FOLD AND
CLASSIFICATION
OF FOLDS
OMPRAKASH MAHANTA
IIT (ISM) DHANBAD
FOLDS
• Folds are formed due to ductile deformation in rocks.
• Folds are the systematically curved layers of rocks.
• A fold is a structure produced when a originally planer surface becomes
bent or curved as a result of deformation.
• Folds are (undulations or corrugations) expression of plastic type of
deformation which produce more gradual but more continuous change in rock.
FOLDS – GEOLOGICAL SETTINGS
• Folds form under varied conditions as evidenced by their presence in sediments,
sedimentary rocks, the full spectrum of metamorphic rocks, and in some igneous rocks.
1. Primary Deformation:
ü Folding occurred during the formation of the rock
ü Slumps due to soft sedimentary deformation in sedimentary rocks and flow folds
due to lavas in Igneous rocks are examples of primary folds.
2. Secondary Deformation:
ü Folding occurs after the formation of rocks - Tectonic deformation (most often)
ü Generally present in shear zones and mountain belts
Slump folds due to primary
deformation in sedimentary rocks
Folds formed due to secondary
deformation due to continental-
continetal collision
BASIC TERMINOLOGIES IN FOLD
• Wavelength : It is the horizontal distance between two successive crests.
• Amplitude : It is the vertical distance between crest and trough.
• Crest : Highest point of the fold.
• Trough : Lowest point of the fold.
• Hinge : Point of maximum curvature (smallest radius of curvature)
• Hinge line : Line of maximum curvature
• Inflection point : Point of minimum curvature (largest radius of
curvature)
• Fold limb: the areas between the hinges or in other words these are
sides of the fold.
• Axial plane : imaginary plane which divides the fold into two equal
halves or a plane that contains successive hinge lines in a multilayered
rock.
• Axial surface : this termed will be use when the axial plane become
curved.
• Fold axis : Imaginary line which by moving parallel to itself
generates a folded surface. The hinge line of a fold equivalent to fold
axis, if it is straight and cylindrical in nature.
• Interlimb angle: The smaller angle (acute angle) made by the
limbs of fold is known as the interlimb angle. (The angle made by
taking two tangents from the inflection point)
• Fold angle : 180 - Interlimb angle
• Plunge: The attitude of the fold axis is measured as the angle
between the axis and horizontal. (This angle which must be
measured in vertical plane (like the dip angle), is termed as the
plunge (has both the amount and direction).
CLASSIFICATION OF FOLDS
BASED ON CLOSING DIRECTION
• Antiform : A fold which closes upward or convex upward.
• Synform : A fold which closes downward or convex downward.
• Neutral fold : A fold which closes sidewise (neither closes upward
nor downward)
ü Right neutral : If fold closes on right side
ü Left neutral : If fold closes on left side
BASED ON RELATIVE AGE
• Anticline : If older rock present at the core and younger rocks present
at the perphery.
• Syncline : If younger rock present at the core and older rocks present
at the periphery.
Combination of antiform, anticline, synform and syncline gives four
possible geometry :
• Antiformal anticline : If the fold closes upward and older rock lying
within the core.
• Antiformal syncline : If the fold closes upward and younger rock
lying within the core.
• Synformal anticline : If the fold closes downward and older rock lying
within the core.
• Synformal syncline : If the fold closes downward and younger rock
lying within the core.
BASED ON ORIENTATION OF AXIAL PLANE
• Upright fold : If the axial plane is vertical (dip of the axial plane is 80-90)
• Recumbent fold : If the axial plane is horizontal (dip of the axial plane is 0-10)
• Inclined fold : If the axial plane is inclined.
• Overturned fold : If the axial plane is inclined, here two fold limbs dipping in the
same direction and one limb rotates more than 90
BASED ON INTERLIMB ANGLE
BASED ON NATURE OF THE HINGE LINE
• Cylindrical folds : If the hinge line is straight (rectilinear) and this fold can
be generated by moving a line parallel to itself.
• Non-cylindrical folds : If the hinge line is curved and this fold can not be
generated by moving a line parallel to itself.
BASED ON PLUNGE OF THE HINGE LINE
• Non- plunging folds : If the hinge line is horizontal and plunge of
the hinge line will be zero.
• Plunging folds : If the hinge line is inclined and it make some
angle with the horizontal
• Vertical folds : If the hinge line is vertical
Non-plunging fold Plunging fold
BASED ON SYMMETRY OF FOLDS
• Symmetrical folds : Here axial plane divides the fold into two equal
halves, which are mirror images of one another, here axial plane is
vertical and two limb dips at equal angle.
• Asymmetrical folds : Here axial plane is inclined, it not divide the fold
equally and two limbs dip at unequal angle (one limb is relatively larger
than the other)
• Overturned fold : Both the limbs dipping in the same direction but one
limb rotates more than 90 and dip of the bedding is more than the dip of
the cleavage.
BASED ON CURVATURE OF AXIAL SURFACE
• Plane cylindrical folds : Both axial plane and hinge lines are straight (rectilinear)
• Plane non-cylindrical folds : Axial plane is straight (rectilinear) but hinge line is
curved (curvilinear)
• Non-plane cylindrical folds : Axial plane is curved and hinge line is straight.
• Non-plane cylindrical folds : Both axial plane and hinge lines are curved.
BASED ON NUMBER OF HINGES
• Single hinged: one hinge is present b/w two inflection point.
• Double hinged: Two hinges are present b/w two inflection point. (Box Fold)
• Conjugate Folds: Double hinged fold with sharp hinges.
• Box Fold: A double hinged fold with more or less rounded hinges having flat top and
steeply dipping limbs.
BASED ON CURVATURE VARIATION
• Chevron fold : A fold with straight limb and sharp hinge (zig-zag fold)
• Kind bands : Kinks have straight limb present between sharp to angular
hinges, commonly occur as conjugate sets
• En-echelon folds : Folds which are partially overlaps with one another
• Round hinged fold : A fold with a broad hinged zone compared to the limb
• Arrow head fold : A fold with sharp hinge and curved limbs (flame shaped)