.
3. A : Affirmations & Oaths
4. R : Rajya Sabha seat allocation.
5. S : Scheduled Areas and Tribes.

6. O : Other Tribal Areas.

7. F : Federal Lists
8. O : Official Languages (22 O. languages)
9. L : Land reform
10. D : Defection (Anti-defection provisions).

11. P : Panchayat
12. M : Municipalities

Schedules of the Indian Constitution

First Schedule: Names of States and Union Territories and their territorial jurisdiction.
Second Schedule : Provisions relating to the salaries, allowances, and privileges of the President,
Vice-President, Governors, Judges of the Supreme Court and High Courts, Comptroller and
Auditor General (CAG), and other officials.
Third Schedule : Forms of Oaths and Affirmations for various constitutional posts (e.g., Union

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Ministers, Members of Parliament, Judges, etc.).

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Fourth Schedule: Allocation of seats in the Rajya Sabha (Council of States) to States and Union
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Territories.
Fifth Schedule : Provisions relating to the administration and control of Scheduled Areas and
st
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Scheduled Tribes in certain states.

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Sixth Schedule : Provisions for the administration of tribal areas in the northeastern states
St

(Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, and Mizoram).

B

Seventh Schedule : Division of powers between the Union and States through three lists: Union
SS

List, State List, Concurrent List.

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Eighth Schedule.: List of recognized languages of India (currently 22 languages).

Ninth Schedule.: Contains laws that are exempted from judicial review (related to land reforms
and other legislations).
Tenth Schedule : Provisions related to anti-defection (disqualification of Members of Parliament
and State Legislatures).
Eleventh Schedule : Powers, authority, and responsibilities of Panchayats (introduced by the 73rd
Amendment).
Twelfth Schedule : Municipalities’ responsibilities (74th Amendment).
Fundamental Rights : Part -III ( Articles 12 to 35 ) (Taken from USA )
(Magna Carta)
 Fundamental Rights are justicable - Allowing persons to move the court (If violated).
 [Link] are Not absolute but Qualified. (state can impose restrictions on them).
 They Can be suspended during National Emergency Except Articles 20 & 21.
 Article-19 (six Freedom) be suspended only when emergency declared on the grounds of War
(External Aggression/External Emergency) Not on the ground of Armed Rebellion (internal
Emergency).
 Parliament can amend Fundamental Rights only by a Constitutional Amendmend Act,
moreover this can be done without affecting the "Basic Structure of the constitution.
 Right to Property was deleted by -"44th Amendment Act 1978' (Now it is made a legal right
under article-300-A.
 Articles 15, 16, 19, 29, and 30 are made available to the citizens only while others are

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available to both citizens and legal foreigners.
 Right To Equality : 14-18 ba
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 Right To Freedom : 19-22

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 Right Against Exploitation : 23 24

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 Right To Religious Freedom : 25-28

St

 Cultural And Educational Rights : 29-30

B
SS

 Right To Constitutional Remedies : 32

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Right To Equality : Articles 14-18

Article 14 :- Equality before Law and Equal Protection of Laws.
Article 15 :- Prohibition of Discrimination on Certain Grounds.
Article 16 :- Equality of Opportunity in Public Employment.
Article 17 :- Abolition of Untouchability.
Article 18 :- Abolition of Titles.
TRICK :- Law removes DOUbT
14 - Law - Equality before Law
15 - D - Discrimination .
16 - O - Opportunity
17 - U - Untouchability
18 - T - Title
Article-12 : Definition of State
Article-13 : It nsures the protection of fundamental rights by declaring laws inconsistent with
these rights as void.
Article 13(1) : Pre-constitutional Laws :- Any law in force before the commencement of the
Constitution that is inconsistent with fundamental rights becomes void to the extent of its
inconsistency.
Article 13(2) : Post-constitutional Laws : The State cannot make any laws that abridge or take
away fundamental rights. If such a law is made, it is void.
Article 13(3) : Definition of "Law" :- "Law" includes ordinances, orders, rules, regulations,
notifications, customs, or usages with the force of law.
"Laws in force" include laws made by legislative or other competent authorities before the
Constitution.
Article 13(4) : Constitutional Amendments Exempted :-
Amendments made under Article 368 are not considered "laws" under Article 13.

Right To Equality : Articles 14-18

Article 14 :- Equality before Law and Equal Protection of Laws.

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1. Equality Before Law: (From British Constitution)
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No person is above the law, and all individuals, regardless of their status, are subject to the same
st

laws in the same circumstances.

Fa

This is a negative concept, meaning the absence of any special privileges.

y
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2. Equal Protection of Laws: (From US Constitution)

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The State shall ensure equal legal protection to all individuals within its jurisdiction.
B
SS

This is a positive concept, allowing for reasonable classification to achieve fairness and justice.
JK

Article 15 :- Prohibition of discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex or place

of birth.
Clause 1 : Prohibition of Discrimination : The State shall not discriminate against any citizen on
grounds only of religion, race, caste, sex, place of birth, or any of them.
Clause 2 : Access to Public Places : No citizen shall, on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex,
place of birth, or any of them, be subjected to any disability, restriction, or condition regarding
access to public spaces (e.g., shops, restaurants, wells, roads).
Clause 3 : Permissible Special Provisions for Women and Children : The State is allowed to make
special provisions for the welfare of women and children.
Clause 4 : Permissible Special Provisions for Socially and Educationally Backward Classes : The
State can make special provisions for the advancement of socially and educationally backward
classes, Scheduled Castes (SCs), and Scheduled Tribes (STs).
Clause 5 : Permissible Special Provisions for Economically Weaker Sections : Added through the
103rd Amendment in 2019, the State can make special provisions for the advancement of
economically weaker sections, including reservation in educational institutions (except minority
institutions).
 Article 16 :- Equality of Opportunity in Public Employment.
Article 16 of the Indian Constitution ensures equality of opportunity in matters of
public employment. Its clauses are summarized below:
Clause 1 : Equality of Opportunity : There shall be equality of opportunity for all
citizens in matters relating to public employment or appointment to any office
under the State.
Clause 2 : Prohibition of Discrimination : No citizen shall be discriminated against
on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex, descent, place of birth, residence, or any of
them for public employment.
Clause 3 : Reservation for Backward Classes : Parliament may prescribe residence
-based requirements for certain public employment, particularly for specific
regions or states, as an exception.
Clause 4 - Reservation for SC/ST and Other Backward Classes: The State may

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make provisions for the reservation of appointments or posts in favor of any

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backward class of citizens that, in the opinion of the State, is not adequately
represented in public services. ba
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Clause 4A : Reservation for Certain Posts : Added by the 77th Amendment in 1995,
st

this clause allows for reservation in promotion for Scheduled Castes and
Fa

Scheduled Tribes if they are not adequately represented.

y
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Clause 4B : Carrying Forward Vacancies :- Introduced by the 81st Amendment in

St

2000, this allows unfilled reserved vacancies to be carried forward and treated as a
B
SS

distinct category without affecting the general category.

JK

Clause 5 : Religious Institutions : Allows the State to make provisions regarding the
employment of individuals in religious or denominational institutions.
Clause 6 : This clause was added to the Indian Constitution through the
103rd Constitutional Amendment Act, 2019. It allows the State to make special
provisions for the economically weaker sections (EWS) of society, including
reservation in public employment.
Article 17 :- Abolition of Untouchability.
Text of Article 17 : "Untouchability is abolished and its practice in any form is
forbidden. The enforcement of any disability arising out of Untouchability shall be
an offence punishable in accordance with law."
1. Abolition of Untouchability: The article declares untouchability as abolished,
meaning it cannot be practiced under any circumstances.
2. Prohibition of Practices: Any form of discrimination based on untouchability is
strictly prohibited, whether in social, religious, or economic contexts.
3. Punishable Offence: Any act of practicing untouchability is a punishable offence
under the law.
Article 18 :- Abolition of Titles.
1. Abolition of Titles: No title, except military or academic distinctions, shall be conferred by the
State.
Titles like "Raja," "Maharaja," or any hereditary honors that suggest a superiority of one citizen
over another are prohibited.
2. Prohibition for Indian Citizens: No citizen of India can accept any title from a foreign state
without the consent of the President.
3. Prohibition for Public Servants: A person holding any office of profit or trust under the State
cannot accept any present, emolument, or title from a foreign state without the consent of the
President.
4. Exception : Military or Academic Distinctions: Titles such as "Doctor," "Professor," or "Major
General" are permitted as they are based on merit and not meant to create inequality.

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Right To Freedom : (Article 19 - 22)
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ba
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Article 19:- 6 Freedom given under Article 19 :
1. Speech and Expression
st
Fa

2. Assemble peaceably without arms

y
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3. Form association, union or cooperative societies

St

4. Movement within Indian territory

B

5. Residence and Settlement

SS

6. Profession, Occupation, Trade and Business

JK

TRICK :- SAAM Resides in Poonch

S - Speech and Expression
A - Assemble peaceably without arms
A - Association, union or cooperative societies
M - Movement within Indian territory
R - Reside and Settlement
P - Profession, Occupation, Trade and Business

Article 19 of the Indian Constitution is a fundamental right that guarantees certain

freedoms to the citizens of India. Six Freedoms under Article 19
1. Freedom of Speech and Expression :- Citizens have the right to freely express their opinions,
subject to reasonable restrictions in the interest of sovereignty, integrity of India, security, public
order, decency, or morality.(RTI also included in 19(1) (a).
2. Freedom to Assemble Peaceably and Without Arms : Citizens have the right to hold peaceful
meetings and protests, provided they are unarmed and do not disturb public order.
3. Freedom to Form Associations or Unions :- This includes the right to form political parties,
trade unions, or other groups, subject to restrictions for public order, morality, or sovereignty.
4. Freedom to Move Freely Throughout the Territory of India :- Citizens can travel and reside
anywhere within India, subject to reasonable restrictions for protecting tribal areas or national
security.
5. Freedom to Reside and Settle in Any Part of India :- Citizens are allowed to live and settle in
any part of the country, with certain exceptions in tribal and scheduled areas.
6. Freedom to Practice Any Profession, or to Carry on Any Occupation, Trade, or Business : This
right allows citizens to choose their profession or business, subject to regulations in the interest
of public welfare or professional qualifications.
Reasonable Restrictions
While these freedoms are fundamental, they are not absolute. The state can impose reasonable
restrictions under the following grounds:
Sovereignty and integrity of India

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 Security of the state

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 Public order
 Decency or morality ba
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 Contempt of court
st

 Defamation
Fa

 Incitement to an offense
y
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Article 20 :- Protection in Respect of Conviction for Offenses in certain ways, including:

St
B
SS

No retrospective punishment
JK

Article 20(1) states that no one can be punished for an act that was not a crime when it was
committed.
No double jeopardy
Article 20(2) states that no one can be prosecuted and punished more than once for the same
offense.
No self-incrimination
Article 20(3) states that no one accused of an offense can be forced to testify against
themselves

Article 21 :- Protection of Life and Personal Liberty : Article 21 of the Indian Constitution
is a fundamental right that guarantees the "Protection of Life and Personal Liberty." It states:
"No person shall be deprived of his life or personal liberty except according to procedure
established by law."
1. Right to Life : Includes the right to live with dignity and covers all aspects that make life
meaningful, complete, and worth living.
Goes beyond mere survival to include the right to health, education, a clean environment, and
shelter.
2. Right to Personal Liberty : Protects individuals against arbitrary actions by the state that may
infringe on their freedom.
3. Scope and Interpretation : The Supreme Court has expanded its scope through various
judgments, making it one of the most dynamic articles.
It applies not only to citizens but also to foreigners within Indian territory.

Article 21A:- Right To Education : 86th Amendment Act 2002 inserted Article 21-A to

provide free and compulsory education of all children in the age group of 6 to 14.

Article 22 :- Protection Against Arrest and Detention

Article 22 of the Indian Constitution provides protection to individuals in case of arrest and
detention under ordinary circumstances and preventive detention laws. It ensures specific rights

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related to arrest and safeguards individuals from arbitrary detention.

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Structure of Article 22:
1. Protection Against Arrest in Ordinary Circumstances: ba
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Applicable to persons who are arrested under normal legal processes.

st
Fa

The key provisions are:

y

1. Right to be informed of grounds of arrest:

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St

The arrested person must be informed of the reasons for their arrest as soon as possible.
B

2. Right to consult and be defended by a legal practitioner:

SS

The arrested person has the right to legal counsel of their choice.
JK

3. Right to be presented before a magistrate:

The arrested individual must be produced before a magistrate within 24 hours of arrest.
4. No detention beyond 24 hours without judicial approval:
Detention beyond this period requires permission from a magistrate.
Exceptions :- It provides that the rights given to arrested person under clauses (1) and (2) are not
available to following persons:
 An enemy alien
 A person arrested and detained under Preventive Detention law
Provisions Related to Preventive Detention: Preventive detention is the act of detaining a
person to prevent them from committing a crime, rather than as a punishment.
Key features:
1. Maximum detention without an advisory board: : A person can be detained for up to 3 months
without being referred to an advisory board.
2. Role of the advisory board: If the detention exceeds 3 months, an advisory board, consisting of
judges or individuals qualified as judges, must review the case.
3. Laws made by Parliament: Parliament can prescribe the circumstances and duration for
preventive detention.
4. Exceptions for enemy aliens: The rights under Article 22 are not applicable to enemy aliens
(individuals from countries at war with India).
TRICK :- CLEAR :- (Articles 20-22)
20 - C - Conviction
21 - L - Life & Liberty
21A - E - Education
22 - AR - Arrest

Right Against Exploitation : Articles 23 24

Article 23 :

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Prohibition of trafficking in human beings and forced labor:

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ba
Clause -1. "Traffic in human beings and begar and other similar forms of forced labor :- are
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prohibited, and any contravention of this provision shall be an offense punishable in accordance
st

with law."
Fa

Clause - 2. Exception for state-imposed compulsory services:

y
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"Nothing in this article shall prevent the State from imposing compulsory service for public
St

purposes, and in imposing such service, the State shall not make any discrimination on grounds
B
SS

only of religion, race, caste, or class, or any of them."

JK

1. Prohibition of Human Trafficking :- Includes practices such as selling and buying of human
beings, forced prostitution, and slavery.
2. Prohibition of Forced Labor (Begar) :
Begar: (Unpaid Labor) A traditional practice where labor was extracted without payment or with
inadequate compensation.
3. Other similar forms of forced labor :
a. Bonded Labor (Debt Bondage): Workers are forced to labor to repay debts, often under
exploitative conditions.
b. Slavery-Like Practices: Treating individuals as property or denying them freedom and fair
compensation.
c. Caste-Based Exploitation: Practices like manual scavenging or forced labor linked to caste
hierarchies.
d. Unpaid Domestic Work: Coercing workers, often women or children, into domestic servitude
without fair wages.
e. Sexual Exploitation: Forcing individuals into prostitution or related activities.
d. Economic Coercion: Exploiting individuals by paying below minimum wages or forcing them to
work due to poverty. (Coercion means the act of compelling or forcing someone to do something
against their will by using threats, pressure, or intimidation).

Article 24 :- "Prohibition of Employment of Children in Factories etc. No child below the

age of fourteen years shall be employed to work in any factory or mine or engaged in any other
hazardous employment."
1. Prohibition of Child Labor: Strictly bans the employment of children below 14 years in
factories, mines, and hazardous occupations.
2. Age Restriction: The article applies to children under 14 years of age.
3. Scope: The prohibition is specific to hazardous employment and does not cover all forms of
child labor (e.g., non-hazardous family work or entertainment).

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Right to Freedom of Religion (Article 25 to 28) :-
ba
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Article 25 :- Freedom of Conscience and Free Profession, Practice, and Propagation of

st
Fa

Religion.
y
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1. Freedom of Conscience: Every individual has the freedom to choose, hold, and profess a
St

religion of their choice.

B
SS

2. Freedom to Practice and Propagate: Individuals are allowed to practice their religion through
JK

rituals, worship, or other forms of observance, and they can also propagate or spread their
religious beliefs.
3. Subject to Limitations: The state can impose restrictions in the interest of public order,
morality, and health. The right does not permit any activity that disturbs public peace or violates
laws.
4. State's Role: The state is empowered to regulate or restrict any secular activity associated
with religious practices if necessary for public welfare.
5. Social Reforms: Article 25 allows the state to make laws for social welfare and reforms, such
as banning practices like untouchability or sati.

Article 26 :- Freedom to Manage Religious Affairs :

1. Right to Establish and Maintain Institutions (Clause a): Religious denominations have the right
to set up and manage institutions that serve religious or charitable purposes. Examples:
Temples, mosques, churches, gurudwaras, or charitable trusts and schools run by religious
groups.
2. Right to Manage Religious Affairs (Clause b): Religious groups can decide on the manner of
worship, rituals, ceremonies, and doctrines related to their religion. The state cannot interfere in
the internal religious matters unless public order, morality, or health are at stake.
3. Right to Own and Acquire Property (Clause c): Religious groups have the right to own and
acquire both movable (money, artifacts) and immovable property (land, buildings). They may
receive property through donations, wills, or acquisitions for religious or charitable purposes.
4. Right to Administer Property (Clause d): Religious groups can manage and utilize their
property for the objectives it was acquired for, subject to legal regulations.
Example: If a temple owns land, the revenue from it can be used for temple upkeep or
community service, but misuse or unlawful practices can be regulated by the state.
Conditions and Limitations :- Public Order, Morality, and Health: The exercise of these rights
must not disrupt public peace or go against basic moral and health standards. For instance,

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practices that harm individuals or promote violence may be restricted.

Article 27 :- ba
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Freedom from Taxation for Promotion of a Religion.
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Article 27 of the Indian Constitution prohibits the use of public funds for promoting or
maintaining any particular religion. It ensures that the state remains secular and treats all
religions equally.
"Freedom as to payment of taxes for promotion of any particular religion"
No person shall be compelled to pay any taxes, the proceeds of which are specifically
appropriated for the payment of expenses for the promotion or maintenance of any particular
religion or religious denomination.
1. Prohibition of Religious Taxation: The article ensures that no taxpayer’s money is used to
favor or support any particular religion.
2. Secularism: It upholds the secular character of the Indian state by preventing religious bias in
the allocation of public funds.

Article 28 :- Freedom from Attending Religious Instruction.

Article 28 Distinguishes 4 types of educational institutions.

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1. Wholly owned by the state. :- Religious instructions are completely prohibited

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2. Administered by the state but established under any trust or endowment :- Religious
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Cultural and Educational Rights (Article 29 to Article 30)

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Article 29 :-Protection of interests of minorities.

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(1) Any section of the citizens residing in the territory of India or any part thereof having a
distinct language, script or culture of its own shall have the right to conserve the same.
(2) No citizen shall be. denied admission into any educational institution maintained by the State
or receiving aid out of State funds on grounds only of religion, race, caste, language or any of
them.

Article 30 :- Right of Minorities to Establish and Administer Educational Institutions.

(1) All minorities, whether based on religion or language, shall have the right to establish and
administer educational institutions of their choice.
(1A) in making any law providing for the compulsory acquisition of any property of an
educational institution established and administered by a minority, referred to in clause (1), the
State shall ensure that the amount fixed by or determined under such law for the acquisition of
such property is such as would not restrict or abrogate the right guaranteed under that clause.
(2) The State shall not, in granting aid to educational institutions, discriminate against any
educational institution on the ground that it is under the management of a minority, whether
based on religion or language.
Right to Property Article 31 Deleted by 44 Amendment 1978 and converted it into a
Constitutional right (Article 300A).

Right To Constitutional Remedies: Article 32 :

(Heart and Soul of the Constitution )
In the Indian Constitution, writs are formal legal orders issued by the Supreme Court Artcle 32 or
High Courts article 226 to protect fundamental rights and enforce statutory duties.
Writs : There are five types of writs:
1. Habeas Corpus : (to have the body of)
 Issued to produce a person before the court, ensuring they are not illegally detained.
 Protects right to liberty (Article 21).

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2. Mandamus : (We Command)

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 Orders a public authority to perform a statutory duty.
 Enforces performance of public duties. ba
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3. Prohibition : (to forbid)

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 Prevents a lower court or tribunal from exceeding its jurisdiction.

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 Ensures judicial review.

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4. Certiorari : (to be certified)

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 Transfers a case from a lower court to a higher court.

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 Corrects errors of law or jurisdiction.

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5. Quo Warranto : (by what warrant)

 Challenges unauthorized occupation of public office.
 Ensures accountability.

Article 33 :- of the Indian Constitution empowers the Parliament to restrict or modify the

fundamental rights of certain categories of people, particularly members of the armed forces,
paramilitary forces, police forces, intelligence agencies, and analogous services. This is done to
ensure proper discharge of their duties and maintenance of discipline among them.
1. Applicability: It applies to the armed forces, paramilitary forces, police forces, intelligence
agencies, and other services tasked with ensuring public order and national security.
2. Restriction of Fundamental Rights: The Parliament has the authority to enact laws that can
curtail or modify the application of fundamental rights under Part III of the Constitution for these
specific groups.
Article 34: Restriction on rights conferred by this Part while Martial Law is in force in

any area.
Article 34 of the Indian Constitution provides for the restriction of fundamental rights in areas
under military rule in certain emergency situations. It empowers the Parliament to indemnify
(Protection against) any acts done during the enforcement of martial law in a particular area.

Article 35 of the Indian Constitution deals with the power of Parliament to

make laws to give effect to certain specified fundamental rights.
Legislation to give effect to the provisions of this Part notwithstanding anything in
this Constitution. Notwithstanding anything in this Constitution—
Article 35 ensures that only Parliament, and not state legislatures, has the power to
make laws regarding:

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Restriction or abrogation of fundamental rights for armed forces (Article 33).

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Martial law provisions (Article 34). ba
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Provisions related to employment under the state (Article 16(3)).
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Remedies for enforcement of fundamental rights (Article 32).

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Directive Principles of State Policies (DPSP)

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Part-4 :- Articles 36 to 51
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39(a): to provide equal justice and free legal aid

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39(d): Equal pay for equal work for men & women
40: Gram Panchayats,
43A: to make steps to secure the participation of workers in management of industry
44: Uniform Civil Code
46: Reservation In Education & Jobs
48A: to protect the Environment and to safeguard forest and wildlife
49: to protect monument, places and objects of artistic or historic interest which are declared to
be of national importance
50: Separation of Judiciary and Executive
51: International Peace & Security
Fundamental Duties :- Part IV-A - Article 51(A)Concept Taken from
Russia (USSR)Incorporated in of the Constitution by the 42nd Constitutional
Amendment Act, 1976 on the recommendations of the Swaran Singh Committee
Originally 10 in number, one more duty (11th) was added through the 86th
Constitutional Amendment Act, 2002.
Parliament :- Parliament (Union Legislature) Consist –
President
Rajya Sabha
Lok Sabha.
President : (Article 52 - 62)52: President Of India53: The executive power of
President54: Manner of Election56: Term (5 Years57: Eligibility for re-election58:
Qualification – 35 yrs.
citizen of India should be qualified to be a member of Lok Sabha59: Condition of
office60: Oath or affirmation by the President (Oath By → CJI Or seniormost judge
of SC)61: Procedure of impeachment62: Vacancy (election)

Centre
Article 71: Dispute related to election of President or Vice PresidentArticle 72:
Pardoning Power of President Article 74: President to act on the advice of CoM

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added by Prime MinisterArticle 75: Appointment of PM & Other MinistersArticle 76:

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Appointment of Attorney General of IndiaArticle 78: President to seek information
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from PMArticle 79: President is an integral part of ParliamentArticle 80:
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Composition of the Rajya Sabha

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Article 81: Composition of the Lok Sabha

Article 352 - National Emergency :- President can declare NE on the grounds
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of war, External Aggression or Armed Rebellion (Armed Rebellion replaced

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‘’internal disturbance’’ by 44th constitutional amendment 1978.

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Article 356 - President’s Rule :- due to constitutional failure in any state;

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Failure in executing directions of union.

Article 360 - Financial Emergency :- (Never imposed)
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 Election Commission of India :-
Election Commission of India :- Is a Autonomous & Constitutional body responsible for

conducting Union and State elections. (ECI administers elections of Lok Sabha, Rajya Sabha,

State Legislative Assemblies, legislative Councils, President & Vice President.

Note: Elections of Panchayat & Municipalities conducted by State Election Commission.

 ECI Established on 25th January 1950.

 Part XV of the Indian constitution ( Article 324 to 329 )

 Article 324 : Superintendence, direction and control of elections to be vested in an Election

Commission. Election Commission shall consist of the Chief Election Commissioner and

such number of other Election Commissioners.

 Article 325 : No person to be ineligible for inclusion in, or to claim to be included in a special,

electoral roll on grounds of religion, race, caste or sex.

 Article 326 : Elections to the House of the People and to the Legislative Assemblies of States

to be on the basis of adult suffrage.

 Article 327 : Power of Parliament to make provision with respect to elections to

Legislatures.

 Article 328 : Power of Legislature of a State to make provision with respect to elections to

such Legislature.

 Article 329 : Bar to interference by courts in electoral matters.

Structure of the Commission

From its formation in 1950 to 1989, ECI worked as a single member body and 16th October 1989,

two more election commissioners were appointed. (due to 61st Constitutional Amendment Act

of 1988, which came into force in 1989 voting age was lowered from 21 years to 18 years.).

Again in 1990, the ECI was made a single member body and then again in 1993 it was made a

multi-member body appointing two more election commissioners.

Appointment : By President.

Tenure : Hold office for a term of six years or until they attain the age of 65 years, whichever is

earlier. (6 years or age of 65)

Salary : Chief election commissioner and the two other election commissioners have equal
powers and receive equal salary, allowances and other perquisites, which are same to a judge of

the Supreme Court. (But now after amendment equivalent to Cabinet Secretary).

Removal :- The Chief Election Commissioner can be removed from office only through a process

of removal similar to that of a Supreme Court judge for by Parliament. Removal requires special

majority of 2/3rd members present and voting supported by more than 50% of the total strength

of the houses.

Functions :

1. ECI direct and control the entire process of conducting elections to Parliament and

Legislature of every State and to the offices of President and Vice-President of India.

2. Prepare and periodically revise Electoral Rolls and to register all eligible voters

3. Notify the dates and schedules of elections and to scrutinise nomination papers

4. Grant Recognition to Political Parties and allot election symbols to them.

5. To act as a court for settling disputes related to granting of recognition to political parties and

allotment of election symbols to them.

6. Appoint officers for inquiring into disputes relating to electoral arrangements

7. Determine the Model Code of Conduct (MCC) to be observed by the parties and the candidates

at the time of elections

8. Prepare a roster for publicity of the policies of the political parties on radio and TV in times of

elections

9. Advise the president on matters relating to the disqualifications of the members of Parliament.

10. Advise the governor on matters relating to the disqualifications of the members of state

legislature

11. Determine the territorial areas of the electoral constituencies throughout the country on the

basis of the Delimitation Commission Act of Parliament

There are also some flaws with the Election Commission

🔍 The Constitution has not fixed any qualifications whether legal, educational, administrative or
judicial of the members of the Election Commission.

🔍 The Constitution has not specified the term of the members of the Election Commission.
They can be removed on the recommendations of the CEC.

🔍 The Constitution has not debarred the retiring election commissioners from any further
appointment by the government.

Current Affairs related to Election Commission of India

Chief Election Commissioner and Other Election Commissioners (Appointment, Conditions of

Service and Term of Office) Act, 2023 :-

 Introduced as a Bill in Rajya Sabha on August 10, 2023.

 Passed by Parliament (Rajya Sabha and Lok Sabha) in December 2023.

 Received Presidential Assent and officially became an Act.

1. Appointment Process Changed:

Old system (pre-2023): The Chief Election Commissioner (CEC) and Election Commissioners

(ECs) were appointed by the President, conventionally on the advice of the Prime Minister and

Council of Ministers.

New system (as per 2023 Act): A three-member Selection Committee will recommend names to

the President. This committee includes:

I. The Prime Minister (Chairperson)

II. A Union Cabinet Minister (nominated by PM)

III. The Leader of Opposition in the Lok Sabha (or the largest opposition party leader)

2. Removal of CEC and ECs:

The CEC can be removed only in the same manner as a Supreme Court judge. Election

Commissioners can be removed on the recommendation of the CEC, which is consistent with

previous practice.

3. Terms and Conditions:

Fixed term of 6 years or until the age of 65, whichever is earlier.

Salary and service conditions are aligned with that of the Cabinet Secretary (previously aligned

with Supreme Court Judges).

4. Repeals the 1991 Act:

The 2023 law replaces the Election Commission (Conditions of Service of Election

Commissioners and Transaction of Business) Act, 1991.

Other current Affairs of ECI :

Chief Election Commissioner - Gyanesh Kumar (26th CEC on 19 February 2025)

 1. Election Commissioner - Sukhbir Singh Sandhu

2. Election Commissioner - Vivek Joshi

👉 First Chief Election Commissioner of India - Sukumar Sen (1950-58)

👉First Woman Chief Election Commissioner of India - V. S. Ramadevi (In 1990)
🔍 Voters Day - 25 January
🔍 Theme of 25 january 2025 - "Nothing like voting, I vote for sure"
Human Rights :- “Rights inherent to all human beings, regardless of race, sex,
nationality, ethnicity, language, religion, or any other status''.
CONCEPT OF HUMAN RIGHTS
Magna Carta :- Magna Carta also known as "Great Charter", is a charter of rights agreed to by

King John of England, on 15th June 1215.

Petition of Rights, 1628 :- A statement of Civil liberties sent by the English parliament. Human

rights were improved or enhanced in the petition.

The Bill of Rights, 1689:- Is a landmark Act in the constitutional law of England that sets out

certain basic civil rights.

The Virginia Declaration, 1776:- This declaration specified a number of fundamental rights of

man. The Virginia declaration of rights affirmed that all men are by nature equally free and

independent and have certain inherent rights.

Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) :- It is a historic document adopted by UN General

Assembly On 10 Dec 1948 In Paris, France. Also known as Resolution 217. It consist of 30

articles. (Human Rights Day - 10 December).

Universal Declaration of Human Rights - 30 Articles

Article Right/Freedom

Article 1 All humans are born free and equal in dignity and rights.

Article 2 No discrimination in enjoyment of rights and freedoms.

Article 3 Right to life, liberty, and security of person.

Article 4 Freedom from slavery or servitude.

Article 5 Freedom from torture or cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment.

Article 6 Right to recognition as a person before the law.

Article 7 Right to equal protection under the law.

Article 8 Right to an effective remedy for rights violations.

Article 9 Freedom from arbitrary arrest, detention, or exile.

Article 10 Right to a fair and public hearing by an impartial tribunal.

Article 11 Presumption of innocence until proven guilty.

Article 12 Right to privacy and protection from arbitrary interference.

 Article 13 Freedom of movement and right to leave and return to one’s country.

Article 14 Right to seek asylum from persecution.

Article 15 Right to a nationality and not to be arbitrarily deprived of it.

Article 16 Right to marry and found a family with free consent.

Article 17 Right to own property and not be arbitrarily deprived of it.

Article 18 Freedom of thought, conscience, and religion.

Article 19 Freedom of opinion and expression.

Article 20 Right to peaceful assembly and association.

Article 21 Right to participate in government and free elections.

Article 22 Right to social security and economic, social, and cultural rights.

Article 23 Right to work, fair wages, and to join trade unions.

Article 24 Right to rest, leisure, and reasonable working hours.

Article 25 Right to an adequate standard of living and healthcare.

Article 26 Right to education; free and compulsory primary education.

Article 27 Right to participate in cultural life and share in scientific progress.

Article 28 Right to a social and international order for these rights to be realized.

Article 29 Duties to the community and lawful limitations on rights.

Article 30 No one can use these rights to destroy others’ rights and freedoms.

International Covenants 1966:- The United nations General Assembly adopted two covenants on

16th Dec. 1966,

i. Iternational Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR)

ii. International covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights ICESCR)

United Nations Commission on Human Rights (UNCHR) :- Was established in 1946 by ECOSOC.

It was consist of 53 members

The term of member was 3 years

United Nations Human Rights Council (UNHRC)

It was established in 2006 by UN General Assembly

It is consist of 47 members
The term of member is 3 years, not more than two consecutive term.

National Human Rights Commission

It is a Statutory body established in 1993 by Protection of Human Rights Act, 1993.

NHRC is a body that protects human rights in India. These rights include the right to life,

freedom, equality, and dignity of every person. These rights are given by the Indian Constitution

or included in international agreements that India follows, and

Chairperson of the National Human Rights Commission (NHRC) in 2025 is Justice Shri V.

Ramasubramanian

Composition of NHRC :- NHRC consists of Chairperson & 5 members.

• Chairperson - Retired CJI or Judge of SC.

• Members - Serving or retired judge of SC + Serving or retired CJOHC + 3 Persons (atleast one

woman) having knowledge or practical experience of human rights. These are Full time members.

Also 7 ex-officio members Chairpersons of National Commission for Minorities + For SCs + For

STs + For Women + For BCs + For Protection of Child Rights & Chief Commissioner for Persons

with Disabilities.

Appointment :-:Chairperson & Members are appointed - by President)- on recommendations of a

6 - member committee :
 PM (as Head) Leaders of Opposition in both Houses of Parliament

 Speaker of LS Central home minister.

 Deputy Chairman of RS

Further, a sitting judge of SC or a sitting chief justice of HC can be appointed only after

consultation with CJI

Term :- 3 years or 70 years of Age, whichever is earlier.

Removal by President when Proved misbehaviour OR in capacity after SC enquiry.

Objectives

i. To strengthen the institutional arrangements through which human rights issues could be

addressed in their entirety in a more focussed manner

ii. To look into allegations of excesses, independently of the government, in a manner that would

underline the government's commitment to protect human rights

iii. To complement and strengthen the efforts that have already been made in this direction.
The UNHRC holds regular sessions three times a year, in March, June, and September.

KINDS OF HUMAN RIGHTS (Generations of Rights)

1) Civil and Political Rights. 2) Economic and Social Rights. 3) Collective Rights

1. Civil and Political Rights :- 1st Generation Rights contained in the covenants of Civil and

Political come under this category that see their origin in the 13th century in Magna Carta. E.g:-

Right to life, liberty, right to privacy, right to freedom from torture and inhuman treatment.

2) Economic and Social Rights :- 2nd Generation . These rights refer to economic and social

rights which are considered to have been originated in the Russian Revolution of 1917 and in the

Paris peace conference of 1919.

3) Collective Rights :- 3rd Generation , Individuals are also members of such units, groups or

communities and state, therefore, international law not only recognizes inalienable rights of

individuals, but also recognizes certain collective rights. E.g:- Right to self determination, rights

to peace and development etc.E.g:- Food, Clothes, House and adequate standard of living and

freedom from hunger etc.

4. Digital Rights (Emerging) :- 4th Generation - Protection in the digital age (e.g. data privacy,

internet access).

Current Affairs related to Human Rights

Human Rights Day - 10 December

Theme for Human Rights Day 2024 - "Our Rights, Our Future, Right Now".

Theme for Human Rights Day 2025 - "Holocaust Remembrance for Dignity and Human Rights.

Chairperson of the National Human Rights Commission (NHRC) in 2025 is Justice Shri V.

Ramasubramanian

Chairperson of National Commission for Women - Smt. Vijay Rahatkar.

Chairperson of national commission for minorities - Iqbal Singh Lalpura

UN Human Rights Council Update : Russia has been suspended from the UN Human Rights

Council due to allegations of human rights violations in Ukraine.

 Disaster Management
DISASTER :- A disaster is an event that causes serious harm to people, buildings, economies, or

the environment, and the affected community cannot handle it alone. (The term Disaster is

derived from the French word 'Desastre' meaning a bad or an evil star.)

TYPES OF DISASTER :- There are two types of disaster.

1. Natural Disaster :- A disaster caused by natural factors called as a natural disaster.

Example:- Earthquake, Flood, Cyclone etc.

2. Man-made disaster :- A disaster caused due to the human activities.

Example: Wars, Fire accidents, Explosion, Industrial accidents etc.

Disaster Management Cycle (Phases) :- There are 4 phases of disaster management

1. Mitigation. 2. Preparedness. 3. Response. 4. Recovery
1. Mitigation :-
🔹
🔹
Done before a disaster happens.

🔹
Aims to reduce or prevent the impact of disasters.
Focuses on long-term measures.
Examples:
Constructing earthquake-resistant buildings. Building flood barriers.
Planting trees to prevent soil erosion. Creating laws for land use and zoning.
2. Preparedness :-
🔹
🔹
Also done before a disaster occurs.

🔹
Aims to prepare people and systems to respond effectively.
Involves planning and capacity-building.
Examples:
Making emergency evacuation plans.
Conducting disaster drills in schools and offices.
Training rescue teams.
Setting up early warning systems.
3. Response
🔹
🔹
Happens during and immediately after the disaster.

🔹
Aims to save lives and reduce immediate suffering.
Involves quick and coordinated actions.
Examples:
Conducting search and rescue operations. Providing first aid and medical help.
Distributing food, water, and shelter. Coordinating with emergency services.
4. Recovery ::
🔹 🔹
🔹
Takes place after the disaster is over. Aims to bring life back to normal.
Focuses on long-term rebuilding and support.
Examples:
Rebuilding damaged houses and roads. Helping people return to work or school.

Providing psychological support. Reviewing lessons learned to improve future planning.

Summary of Phases
Phase When it Happens Main Focus

Mitigation Before disaster Reduce risk and impact

Preparedness Before disaster Get ready to respond

Response During/Immediately after Save lives and give emergency aid

Recovery After disaster Rebuild and restore

National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) :-

Established Under Disaster Management Act, 2005 (on 23 December 2005). Headquarters is at

New Delhi. It is a Statutory and Apex Body for disaster management in India.

Composition :-

Chairperson of NDMA - Prime Minister of India

Vice-Chairperson - Appointed (if needed) (Cabinet Rank)

Members - Maximum of 9 members (including experts) (MoS rank) and nominated by PM.

Functions of NDMA:

1. Formulate policies for disaster management.

2. Approve national disaster plans and guidelines.

3. Coordinate response and relief efforts at national level.

4. Promote training, education, and awareness.

5. Support capacity building and research.

6. Ensure preparedness and mitigation activities across sectors.

7. Monitor the implementation of disaster management plans by states and other authorities.

Other Related Authorities

State Disaster Management Authority (SDMA) : Headed by the Chief Minister of the state

District Disaster Management Authority (DDMA) : Headed by the District Collector/Magistrate

National Executive Committee (NEC) Coordinates national-level disaster response

 Current Affairs related to Disaster Management
Disaster Management (Amendment) Act, 2025

1. Clearer Definition of Disasters :- It now says law and order issues (like riots or protests) are

not considered disasters.

2. Stronger Role for NDMA & States :- NDMA (National Disaster Management Authority) and

state-level bodies must:

Check risks regularly (like floods, earthquakes, etc.)

Guide local authorities.
Monitor how disaster plans are being followed
Do post-disaster reviews
3. Online Disaster Database :- Every state must keep a digital record of: Past disasters, Relief
money spent & Future planning
4. Standard Relief Measures : NDMA will set minimum standards for: Relief camps, Food, water,
toilets & Support for widows, orphans, and other vulnerable groups
5. Urban Disaster Teams (UDMAs) : Big cities can now set up Urban Disaster Management
Authorities to respond faster.
6. State Disaster Response Forces (SDRFs) : Each state can create its own disaster response
force, like a mini version of the NDRF.
7. Important Committees Get Legal Status : Two central committees that manage disasters now
have official power under law:
a. One led by the Cabinet Secretary
b. One led by the Disaster Management Minister
8. NDMA Can Make Rules : NDMA can now create rules and hire experts, but the central
government must approve them.
9. New “Help Clause” for Implementation :- The government can make changes (for up to 3 years)
to fix any issues in applying this law.
🔍 What Was Removed by this ammendment
Loan Waivers for Disaster Victims - Earlier, the law allowed the government to waive loans or
give special credit after disasters. This part has been removed in 2025—leading to court cases
and criticism.

International Day for Disaster Risk Reduction on 13th of October .

Theme 2024 - "Empowering the next generation for a resilient future"
Theme 2025 - "Every Day Counts, Act for Resilience Today"
 Soil and its Types :-
Soil is the topmost layer of the Earth’s surface that supports plant life. It is a natural mixture of
Minerals (sand, silt, clay), Organic matter (humus) , Water, Air, Living organisms. It forms through
the weathering of rocks and decay of organic materials over time, and it's essential for agriculture,
forestry, and sustaining ecosystems. Scientific study of soil is called Pedology.
Types of Soil in India:
1. Alluvial Soil 5. Arid (Desert) Soil
2. Black Soil (Regur Soil) 6. Forest and Mountain Soil
3. Red Soil 7. Saline and Alkaline Soil
4. Laterite Soil 8. Peaty and Marshy Soil
1. Alluvial Soil : It is highly fertile and mostly available soil in India (about 40%).
Distributed in Indo-Gangetic plains (Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal),
Brahmaputra valley, coastal plains of Gujarat, Odisha, etc.
Formation: Deposited by rivers like the Ganga, Brahmaputra, and their tributaries.
Characteristics:
 Texture: Sandy loam to clay & Color: Light grey to ash grey
 Fertility: Very fertile, rich in potash, poor in nitrogen and phosphorus
 Crops: Wheat, rice, sugarcane, pulses, cotton, jute
Subtypes: • Khadar – newer alluvium, more fertile, near riverbanks. • Bhangar – older alluvium,
less fertile, contains kankar nodules
2. Black Soil (Regur Soil) :
Distribution: Deccan Plateau – Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh,
Telangana, Tamil Nadu.
Formation: Derived from basaltic lava rocks
Characteristics:
 Texture: Clayey and deep  Poor in nitrogen, phosphorus
 Color: Deep black to grey  Develops cracks in dry season (self-
 High moisture retention ploughing)
 Rich in lime, iron, magnesia, alumina
Crops: Cotton (hence "black cotton soil"), soybean, groundnut, millets, sorghum
3. Red Soil :-
Distribution: Eastern and southern Deccan Plateau – Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh,
Odisha, Chhattisgarh, parts of northeast India
Formation: Formed by weathering of ancient crystalline and metamorphic rocks
Characteristics:
Color due to high iron content (ferric oxide). Texture: Sandy to loamy
Fertility: Generally poor in nitrogen, phosphorus, humus
Crops: Millets, pulses, groundnut, cotton, wheat, rice (with irrigation)
4. Laterite Soil :-
Distribution: Western Ghats, Eastern Ghats, parts of Odisha, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra,
parts of Assam and Meghalaya
Formation: Formed in tropical areas with high rainfall and temperature – intense leaching.
Characteristics:
 Rich in iron and aluminum
 Poor in lime, potassium, nitrogen, and organic matter
 Hard when dry
 Not very fertile unless treated with fertilizers
Crops: Tea, coffee, cashew, rubber, coconut (in high-rainfall zones)
5. Arid (Desert) Soil :-
Distribution: Rajasthan, Gujarat, parts of Haryana and Punjab
Formation: Wind-blown sand deposits in arid and semi-arid regions
Characteristics:
 Sandy texture, loose structure  Alkaline in nature
 Low water retention  Fertility improved with irrigation
 Poor in humus and nitrogen
Crops: Bajra (pearl millet), barley, pulses, fodder crops.
6. Forest and Mountain Soil :-
Distribution: Himalayan regions (Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, northeastern
states)
Formation: Organic matter accumulation under forest cover
Characteristics:
 Texture and fertility vary by altitude:
 Higher altitudes: acidic, low fertility
 Lower altitudes: more humus, better fertility
Crops: Tea, spices, fruits (apple, peach), maize, barley
7. Saline and Alkaline Soil :-
Distribution: Drier parts of Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Bihar, Maharashtra,
West Bengal’s Sunderbans (coastal saline)
Formation: Poor drainage, over-irrigation, high evaporation
Characteristics:
 White crust on surface (salt accumulation)
 Poor soil structure and low fertility
 Inhibits plant growth
 Reclamation: gypsum, proper drainage, leaching
Crops: Salt-tolerant crops like barley, cotton, rice (with amendments)
8. Peaty and Marshy Soil :-
Distribution: Kerala, coastal Odisha, Sunderbans in West Bengal, parts of Bihar and Tamil Nadu
Formation: Accumulation of organic matter in humid regions or waterlogged areas
Characteristics:
High organic content (humus). Black or dark brown. Acidic and deficient in potash and phosphate
Crops : Paddy, jute
Types of Soil on Particle Size :-
1) Sandy Soil. 2) Silt Soil. 3) Clay Soil. 4) Loamy Soil
Sandy Soil : - Particles big in size. Can't hold Water & Minerals. Not good for agriculture.
Silt Soil :- The size of silt particles is smaller than sand. Can Hold Small Amount of Water.
Clay Soil :- Size of clay particles are very small. Can hold large quantity of water. Mostly used for
Pottery, Bricks formation etc.
Loamy Soil :- It is a combination of sand, silt and clay. Both small & large soil particles are present.
It has the ability to retain moisture and nutrients; hence, it is more suitable for farming.
Summary Table
Soil Type Major States Key Crops Key Traits

Alluvial UP, Bihar, Punjab, WB Rice, wheat, Fertile, deposited by

sugarcane rivers

Black (Regur) Maharashtra, MP, Gujarat Cotton, soybean Clayey, retains

moisture

Red TN, Karnataka, AP, Pulses, groundnut Iron-rich, low in

Odisha humus

Laterite Kerala, MH, Odisha Tea, coffee, Leached, rich in iron,

cashew poor fertility

Arid (Desert) Rajasthan, Gujarat Bajra, pulses Sandy, alkaline, low

moisture

Mountain/Forest Himalayas, NE states Fruits, tea, barley Organic-rich (low),

acidic (high)
Saline/Alkaline Punjab, Haryana, UP, Barley, cotton Salt-affected,
Rajasthan (treated) reclamation needed

Peaty/Marshy Kerala, WB (Sundarbans), Paddy, jute Waterlogged,

Odisha organic-rich

Soil Formation
Soil formation (pedogenesis) is the process by which rocks break down and mix with organic
matter to create soil over time. It is slow and natural, often taking hundreds to thousands of years.
Soil Formation Processes
1. Weathering of Rocks (physical, chemical, biological)
2. Addition: Organic matter from plants and animals
3. Leaching: Nutrients washed downward by rainwater
4. Transformation: Organic matter turns into humus
5. Translocation: Movement of materials within the soil
Weathering
Weathering is the natural process of breaking down rocks and minerals into smaller particles like
sand, silt, and clay.
It is the first step in soil formation.
Types of Weathering
1. Physical Weathering (Mechanical) :- Rocks break down without changing their chemical
composition
Caused by: Temperature changes (expansion & contraction). Frost action (freezing water cracks
rocks) & Wind, water, or root pressure
2. Chemical Weathering :- Breakdown of rocks through chemical reactions. Changes the mineral
composition
Caused by : Water (dissolution), Oxygen (oxidation, e.g. rusting of iron) & Acids (carbonic acid
from CO₂ and rain)
3. Biological Weathering :- Living organisms break down rocks
Caused by : Plant roots penetrating cracks, Microbes producing acids & Animals burrowing and
mixing soil
Soil Composition :-
Component. Approx. %
Mineral matter 45%
Organic matter. 5%
Water 25%
Air 25%
1. Mineral Matter :- Comes from weathered rocks (sand, silt, clay). Provides structure and
nutrients
2. Organic Matter :- Decayed plant and animal remains (humus). Improves fertility, water
retention, and microbial life
3. Soil Water :- Carries nutrients to plant roots. Available in forms like capillary (usable) and
hygroscopic (non-usable)
4. Soil Air :- Fills pores between soil particles. Essential for root and microbial respiration
5. Soil Organisms :- Includes bacteria, fungi, earthworms, etc. Help in decomposition, nutrient
cycling, and soil aeration

Soil Erosion :-
Soil erosion is the removal and displacement of the top layer of soil by natural forces like wind,
water, or human activities.
It reduces soil fertility and can lead to desertification
🔍 Main Causes of Soil Erosion: Deforestation, Overgrazing, Poor farming practices, Construction
and mining, Heavy rainfall or strong winds
🔍 Types of Soil Erosion
1. Water Erosion :- Caused by rainfall and surface runoff
 Sheet Erosion: Thin layer of topsoil is removed uniformly
 Rill Erosion: Small channels or rills form on the surface.
 Gully Erosion: Deep ditches form and expand over time
 Stream Bank Erosion: Riverbanks are worn away by flowing water
2. Wind Erosion :- Common in dry, sandy areas. Blows away loose topsoil
Leads to formation of sand dunes and loss of nutrients
3. Glacial Erosion :- Caused by moving glaciers scraping and grinding the land
Common in high-altitude regions
4. Coastal Erosion :- Waves and tides erode shorelines
Affects fertile coastal lands
5. Human-Induced Erosion :- Result of activities like:
Deforestation, Construction, Mining, Over-farming
Effects of Soil Erosion
 Loss of soil fertility, Reduced crop yields, Silting of rivers and dams, Desertification, Habitat
loss
Political & Physical Division of World (By JKSSB Study Fast)
7 Continents of the World Major Oceans
1. Asia There are five major oceans in the world-
2. Africa 1. Pacific Ocean,
3. North America 2. Atlantic Ocean,
4. South America 3. Indian Ocean
5. Antarctica 4. Arctic Ocean
6. Europe
7. Australia.
ASIA
 World's Highest Mountain Peak - Mount Everest (8,848 mts)
 World's lowest point i.e. Dead Sea.
 World largest country areawise (RUSSIA) and most populated (INDIA).
 World's largest Archipelago and Island Country - INDONESIA.
 World's largest Cold Desert - GOBI DESERT.
 World's Largest Peninsula - ARABIAN PENINSULA.
 Asia is Separated from Africa by RED SEA and SUEZ CANAL.

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 Asia is Separated from North America by BERLING STRAIT.

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 World's most populous city - TOKYO.

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 World's Largest Salt water Lake - CASPIAN SEA.
South America
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 World's largest tropical rainforest - AMAZON RAIN FOREST.
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 World's highest waterfalls - ANGEL FALLS VENEZUALA

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 World's largest river by volume - AMAZON RIVER

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 World's longest Mountain Range - ANDES

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 World's driest place - ATCAMA DESERT

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 WORLDS highest navigable lake - LAKE TITICACA

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 Separated from North America by PANAMA CANAL and CARRABEAN SEA

 Highest Peak in South America - Mount Aconcagua.
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North America
 World's hottest place - DEATH VALLEY, CALIFORNIA
 World's largest freshwater lake - LAKE SUPERIOR
 World's largest Gulf - GULF OF MEXICO
 World's largest Island - GREENLAND (DENMARK)
 Home to Rockies Mountain Range
 Highest Peak in North America - Mount McKinley.
Africa
 World's largest desert - SAHARA
 World's longest river - NILE
 Most Countries - 54
 SECOND LARGEST continent of the world
 Called as CRADLE OF HUMANITY and DARK CONTINENT
 ATLAS Mountain Range
 Highest Peak in Africa - MOUNT KILIMANJARO.
Europe
 World's smallest country - VATICAN CITY
 Europe's highest mountain - MOUNT ELBRUS (Caucasus Range).

Home to the ALPS Mountain Range.

Europe separated from Asia by Ural mountains and the Caspian Sea.

Largest Country - UKRAINE (Russia in Eurasia)

Smallest Coastline - MONACO

Australia
 The 'ISLAND CONTINENT' is the world's smallest continent.
 The continent has only three countries.
 World's Largest Coral Reef long - GREAT BARRIER REEF.
 The highest peak in Australia proper is MOUNT KOSCIUSZKO
 World's Smallest Democracy - NAURU lies in Ocenia.
Antarctica
 World's Largest POLAR Desert
 India's Research Centre - DAKSHIN GANGA
Major Oceans in the Worls
Pacific Ocean
 It is the largest and deepest ocean on the planet.

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 Deepest point is Challenger Deep in the Mariana Trench (10,928 metres or 35,853 feet).

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 International Date line passes through This.
Atlantic Ocean
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 It is the world's second-largest ocean and 3 deepest (3,646 metres).
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 It is S shaped ocean
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 Puerto Rico Trench is the deepest trench in the Atlantic Ocean (8,376 m).
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 Greenland, the largest island, is found in the Atlantic Ocean.

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Indian Ocean
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 It is 3rd largest and 2nd deepest ocean.

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 It is the world's hottest ocean and is enclosed by land in the northern hemisphere.
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 Madagascar is the biggest island in the Indian Ocean (the fourth largest island in the world).
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Arctic Ocean
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 In comparison to the other four oceans, the Arctic Ocean is shallower and smaller.

Continent World Area % Highest Peak Lowest Point. Longest Rivrler. Biggest Country

Asia. 29.9% Mt. Everest Dead Sea Yangtze Kiang (C). India

Africa 20.4% Mt. Kilimanjaro Lake Assel (Djibouti). Nile. Algeria

North America 16.5% Mt. McKinley Death Valley Mississippi. Canada

South America 12% Mt. Aconcagua Laguna de Carbon Amazon Brazil

Europe. 6.7% Mt. Elbrus Caspian Sea. Volga. Russia

Australia. 5.2% Mt. Kosciuszko Lake Eyre Murray Darling. Australia

Antarctica 8.9% – – – –
 Some Important Facts
✅ Angel Falls (Venezuela) (S.A) – Tallest waterfall in the world.
✅ River Nile – Longest river in the world.
✅ Amazon River – Largest river in the world by volume of water discharged.
✅ Caspian Sea – Largest lake in the world (saltwater).
✅ Lake Superior – Largest freshwater lake in the world by surface area.
✅ Andes – Longest mountain range in the world.
✅ Himalayas – Highest mountain range in the world.
World Geography
Cosmology = Study of Universe
Ptolemy (140 AD): Earth was the Centre of Universe and Sun & heavenly bodies revolved around it.
Copernicus (1543): Sun was the Centre of universe not the Earth.
Kepler : Supported Copernicus but said that Sun was Centre of Solar System.
Hershel: Said that S. System was a part of Galaxy.

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Edwin Hubble (1924) – Demonstrated existence of Galaxies beyond Milky Way.

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Our galaxy is Milky Way Galaxy (Akash Ganga).
Eratosthenes: 1st used term Geography. Father of geography.
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Important Points
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Apogee : Farthest distance between Earth & Moon – 406000 km (4 Lakhs km)
Perigee : Nearest distance between Earth & Moon - 364000 km
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Aphelion : Farthest Position betwee Earth & Sun: 152 million km – 4th July
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Perihelion : Nearest Position between Earth & Sun: 147 million km – 3rd January
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Equinoxes:
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 March 21 - Vernal Equinox

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 Sept. 23 - Autumnal Equinox

Solstice:
 June 21 - longest day - Summer Solstice
 Dec. 22 - shortest day - Winter Solstice
Eclipses:
 Solar Eclipse → When Moon comes between Sun & Earth. (SUN) (MOON) (EARTH)
 Lunar Eclipse → When Earth comes between Sun & Moon. (SUN) (EARTH) (MOON)
Latitude: Imaginary lines drawn parallel to Equator. (Equator = 0°)
 23½° N - Tropic of Cancer.
 23½° S - Tropic of Capricorn.
 66½° N - Arctic Circle.
 66½° S - Antarctic Circle.
 There are 181 latitudes (including Equator).
 Parallel but not equal.
 Distance between two latitudes = 111 km.
Longitudes: (Meridian) = Total = 360 meridian (Prime Meridian = 0°) (Royal Observatory Greenwich London)
 Meridians are semi-circles.
 180° Meridian = International Date Line [15°/1 hour] or [4 min/degree]
  Indian Standard Time [IST] = 82.5° E → 5 hours & 30 mins ahead of GMT

Grass Lands Isopleths

 Steppes - Eurasia (Russia). Isohaline - Salinity
 Prairie - North America Isohyets - Rainfall.
 Pampus - South America Isohels - Sunshine.
 Down's - Australia. Isobars - Presure
 Veldt - South Africa Protherm - Temperature
 Postuz - Hungary Isobath - Depth of Ocean.
 Conteburry - Newzealand

Strait :- A strait is a narrow body of water that connects two larger bodies of water.

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Internal Structure of Earth

1. Crust: Outermost & thinnest layer of Earth. 8–40 km thick.
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Made up of two layers:

a) Sial (Silicate + Aluminium) – Lighter layer, continental crust.
b) Sima (Silicate + Magnesium) – Denser & heavy layer, oceanic crust.
 Major element in Crust = Oxygen (46%); Metal = Aluminium (8%).
 Conrad Discontinuity between Upper & Lower Crust.
2. Mantle : Under crust is about 2890 km. 84% Earth’s volume, 67% Earth’s mass.
 Mohorovicic Discontinuity: Separation between Crust & Mantle.
 Repetti Discontinuity: between Upper & Lower Mantle.
 Transitional zone b/w U & L Mantle = 300 km.
Gutenberg Discontinuity: between Mantle & Core.
3. Core: Beyond 2900 km.
 Upper Core = 2180 km thick & in molten form (liquid).
 Inner Core = 1220 km thick & is in plastic form (solid).
 Made up of NIFE (Iron & Nickel) – and responsible for earth’s magnetism.
 Lehmann Discontinuity: b/w Upper & Lower Core.
Earthquakes
Epicentre: Point on earth surface above the focus. Focus: Point of origin of earthquake.
Earthquake waves are recorded by Seismograph.
→ Magnitude on Richter’s Scale
→ Measurement of Intensity by Mercalli Scale
Types of Waves:
1. P-Waves (Primary/compressional/Longitudinal Waves)
→ Transmit through Solid, Liquid & Gases (Fastest)
2. S-Waves (Secondary/shear waves)
→ Travel through Solid only
→ Cannot pass through Core
3. L-Waves (Long/surface waves)
→ Travel on earth’s surface & cause maximum destruction (Travel slowest)
★ 81% of Earthquake experienced along “Ring of Fire” (Along Pacific Ocean) – 452 volcanoes

Volcanoes : Eruption of Magma/Lava.

Volcanoes usually come from Asthenosphere (A weaker zone in Upper Mantle).
Vent: Central passageway through which Magma passes.
Crater: Central depression above the vent from which the lava throws out.

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Classification of Volcanoes:

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1. Active Volcanoes: That has at least 1 eruption during past 10,000 years.
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e.g.: Mt. Kilauea (most active), Mauna Loa (in Hawaii), Stromboli, Etna, Fujiyama, and Barren Island Volcano
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(in Andaman India) etc.
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2. Dormant Volcanoes : Which are quiescent for a long time but in which there is a possibility of eruption.
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e.g.: Mauna Kea (in Hawaii)

Cyclones : It is a system of very low pressure in the centre surrounded by increasing high pressure
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outwards. In this, winds blow in a circular manner.

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 Anticlockwise direction – in Northern Hemisphere & Clockwise direction – in Southern Hemisphere

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 In Temperate Region : They occur due to the coming close of imperfect mixing of two masses of air
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contrasting temp. & humidity conditions. Cycle of this type of cyclone also known as – Temperate
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Cyclone (wave cyclones).

 In Tropical Region : Occur due to intense heating up of air in some region causing very low pressure.
Tropical seas & oceans are most conductive to development of Tropical Cyclones.
Anticyclones → They are opposite to cyclones in all respects. They are centre of high pressure with gentle
flow of air.
Air circulation is clockwise – in Northern Hemisphere & anticlockwise in Southern Hemisphere.
Weather associated with anticyclones is the fair weather.

 Cyclones – Indian Ocean

 Hurricanes – Caribbean Island
 Typhoons – China Sea
 Tornadoes – USA
 Willy-Willies – Australia
 Twisters – Mississippi (USA)