describe the overall function of the nervous system

Compare/contrast nervous system vs endocrine system

the nervous system uses electrical impulses transmitted through neurons for rapid, short-lived
responses, while the endocrine system relies on hormones released into the bloodstream for slower,
longer-lasting effects across the body

Steps: 1. sense organs (receive info), 2. brain/spinal cord (process infro), 3. muscles/glands (carry out
response)

describe the major anatomical and functional subdivisions

Central Nervous System (CNS)- the brain and spinal cord, essentially acting as the body's processing
center, receiving information from the body and coordinating responses through signals sent out to the rest
of the body via nerves

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)- A subdivision of the nervous system composed of all nerves and
ganglia; all of the nervous system except the central nervous system.

Sensory (afferent) division-the part of the nervous system that carries sensory information from
receptors to the central nervous system (CNS).

Somatic sensory- a network of neurons that allows us to perceive and respond to stimuli from our body and
environment. The somatic sensory system carries signals from receptors in the skin, muscles, bones, and
joints to the brain. The brain then processes the signals and sends instructions to the body's muscles to help
us move around

Visceral sensory- part of the nervous system responsible for carrying sensory information from viscera of
the abdominal and thoracic cavities like the stomach, heart, and urinary bladder to the central nervous
system (CNS)

Motor (efferent) division- carries impulses from the brain and spinal cord to the body's gland and muscle
cells that carry out the body’s responses. This division is further broken down into the somatic and
autonomic nervous systems.

Somatic motor- the part of the nervous system that controls skeletal muscles. This produces voluntary
muscle contractions as well as automatic reflexes.

Visceral motor (autonomic nervous system)- controls the involuntary movements of glands, cardiac
muscle, and smooth muscle, essentially managing bodily functions without conscious effort; it is
synonymous with the term "autonomic motor" and is responsible for regulating processes like
digestion, heart rate, and blood pressure

Sympathetic division- one of two main divisions of the autonomic nervous system. Tends to arouse the
body for action, overseeing fight or flight responses. It can accelerate the heartbeat and increase
respiratory airflow, but it inhibits digestion and reduces urine production.

Parasympathetic division- one of two main branches of the autonomic nervous system. It has a calming
effect, slowing the heartbeat, but increasing digestion. It plays a crucial role in maintaining homeostasis
and promoting "rest and digest" activities.

Nerve- a cord-like bundle of nerve fibers (neurons) that transmit electrical signals between the central
nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and other parts of the body.

Ganglion- A cluster of nerve cell bodies in the peripheral nervous system, often resembling a knot in a
string.

effectors- A molecule, cell, or organ that carries out a response to a stimulus.

describe three functional properties found in all neurons|

Excitability – All cells are excitable, that is to say they respond to stimuli. Neurons exhibit this property to
the highest degree.

Conductivity- Neurons respond to stimuli by producing electrical signals that are quickly conducted to other
cells at distant locations.

Secretion – When the signal reaches the end of the axon, the neuron secretes a neurotransmitter that crosses
the gap and stimulates the next cell.

define the three most basic functional categories of neurons

Sensory (afferent) Neurons – specialized to detect stimuli such as light, heat, pressure, and chemicals, and
transmit them to the CNS. They begin in almost evvery organ of the body and end in the CNS. Some
receptors, such as those for pain and smell, are neurons. While those for taste and hearing are separate cells
that communicate with a sensory neuron.

Afferent refers to signal conduction towards the CNS

Interneurons (Association Neurons) – lie entirely within the CNS, they receive signals from many other
Neurons and carry out the integrative function of the nervous system, that is they process store, and retrieve
information and “make decisions” that determine how the body responds to stimuli. About 90% of our
neurons are interneurons. The word interneuron refers to how they lie between and interconnect, the
incoming sensory pathways and the outgoing motor pathways of the CNS.

Motor (efferent) Neurons-send signals predominantly to muscle and gland cells, the effectors. They are
called both motor neurons because most lead to muscle cells, and efferent neurons to signify signal
conduction away from the CNS.

identify the parts of a neuron

Soma- the cell body of a neuron, also known as the perikaryon or neurocyton. It is the central, bulbous
portion of the neuron that contains the nucleus, mitochondria, and other organelles essential for cell survival
and function. The soma receives signals from dendrites and transmits them down the axon

Dendrites- a short, branched extension of a neuron that receives electrical signals from other neurons,
essentially acting as the "receiving antenna" of the nerve cell, allowing it to collect information from
multiple sources and transmit it towards the cell body (soma); the word "dendrite" comes from the Greek
word "dendron" meaning "tree" due to its branching structure

Axon (nerve fiber) - a long, slender projection of a neuron (nerve cell) that transmits electrical impulses
(action potentials) away from the cell body to other neurons, muscles, or glands

Myelin sheath - an insulating layer that surrounds and protects the nerve fibers (axons) in the central
and peripheral nervous systems. It is composed primarily of lipids (fatty substances) and proteins

Synaptic knob- the rounded end of an axon that allows neurons to communicate with other cells.
Synaptic knobs are also known as axon terminals or terminal boutons

Multipolar- a nerve cell with multiple dendrites and a single axon. These neurons are the most common
type of neuron in the human body and are found in the brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nervous
system

bipolar- a nerve cell with one axon and one dendrite that extend from the cell body

unipolar- nerve cell with one process that extends from its cell body and branches into dendrites and
axons.

anaxonic-a type of neuron that lacks an axon, or where the axon cannot be distinguished from the dendrites

explain how neurons transport materials between the cell body and tips of the axon

Motor proteins carry material along microtubule “tracks”

Anterograde
Retrograde
Anterograde and retrograde refer to the direction of transport of materials within neurons. Anterograde
transport moves materials away from the cell body, while retrograde transport moves materials
towards the cell body

name the six types of cells that aid neurons and state their respective functions
Roles of neuroglia

Neuroglia of CNS:
Oligodendrocytes (myelin sheath)
Ependymal cells
Microglia
Astrocytes

Neuroglia of PNS:
Schwann cells (myelin sheath)
Satellite cells
Gliomas (tumors from glial cells

describe the myelin sheath that is found around certain nerve fibers and explain its importance

The myelin sheath is a fatty, insulating layer that wraps around certain nerve fibers, acting like a protective
coating that allows electrical impulses to travel rapidly and efficiently along the axon of a neuron,
essentially speeding up nerve signal transmission by preventing signal leakage and concentrating it at
specific points called nodes of Ranvier; damage to the myelin sheath can significantly disrupt nerve
communication, leading to conditions like multiple sclerosis

Myelin Sheath-an insulating layer that wraps around the nerve fibers (axons) in the central and
peripheral nervous systems

myelination-production of the myelin sheath

Nodes of Ranvier-A short unmyelinated segment between Schwann cells of a myelinated nerve fiber;
site of action potential generation during saltatory conduction

internodes- segments of myelinated axons, the long, slender projections of neurons that transmit
electrical impulses. They are located between the nodes of Ranvier, which are gaps in the myelin sheath
that allow for the propagation of action potentials

Trigger Zone-The trigger zone, also known as the axon hillock, is a specialized region of a neuron
where action potentials (electrical impulses) are initiated. The trigger zone is located at the junction of
the neuron's cell body (soma) and the axon
axon hillock- a cone-shaped part of a neuron that controls when an electrical impulse is sent. It's located
at the base of the axon, where it connects to the cell body

Multiple sclerosis- a chronic, autoimmune disease that affects the central nervous system (brain and
spinal cord). In MS, the immune system mistakenly attacks the myelin sheath, a protective fatty layer
that covers nerve fibers. This damage disrupts the transmission of nerve signals, leading to a wide
range of symptoms

Tay-Sachs disease- Tay-Sachs disease is a rare genetic disorder passed from parents to child. It's caused
by the absence of an enzyme that helps break down fatty substances. These fatty substances, called
gangliosides, build up to toxic levels in the brain and spinal cord and affect the function of the nerve
cells. In the most common and severe form of Tay-Sachs disease, signs and symptoms start to show up
at about 3 to 6 months of age. As the disease progresses, development slows and muscles begin to
weaken. Over time, this leads to seizures, vision and hearing loss, paralysis, and other major issues.
Children with this form of Tay-Sachs disease typically live only a few years.

Conduction speed of nerve fibers- ????

explain how damaged nerve fibers regenerate

Regeneration of nerve fibers (PNS vs CNS)

Regeneration tube

explain why a cell has an electrical charge difference (voltage) across its membrane

P 107

Electrical potential

Resting membrane potential

Sodium (NA+) and potassium (K+) pump- (3 Na+ out, 2 K+ in)

explain how stimulation of a neuron causes a local electrical response in its membrane, and how local
responses generate a nerve signal

Local potential: (graded, decremental, reversible, excitatory/inhibitory)

Action potential: Depolarization, Repolarization, Hyperpolarization

Action potential: (all-or-none, nondecremental, irreversible, always excitatory)

Absolute refractory period

Relative refractory period

Nerve signal conduction (unmyelinated vs myelinated fibers)

Chemical Synapses

Electrical Synapses

Neurotransmitter

Presynaptic neuron

postsynaptic neuron

give examples of neurotransmitters and describe their actions; and explain how stimulation of a
postsynaptic cell is stopped

Neurotransmitters:
Ach

amino acid

monoamines

neuropeptides

Excitatory

inhibitory

ligand-gated ion channels or second-messenger systems

Excitatory Cholinergic synapse (AChbind ligand-gated ion channelspostsynaptic potentialstimulates

Inhibitory GABA-ergic Synapse (GABACl- channel opens, hyperpolarizationinhibits nerve firing)

Excitatory Adrenergic Synapse (NE activate second messenger cAMP multiple effects)

Cessation of signal: diffusion, reuptake, degradation

Monoamine oxidase

acetylcholinesterase

SSRIs

MAOIs
explain how a neuron “decides” whether or not to generate action potentials

Summation:

Temporal Summation

Spatial Summation

Facilitation

Presynaptic Inhibition

Neural coding

Qualitative information: depends on source