TOPIC 1.

0: Introduction to Agroforestry
Agroforestry is an example of Multiple Land Use (MLU). What then is Multiple Land Use?
MULTIPLE LAND USE is the conscious and deliberate use of land for the simultaneous production
of two or more goods or services using good combination. It is an approach to the land use management.
1.1 Definitions of Agroforestry
Early in 1977, at the Royal Tropical Institute in Amsterdam in Holland, a group was assigned the task
of defining agroforestry.
The group came up with the following definitions:
 Land use system and practices in which woody perennials are deliberately integrated with crops and/
or animals on the same management unit. The integration can be either in a spatial mixture or a
temporal sequence.
 An integrated approach of using the interactive benefits from combining trees and shrubs with crops
and /or animals/livestock. It combines agricultural and forestry technologies to create more diverse,
productive profitable, healthy and sustainable land use systems.
 A land use system that intentionally combines the production of herbaceous crops and animals,
simultaneously or sequentially, to take fuller advantage of resources.
 The intentional growing of trees on the same site as agricultural crops and/or livestock in order to
increase the total yield of products, generate short-term income , and improve environmental benefits
(e.g. erosion control)
 It is a sustainable land management system which increase the overall yield of land, combined with
the production of crops (including tree crops) and forest plants and animal simultaneously or
sequentially on the same unit of applies management practices that are compatible with the cultural
practice of the local population.
 It is a collective word for land use system and practices in which woody perennial (trees, shrubs,
palms, bamboos etc.) combined with agricultural crops, pasture and / or animals interacting
biologically and economically in the same unit of land, which increases the overall yield of the land
and the associate simultaneously or sequentially, on the same unit of land.
Revised the standard definition of agro forestry to read as follows:
 It is a dynamic, ecologically based natural resources management system that, through the integration
of trees in farms and in the agricultural landscape, diversifies and sustains production for increased
social, economic and environmental benefits for land users at all levels. (Dr. Robert Leaky 1996).

1.2. Characteristics that define the broad boundaries of agro forestry

These are the essential features of agroforestry
1. Agroforestry systems normally involve two or more species of plants (or plants and animals), at
least one of which is a wood perennial;
2. An agro forestry system has always two or more outputs (diverse production).
3. The cycle of an agro forestry system is more than one year.
4. The agroforestry system is quite complex ecologically (structurally, economically) and
economically, more than monocropping system.
5. There is deliberate growing of woody perennials, agricultural crops and /or animals, on the same
unit of land either in spatial mixture or temporal sequence arrangement.
6. There is interaction (positive and/or negative) between the woody and non-woody component
either in term of ecological and/or economical.
1.3. The Concept of Agroforestry
Agroforestry is an age-old concept that has been practiced for thousands of years by farmers all over
the world. Trees, crops and animals have traditionally been raised together on small farms throughout
the World.
This concept first derived in the temperate zone due to the small family farms, as a result trees, crops
and animals become separately managed on a large scale in modern agriculture and forestry.
 In our country the functional allocation on land is 46.4% for Agriculture and 22.7% area for forestry is
not sufficient for meeting the multi ferrous requirement of growing population for food, fodder and fuel
and other raw materials. The only answer appears to be to integrate the land used for agriculture and
forestry in such a way as to maximize production of foods and services for diverse requirements rural
communities.
Although in recent years it has been developed as a science that promises to help farmers increase three
attributes namely; productivity, adoptability and sustainability of production on their land.
1. Productivity
Most agroforestry systems aim to maintain or increase production (of preferred commodities) as well
as productivity (of the land).
Agroforestry can improve productivity in many different ways. These include increased output of tree
products, improved yields of associated crops, reduction of cropping system inputs and increased labour
efficiency.
2. Sustainability
By conserving the production potential of the resource base, mainly through the beneficial effects of
woody perennials on soils, agroforestry can achieve and indefinitely maintain conservation and fertility
goals.
3. Adoptability
The word ‘adopt’ here means ‘accept’, distinguished from’adapt’ which implies ‘modify’ or ‘change’.
Agroforestly has already been accepted by the farming community. However, the implication here is
that improved or new agroforestry technologies that are introduced into new areas should also conform
to local farming practices.
Originally, hunting and gathering was carried out in forested areas, which provided not only shelter but
food, such as game, fruits and seeds.
The KEY CONCEPTS of agroforestry are now well established; and it is generally accepted that
agroforestry:
 Combines production of multiple outputs with protection of the resource base;
 Places emphasis on the use of indigenous, multipurpose trees and shrubs;
 It is particularly suitable for low input conditions and fragile environment;
 Is more concerned with socio-cultural values than most other landuse systems;
 It is structurally and functionally more complex than mono culture (single crop culture) the cycle
of Agroforestry system is always more than one year.
Agroforestry has developed as an interface between agriculture and forestry in response to the special
needs and combinations of tropical developing countries, as demonstrated in the model below:-

1.4. Other areas related to Agroforestry

Wild crafting
Practice of harvesting plants from their natural or wild habitat, for food or for medicinal purposes. It
applies to uncultivated plants wherever they may be found, and is not necessarily limited to wilderness
areas. Ethical considerations are often involved such as protection endangered species.
Sustainable wild crafting only involves taking branches or flowers from plants, leaving the main plant
to continue growing. If whole plant is taken, seeds are planted where the plant has been uprooted.
Permaforestry
An approach to the wild crafting and harvesting of the forest biomass that uses cultivation to improve
the natural harmonious systems. It is a relationship of interdependence between humans and the natural
systems in which the amount of biomass available from the forest increases with the health of its natural
systems.
Examples of bioproducts derived from biomass that is created through permaforestry.
Honey, maple syrup and other tree saps, gourmet foods, functional foods, berries, wild mushrooms,
ginseng, wild nice , herbs , fiddle heads , fish , frogs and crustaceans , pharmaceuticals, natural health
products , essential oils , educational products, arts and crafts , decorative products , floral and greenery
, garden horticultural products , wood working , lumber , biochemical , biofuels and bioenergy.
Forest Gardening
A food production and land management system based on wood land ecosystems, but substituting
trees(such as fruit or nut trees), bushes, shrubs, herbs and vegetables which have yields directly useful
to humans.
Making use of companion planting, these can be intermixed to grow on multiple levels in the same area,
as do the plants in a forest.
Forest Farming
This is an agroforestry practice characterized by the four I(s). i.e. Intentional, Integrated, Intensive and
Interactive management of an existing forested ecosystem where in forest health is of paramount
concern. It is neither forestry nor farming in the traditional sense.
Forest farm management principles constitute an ecological approach to forest management through
efforts to find a balance habitat within the forest and limited, judicious utilization of the forestry varied
resources.
Analog forestry
This is a system of planned, managed forests, primarily employed in tropical or sub-tropical areas. The
forests are designed to mimic the function and ecology of the pre-existing climax vegetation for the
area and are also designed to provide economic benefits. Tropical evergreen forest is an example of
climax vegetation, as are temperature forests, tundra’s, savannahs, grassland etc.
Analog forestry draws design input not only from traditional models but also from the natural forest
succession dynamics.
Afforestation
It is the establishment of a forest or stand of trees in an area where there was no forest. Reafforestation
is the re-establishment of forest cover, after harvesting of trees either naturally (by natural seeding,
coppice or root suckers) or artificially (by direct seeding or planting).

Mycoforestry
An ecological forest management system implemented to enhance forest ecosystems and plant
communities.
Mycoforestry is also a type of permaculture and can be implemented as a beneficial addition to an
agroforestry system. Mycoforestry can be implemented as a sustainable agriculture system using fungus
to enhance the yields of tree crops and produce an economically valuable product, edible mushrooms.
Integrating plant-fungal associations into a forestry management system through implementation of
mycoforestry, native forests can be preserved; wood waste can be recycled back into the ecosystem
planted restoration sites are enhanced, the sustainability of forest ecosystems are improved and edible
mushrooms, a potentially economically valuable product, can be gown and harvested.
Permaculture
An approach to designing human settlements and agricultural systems that are modeled on the
relationships found in natural ecologies. The word ‘permaculture’ is from a contraction of permanent
(Sustainable) and agriculture. Permaculture is based on ecological and biological principles, often using
patterns that occur in nature to maximize effect while minimizing wasted energy. It aims to create,
harmoniously integrating the land with its inhabitants. Ecological process of plants, animals, their
nutrient cycles, climatic factors and weather cycles are all part of it.
Agroforestry has developed as an interface between agriculture and forestry in response to the special
needs
1.5. Terminologies
Forestry: Forestry has been defined as ‘the theory and practice of all that constitutes the creation,
conservation and scientific management of forests and the utilization of their resources.
Silviculture: The terms silviculture, commonly refers only to certain aspects of theory and practice of
raising forests crops. OR Silviculture pertains to the establishment, development, are and reproduction
of forests crops.
Tending: Tending is a board terms given to operation which are carried out for the wellbeing of forest
crops, at any stage of it life, involving operation both on the crop itself and on its competing vegetation
e.g. weeding, cleaning, thinning, improvement feeling etc. However, tending does not include operation
concerning, regeneration such as regeneration feeling, soil working, control burning etc.
Felling: Felling comprise of removal of trees either singly or in small groups scattered all over the
forest.
Afforestation: Establishing a forest by artificial means on an area on which not forest vegetation has
existed for a long time in the past.
Reforestation: Re-establishing a forest, by artificial means on an area which previously bore forest
vegetation, and which may have been felled or otherwise cleared in the recent past.
Age crop: The age of a regular crop corresponding to its crop diameters.
Age classification: The division of a crop according to difference in age OR the allotment of woods to
age classes.
Basal area: The area of the cross section of a stem at breast height, when applied to a crop, the sum of
basal areas of all the stems or the total basal areas per unit area.
Bole: The main stem of a tree.
Breast height: Almost universally adopted as the standard height for measuring the girth, diameter and
a basal areas of standing trees. In U.K. and most commonwealth countries 4’.3” (1.30m)
Crown: The upper branchy part of the tree above the bole.
Dendrology: The identification and systematic classification of trees.
Pole: A young tree from the time when the lower branches begin to fall off to the time when rate of
height growth begins to slow down and crown expansion becomes marked.
Raft: An assemblage of logs, timbers or bamboos tied together or enclosed within a boom for transport
by floating.
Scrub: Inferior growth consisting chiefly of small or stunted trees and shrubs.
Succession: The gradual replacement of one community by another in the development of vegetation
towards a climax
1.6. Benefits/ Role of Agro-Forestry in Land Use Management in Kenya
Research over the past 20 years has confirmed that agroforestry can be more biologically productive,
more profitable, and be more sustainable than forestry or agricultural monocultures. Research has also
confirmed that agroforestry systems can include the following benefits: -
Ecological benefits
Combining trees with food crops on cropped farms yield certain environmental benefits such as,
1. Reduction of pressure on Forrest.
 2. Better protection of ecological systems/ Biodiversity and ecological balance- Forests are the store-
house of genetic diversity. Several unknown plants may have potential for medicines and food.
Agroforestry practices account for over 50% of a farm’s biodiversity, improving wildlife habitat
and harboring birds and beneficial insects which feed on crop pests. Tree biodiversity adds variety
to the landscape and improves aesthetics.
3. Forests and trees reduce wind velocity considerably. Reduction of wind velocity causes
considerable reduction in wind erosion, checks shifting of sand dunes, and halts the process of
desertification.
4. Forests and trees provide shelterbelt and windbreak effect which is beneficial to agricultural crops,
particularly in arid and semi-arid areas. Shelterbelt and windbreak increase agricultural production.
5. Carbon sequestration: Trees play a significant role is maintaining the CO2 balance in the
atmosphere. Without sufficient forest cover, the CO2 which is released in the atmosphere will not
be utilized completely resulting higher per cent of the CO2 in the atmosphere. The CO2 per cent in
the atmosphere has already reached 0.042 % against the normal of 0.030 %. If this increases
continuous higher temperature and other disturbances on the earth may bring about un-imaginable
miseries to the mankind.
6. Forests protect from physical, chemical and noise pollution. Dust and other particulate and gaseous
pollutant cause serious problems, forests protect us from such pollutants.
7. Conservation of Soil, Water & Plant Resources- Trees aid in the conservation of biodiversity,
improvements of soil-water status. Tree crowns reduce the violence of rain and check splash
(sound) erosion. Forests, increase infiltration and water holding capacity of the soil resulting in
much lower surface run-off. This in turn results in reduction of soil erosion, surface run-off and
nutrient leaching.
8. Trees increase local precipitation by about 5 to 10 % due to their Geographic and micro-climatic
effects. These create condition favorable for the condensation of the clouds.
9. Trees reduce soils surface temperature and reduction of evaporation of soil moisture due to
mulching and shading and increase humidity. Temperature in the forests is 3° C to 80 C less than
the adjoining open area.
10. Forests maintain the productivity of the soil by adding a large quantity of organic matter and more
efficient recycling of nutrients by deep rooted trees on the site that retrieve from lower soil
horizons and weathering rocks (mining minerals and trace elements). The leaves of trees are used
as manure. Supply of firewood from forests releases dung for the use as manure.
11. Maintenance of more favorable soil physical properties than agriculture, through organic matter
maintenance and the effects of tree roots.
12. Moderation of microclimates. Shelter given by trees improves yields of nearby crops and livestock.
Shade in summer can be beneficial for livestock, reducing stress.
13. Forests check floods. They intercept 15 to 30 % of the total rainfall. They increase infiltration rate
and water holding capacity of the soil. This results in reduced surface run-off and checks erosion.
Mostly floods are caused due to siltation of river channels, caused due to erosion and higher peak
discharges caused due to greater surface run-off.
14. Checking of the development of soil toxicities, or reduce existing toxicities – both soil acidification
and salinization can be checked, and trees can be employed in the reclamation of polluted soils.
Economic Benefits:
Agro-forestry brings significant economic benefits to the farmers, the community, the region and the
nation such as:
1. Increase in levels of farm incomes due to improved and sustained productivity; through the sale of
tree products e.g. timber, fibers, oil, cosmetics, fuel-wood, fodder, fruits, nuts, resins, etc. Thus
reduction in economic risks and uncertainties involved in the cultivation of crops, and increases
security of the yields and production in general.
2. Development of ponds / conservatories for fisheries.
3. Mix up of long lasting forest crops with annual agricultural income creates big profits on the annual
basis. The entire system is profitable. Steady farm income all the year round.
4. Energy Supply- Wood is a universal fuel, Approximately 175 million cubic meters of wood is used
as fuel in the country, most of which is obtained from the forests. Trees lead to increased fuel wood
supply and also better quality fuel and cheaper and more convenient sources of fuel. There are some
species are recommended for fuelwood because they have high calorific value e.g. Acacia sps. Olea
africana e.t.c.
5. Provide raw materials for Craft & Cottage Industries- This is widespread in the carving industry
e.g. the Ebony tree became endangered thus now the use of exotic species such as Grevillea robusta,
Jacaranda mimosifolia. Also there is use of trees that provide fibre e.g. Dombeya torrida. Silk
production through rearing of silkworms that feed on the Mulberry trees the worms grow to pupae
stage and the cocoon is used to weave silk fibres. A large number of non-wood products are also
available from forests.
These are commonly called Minor Forest Products (M.E.P.) not because these are of minor
significance but since they are harvested in smaller quantities flourish the small cottage industry
there by increasing employment. Some of the important minor forest products are as under:
(i) Fibres and Flosses: Fibres are obtained from best tissues of certain woody plants which are
used for making ropes from Dombeya. Flosses are obtained from Dombax ceiba Ceiba pentandra.
(ii) Grasses and Bamboos: A large variety of grasses are found in the forests. About 20 per cent
of 419 million livestock graze in the forests.
(iii) Essential Oils: It’s utilized in making soaps, perfumes, detergents and chemicals.e.g.
Eucalyptus spp., Bursera spp., Cymbopogon spp, etc.
(iv) Oil Seeds: Many tree species, e.g. Madhuca indica, Pongamia pinnata, Azadirachta
indica, Schleichera oleosa, etc. Some of these oils can be made fit for human consumption.
Presently these seeds are used in soap industry. Tribal use these oils for various purposes.
(v) Tans and Dyes: A variety of vegetable tanning materials are produced in the forests. Important
vegetable tanning materials are the myrobalan nuts and bark of wattles (Acacia mearnsiii, A.
decurren and A. nilotica and Cassia auriculata, etc. Katha and cutch are obtained from Acacia
catechu trees.
(vi) Gums and Resins: Gums and resins are executed by trees as a result of wound or injury to the
bark of wood. Gums are collected from several tree. Species, viz. Sterculia urens, Lannea
coromandelica, Acacia nilotica, Pterocarpus marsupium, Butea monosperma etc. Resin is obtained
from Pinus roxburghii. (Chirpine)
(vii) Edible Products: Fruits, flowers, seeds, tubers, etc. of several forest species are eaten.
Anacardlum occidentale, Tamarindus indica. Syzygium cumini, Emblica officinalis, Buchanania
lanzan, green pods of Moringa oleifera.
(viii) Lac and Other Products: Lac is a resinous secretion of the lac insects which feed on forest
trees, particularly of Butea monosperme. Similarly, silk is another important product from forests.
It is obtained from the cocoons of silk worm. Silk worm is raised on Terminalia alata and Morus
alba plantations for obtaining silk. Honey is another product which is obtained from forests.
6. Forest provides raw material to a large number of industries e.g. paper and pulp, plywood and other
board, saw mills, furniture making, packing cases, match boxes and toys.
7. Cash Income, Savings & Investments- Cash income is through the provision of employment e.g.
local labour for tree plantation growing, fuelwood plantations, setting up of nurseries, maintenance
and protection of these tree stands needs manpower.
8. Trees seem to be a new form of saving and investment. Tree farms are long term investment
unaffected by weather and can be harvested any time so wished.
9. Trees provide time savings in terms of search for fuelwood hence time spent in other productive
activities. There is greater profitability or security of existing savings and investments.
 10. Medicine Production both human and vertinary medicine - Trees are sources of both preventive
and curative medicine. These can also be localised medicines from indigenous knowledge human
(ethnobotany) veterinary (ethnoverterinary)
11. Shelter Provision- Building materials in high demand by the construction industry. Trees serve as
shade in homesteads and in pastoral areas. Also offer protection from strong winds thus reducing
evapotranspiration. Trees in homesteads and farmlands in the form of hedges offer protection i.e.
as fences and in managing paddocks in ranches.
12. Provision of Fodder and Forage important for livestock production. Forests provide fodder leaves
and grazing facility to the rural animals. About 20% livestock population depends upon forest
grazing and leaf fodder supply.
Leaf fodder of several tree species is almost as nutritious as that of agricultural fodder crops. e.g.
Moringa oleifera, Sesbania spp, Morus alba, Albizia lebbeck, Leucaena leucocephala, etc.
Fodder trees can be used as primary fodder in the case of scarcity of grass or used as supplementary
feed used in the dry season to make up for grass short fall e.g. Acacia tortillis the pods have high
proteins levels and are fed to milking cows, calves and goats common in marginal areas like
Baringo. Apart from palatability of tree it offers shade, they increase biomass production because
they are Nitrogen fixing hence enhance ASALs fertility.
Social Benefits:
1. Resource to meet Social Obligations- Trees act as payment for school fees, dowry, medicine and
legal fees.
2. Marking external and internal farm boundaries e.g. Kei apple (Doryalis kaffra) and Euphorbia
tirucelli.
3. Improvement in rural living standards from sustained employment and higher income.
4. Provision of Food- there is increased amount of food gotten directly or indirectly from the tree.
5. Improvement in nutrition and health status due to better quality and diversity of food plus all year
round supply of food.
6. Provides stability to rural peoples.
Recreation and Educational Benefits
1. Forests provide recreational facilities to the people. A large variety of trees and shrubs, animals and
birds attract a large number of people towards them. National parks and sanctuaries, which are rich
in flora and fauna, are visited by a large number of people.
2. Environment to Birds/Birds songs.
3. Aesthetic value
4. Forests provide experimental field and laboratory for learning to college and university students.
5. Forests provide a natural healing effect for a number of diseases. We have a number of sanatoriums
established in well wooded areas.

1.7. Limitations of Agro-forestry

Agro-forestry does have Certain Negative Aspects:
1. Competition of trees and shrubs with food crops and forage species caused by tree shading and
spread of roots. Competition is in the form of space (sunlight), water, nutrients which may reduce
crop yield. Optimum spacing can be applied in alley cropping but not easy in home garden.
2. Damage to food crops during harvesting of trees.
3. Potential of trees and shrubs to serve as hosts for diseases and pests that are harmful to the crops
e.g. plant disease of nematodes- Sesbania sesban, Armilleria mellea trees.
4. Rapid regeneration by prolific tree and shrub species which can easily displace food crops and
forage species and take over entire fields. Examples; Prosopis juliflora was initially introduced as
fuelwood in the marginal lands but has now overtaken other plant species and led to teeth loss in
livestock. Leucaenae leucocephala a good livestock feed but has “mimosine” a chemical present in
 the plant and if livestock are fed by more than 50% results in animal hair loss. Recommended
amounts are 30-50%.
5. Requirement for more labor inputs, because of plant and product diversity there is high demand for
labour resulting to scarcity of labour in the rural areas, where the first priority is given to crops and
livestock then trees. This leads to late planting and weeding of tree seedlings
6. Resistance by farmers to displace of food crops and forage resources with trees and shrubs,
especially where land is scarce.
7. Adverse effects through the introduction of chemical substances from one component to another.
The chemical substances are called “Allelochemicals” due to inducement of “Allelopathy” by some
tree species example Eucalyptus tree species release such chemicals to the soil system and
discourages the growth of other crops. It is recommended in agroforestry that Eucalyptus trees
should not be integrated with other agricultural crops but instead should be planted in a woodlot i.e.
separate stands on its own.
8. Longer period required for trees to grow to mature and acquire an economic value.
9. A general lack of knowledge and experience about the establishment and management of
sustainable agroforestry systems and sacrifices conditions.
10. Agroforestry systems yield small amounts of cultivated crops as compared to other cropping
systems
11. The system is very difficult to manage and needs more accuracy and skill
Through skilled management practices any or all these aspects can be controlled. For example, once it
is known that trees compete with food crops and may reduce food yields, it is easy to adopt some of the
following strategies.
1. Select legume trees that have small or light crowns so that sunlight will reach the food crops.
2. Select trees that are deep-rooted so that they will also absorb moisture and nutrients from the deeper
subsoil.
3. Space the trees further apart to reduce their competitive effect on the food crop.
2.0. THE GENESIS / ORIGIN OF AGROFORESTRY
The historical development of agro forestry just like any other scientific reality can be explained by
Models – A collection of assumptions and elements of global that define the boundaries of the scientific
reality being investigated usually this includes the types of questions being asked?
Methodologies for answering such questions including the potential application of such a descriptive to
the society.
Paradigms are not static with time, shift according to new relations and new factual evidence that are
inconsistent with the previous paradigms.
For instance, the old models had an artificial separation between agriculture, forestry, livestock
development, land use activities etc. But the current evident is that all these are the same.
The problems facing rural communities in the world are interfered that is food production, energy
production, environment deterioration, general land use systems, crop yield per unit of land, sustainable
production.
Agro forestry has a potential to address all these problems (issues).
Trees have been used in cropping systems since the beginning of agriculture. Throughout the world, at
one period or another in its history, it has been the practice to cultivate tree species and agricultural
crops in intimate combination. In much of the tropics, human beings underwent a transition from
hunting/gathering to the use of domesticated plants and livestock. As a part of the process they cut down
trees, cleared the debris by burning, and sowed crops in the ash-enriched soil.
2.1. Shifting Cultivation:
Early agriculturists also made use of forests with the practice of shifting cultivation or slash-and–burn
agriculture. In this practice, they cut and burn relatively small forest plots and produces crops in the
burned-over, taking advantage of the nutrients in the ashes of the burnt plants.
After 2- 3 years, the nutrients are depleted and weeds become a problem; so the farmers abandoned the
plots for 10-20 years, permitting the re-growth of forest species. They move on to another forested plot,
which they slash and- burn and then crop for 2-3 years before this plot is abandoned as before. A farmer
may shift in turn to 5-10 such small plots before returning to clear and burn trees in the first one that
was idled (fallowed) 10-20 years previously.
The steps are then repeated until another cycle is completed. This agricultural system is termed ‘shifting
cultivation’, indicating the moving from one plot to another, or ‘slash-and-burn’ referring to the means
of destroying the forest lands.
Over a long period of time, as population pressure has steadily increased, fallow periods have become
shorter and shorter. Consequently, farmers have returned to abandoned fields before they have had
enough time for fertility to be sufficiently restored.
In the 1960s and early 1970s there was increasing concern for the forested lands of the tropics. It was
clearly recognized that they were under severe pressure. Some thought that commercial exploitation
was the problem; others believed that fuelwood needs were the culprit; while still others thought that
shifting cultivation was the root cause.
The President of the International Development Research Centre (IDRC), located in Ottawa, Canada,
engaged in 1975 Mr. John Bene, a retired forest industrialist in Canada, to study the problem.
Bene assembled a small team in Canada; and called that the advisory committee, and recruited experts
in the various continents, to prepare studies pertinent to their area.
The culmination of these various activities, including extensive travel by Bene, was the publication in
1977 of a report titled:
Bene, J. G; H.W. Beall and A. Cote (1977) Trees, food and people: Land management in the
tropics. Ottawa: IDRC.
Three major features of the report:
1. A categorization of the problems associated with the disappearance and decline in tropical forests.
2. A recognition that the major problem devolved to one of land use exacerbated by the demands for
land on which to grow food and fuel.
3. A recommendation that a special Council be established to deal exclusively with the problems of
‘agroforestry’, the term coined to identify the practice of having trees in the agricultural landscape –
irrespective of whether one dealt with crops or livestock.
From the foregoing, it is clear that it was Bene/IDRC Project Report that for the first time recommended
the creation of an internationally financed Council for research in agroforestry, to administer a
comprehensive programme leading to better land use in the tropics.

Objectives of Council for research in agroforestry should be:

1. The encouragement and support of research in agroforestry,
2. The acquisition and dissemination of information on agroforestry systems;
3. The promotion of better land use in the developing countries of the tropics.

2.2. Establishment of ICRAF

The internationally financed organization, then known as the International Council for Research in
Agroforestry (ICRAF) was established in 1977 and started its work in The Hague. The organization
moved to its present headquarters in Nairobi, Kenya in 1978. In 1992, it became an International Centre
for Research in Agroforestry (ICRAF) when it joined the Consultative Group on International
Agricultural Research (CGIAR).
In 2002 the Centre’s name was once again changed to World Agroforestry Centre in order to more fully
reflect its global reach, as well as its more balanced research and development agenda.
The Centre’s legal name – International Centre for Research in Agroforestry (ICRAF) remains
unchanged.
The World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF) has since been involved in the promotion of national
agroforestry research programs, with a heavy emphasis on Africa. Agroforestry research has accelerated
rapidly since the early 1980s and has resulted in a greater understanding of the science of agroforestry.
Today, the potential of agroforestry for soil conservation is generally accepted. Indeed, agroforestry is
fast becoming recognized as a system which is capable of yielding both wood and food and at the same
time of conserving and rehabilitating ecosystems.
Presently, instead of agroforestry being merely the handmaiden of forestry, the system is being more
and more utilized as an agricultural system, particularly for small-scale farmers.
Europe
Until the middle Ages it was a general custom to clear fell degraded forests (low value forests) and
slash and burn the debris in order to cultivate crops for a valid period of time and later plant trees
alongside the agricultural crops.
This system is no longer popular in Europe but was widely practised in Finland until the end of the 19th
Century. It was widely practised in some areas in Germany up to the 1920’s.
Tropical America
Many societies have simulated forests and crops obtain the beneficial effects of the forest ecosystem
e.g. in Central America it is traditional for farmers to plant up to 2 dozens of plant species on plots not
larger than 0.1 ha. They have adopted the multi-storey systems i.e. vertical stratification.
Coconut/ pawpaw Top layer
Banana/ Citrus Middle layer
Coffee/ Cocoa Shrub layer
Maize/ Animals Lower layer
Squash/ Sweet potatoes Ground layer
This type of multi-storey system imitates the mixed tropical forests e.g. the Kakamega forest.
In Kenya it has also been referred to as “Home Garden”.
Asia- The Phillipines
They practice a complex type of shifting cultivation where certain trees are left behind when others are
being cleared for rice growing. Trees are a vital part of farming community and are either planted or
preserved from the original forest in order to provide various products and services.
Western Africa- Nigeria
In Southern Nigeria yams, maize, pumpkins and beans grow together under the cover of scattered trees.
During the end of the 19th Century, establishing forests on agricultural plantations had become a major
objective for practising agroforestry. In 1806 teak ( Tectona grandis ) plantations were established in
Burma using the “Taungya System”. This system became widespread in other areas; South Africa, India
and Kenya. The system was used to establish forest plantations cheaply with very little inputs.
Taungya System is a term that refers to “hill cultivation” a form of shift cultivation where; first there is
clearing of the forest followed by planting of crops, trees are then planted with crops. Thereafter 2-3
years trees will be the only remnants. Spacing was at 2.5m X 2.5m X 2.5m for plantation forests. Trees
reached maturity after 30 years.
Kenya
In Kenya the “Shamba System”, another term for it is Non-Resident Cultivation (NRC). The system
worked well up to the 1980s under the Forestry Department Workers. But due to population rise the
system collapsed with the survival rate of trees dropping to below 40%.
The Forestry Department ensured the following;
 Little or no damage occurred to the forest trees.
 The rate of forest trees growth was not inhibited by crops.
 Rapid tree growth and survival through optimum timing and sequence of planting.
 Identification of highly competitive tree species e.g. Cypressus lusitanica, Pinus patula,
Eucalyptus saligna.
2.3. Factors that lead to acceptance of agroforestry in the 1970s included;
a. The reawakening of the scientific interest in both inter-cropping and farming systems
b. Deteriorating food security in developing countries: Low crop yields, which is a major constraint in
crop production through continuous land degradation and inappropriate soil management techniques.
This leads to soil erosion and reduced fertility. This is common in the highlands.
c. Increased rates of tropical deforestation and ecological degradation.
d. Energy crisis of the 1970s and the subsequent price escalation of fuel and fertilizer shortages.
e. Establishment of the International Development Research Centre (IDRC) for the identification of
tropical forestry research priorities.
f. High cost of farm inputs, e.g. fertilizer especially for the case of small scale farmers.
g. Low livestock production levels, due to fodder shortage. This is common in the highlands due to
intensive farming. Also there is unavailable fodder supply in ASALS due to communal land systems
of the pastoral communities (overgrazing, soil erosion, frequent droughts)
h. Fuel wood shortages, more common in the highlands e.g. the Eastern side of Mt. Kenya, Embu,
Meru farmers in these areas now tend to grow Grevillea robusta for silk, mulch, shade, timber, soil
nutrients and fencing. In low potential/marginal areas there is a fuel wood supply problem because
the existing bush lands are being cleared at a faster rate leading to land degradation. Aggravated by
increased population pressure.
i. Increased demand for timber and poles for construction industry and power transmissions.

2.4. Common agroforestry trees established in Kenya

Slopes of Mt. Kenya,
Farmers have combined tree growing with variety of other activities agricultural and livestock. Certain
trees species may also be deliberately left on cropland for many reasons species also serve various
purposes e.g.
a. Prunus africanus (Red stink wood) – Muiri valued for its wood for timber, highly medicinal and
can also mix with crops on farms as well.
b. Ocotea usambarensis – Camphor valued for highly quality timber, medicinal and can combine with
crops quite well.
c. Grevillea robusta – Silky oak from Australia
d. Cantha edulis – Miraa, Khat – drug a stimulant – active ingredient Cathine causes insomnia.
e. Vitex kieniensis (Meru oak) – medicinal, timber.
f. Kigelia Africana (English: Sausage tree; Kikuyu – Muratina, Maasai: Oldaboi, Swahili: Mbungati,
Mbomba, Mvungunya, Mvungwa, Mwicha, Mwegea;)
- Food: The fruits are crushed and used to speed up fermentation in the preparation of local alcohol
toddy (wine).
- Medicinal: The leaves and stem bark are used as medicine for treatment of STDs, rheumatism,
malaria, infertility, dysentery, epilepsy and headache.
- Fruits used for treatment of wounds.
- Bark and roots used for treatment of convulsions.
- The bark is boiled and the decoction used for treatment of stomach-ache.
- The bark is soaked in water and the liquid drunk to increase lactation in women.
- The wood is used for beehives, drums, water troughs, mortars, stools, milk pots and canoes.
- The tree is a good ornamental because of its large red flowers and its large hanging sausage-like
fruits.
 - Also used as a bee-forage tree. The fruit, either sliced or pounded, are fed to chickens as a treatment
for Newcastle disease.

In Central Rift Valley and Central Kenya

Nearly the above species have been traditionally cultivated by the farmer’s e.g.
1. Markhamia lutea : Common names; (Lusiola _ Luhya), (Siala – Luo), (Muu – Kikuyu/Kikamba.)
- Indigenous and found scattered. Traditionally believed, to bring peace.
- The flowers are excellent for beekeeping and honey production.
- Woods are used for handles for farm implements among many others.
2. Fagara microphylla (Xanthoxylem gillettii) (Eshikhuma)
- Valued for high quality timber, Ornamental
- Highly medicinal (roots and bark boiled in a pot airtight then cover with a blanket breath steam)
3. Erythrina abyssinica (Omurembe) Luhya
- Highly valued species, it’s never cut (taboos) and Pokots use it to make carvings
- Medicinal; traditional mythologies used to treat mumps in Mt. Elgon (turn around the tree seven
times.) Luhya oathing in traditional courts.
4. Sesbania sesban: Common names; Luhya – Lukhule, Luo – Sawo sawo, Kikuyu – Mwethia
5. Warburgia ugandaensis Common name: Apache – Luhya, Khumosiku – Bukusu, Sorget – Kalenjin,
Muthiga – Kikuyu
- It’s a leguminous tree which can fix N2 in the soil and fodder for animals and medicinal
- Highly valued for timbers and various medicines for various purposes.
Coast strip
1. Coconut (Cocos nulifera)
- It’s a woody species highly valued for its fruits which are rich in essential nutrients
- Its juice is used for flavoring rice and cakes, confectionaries or (madafu)- Tonic drink
- Also makes palm wine (mnazi)
- Its leaves are used for thatching material/makuti or weaving mats (mkeka)
- The trees are cultivated with crops along the coast, it produces palm oil used in shortenings (cooking
oil)
2. Mbamba- kofi (Afzelia Cuanzensis)
- Is a tree of high value along the coast
- Its mixes well with crops
- It has high quality timber
3. Cashew nuts and oils
- It is a source of forex- can help alleviate poverty and be source of income.
- In Tanzania its pulp are used to produce a spirit called Konyagi
- Its pulp can be used as organic fertilizer and have high prices-oil international market
4. Whistling pine (Casuarina equisetifolia)- (Mvinge-Mijikenda)- Grow very fast ever in harshly
environment.
- Established as a cash crop- used for post. Its non-leguminous plant- It can fix nitrogen: Root nodules
containing the bacteria Frankia species forms association with vesicular arbuscular mycorrhizae
enable C. equisetifolia to fix atmospheric nitrogen, used to rehabilitate ‘barren’ lands e.g. In
Mbamburi cement.
- Intercropping: With high productivity and properties that enhance soil fertility, C. equisetifolia
shows promise as an agroforestry species for arid and semi-arid areas. Experiments at, in Kenya,
showed citrus trees grew larger under C. equisetifolia than in pure stands.
- Fuel: The highly regarded wood ignites readily even when green, and ashes retain heat for long
periods. It has been called ‘the best firewood in the world’ and also produces high-quality charcoal.
Calorific value of the wood is 5000 kcal/kg and that of the charcoal exceeds 7 000 kcal/kg. It has
 been used for both domestic and industrial fuel such as for railroad locomotives. In Asia, leaf litter
from plantations is often removed to be used as fuel.
- Fibre: The wood is used to produce paper pulp using neutral sulphate and semi-chemical processes,
and as a raw material for rayon fibres.
- Timber: C. equisetifolia yields a heavy hardwood with a density of 900-1000 kg/m3. Wood is hard
to very hard and strong. It is highly resistant to pressure treatment, also resistant to dry-wood
termites.
- Uses include house posts, rafters, electric poles, tool handles, oars, wagon wheels and mine props.
- Tannin or dyestuff: The bark contains 6-18% tannin and has been used extensively in Madagascar
for tanning purposes. It penetrates the hide quickly and furnishes swollen, pliant, soft leather of pale
reddish-brown colour.
- Medicine: Root extracts are used for medical treatment of dysentery, diarrhoea and stomach-ache.
In West Malaysia, a decoction of the twigs is used for treating swelling and the powdered bark is
used for treating pimples on the face.
- Erosion control: Since it is salt tolerant and grows in sand, C. equisetifolia is used to control erosion
along coastlines, estuaries, riverbanks and waterways. In Sarawak, Indonesia the species is
protected because of its importance in controlling coastal erosion.
- Shade or shelter: Many areas where the species naturally occurs are susceptible to tropical cyclones
or typhoons, and its general tolerance to strong winds has encouraged its use in protective planting.
The abundance of highly branched twigs absorbs wind energy amazingly well. In areas with hot,
dry winds the tree protects crops and animals’ herds. In South China, an estimated 1 million hectares
has been established in shelterbelts along the coastal dunes.
- Reclamation: Grows vigorously on barren, polluted sites and thrives in deep sandy soils. Colonizes
sterile tin tailings.
- Ornamental: Grown as ornamental along streets and seashores.
- Boundary or barrier or support: It is remarkably suited for boundary planting as it does not intercept
much of the incoming solar radiation and yields substantial quantities of green leaf manure on
lopping besides other products.
5. Mangifera indica (Mango)
- Mangos are a highly nutritious fruit containing carbohydrates, proteins, fats, minerals, and vitamins,
in particular vitamin A (beta carotene), B1 , B2 , and vitamin C (ascorbic acid). They fruit is also
eaten green, processed into pickles, pulps, jams, and chutneys, and is frozen or dried.
- The fruit is also an important source of sustenance for birds, bats, insects, as well as and cattle
feed (the rotting fruits).
- Silvopasture: Mangos grow well in pastures, although cattle will graze off lower leaves. It is
necessary to fence off young trees for the first 3–4 years to protect them from livestock.
- Native animal/bird food: Mango fruits are a food source for many birds, fruit bats, wild pigs, and
rodents.
- Flavoring/spice: Mango purees and essences are used to flavor many food products such as drinks,
ice creams, wines, teas, breakfast cereals, bars, and biscuits.
- Timber/ living fence posts: The wood is used for many purposes, including indoor construction,
meat-chopping blocks, furniture, carpentry, flooring, boxes, crates and boat building (canoes and
dugouts).
- Homegardens Mangos are used as shelter and shade trees in villages and homegardens. Two or
three trees make an excellent addition to tropical homegardens in areas favorable to fruit production
- Shade or shelter: Its umbrella-shaped crown makes the mango tree a suitable shade for people and
their livestock; it also acts as a firebreak
- Tannin or dyestuff: Bark is the source of a yellowish-brown dye used for silk.
- With a calorific value of 4200 kcal/kg, the wood makes excellent charcoal and firewood.
- Apiculture: M. indica is an important honey plant, secreting large quantities of nectar.
 - Trees pruned primarily to increase fruit yields and to reduce competition with crops, although
prunings utilized for firewood and poles.
- Medicine: Charred and pulverized leaves make a plaster to remove warts and also act as a styptic.
Seeds are used to treat stubborn colds and coughs, obstinate diarrhoea and bleeding piles. The bark
is astringent, homeostatic and antirheumatic.
- Dried mango seed ground into flour is used to treat diarrhea. Diarrhea and throat disorders are
treated by gargling bark extracts mixed with water in India.
- Soil amelioration: Mango leaves improve soil fertility when used as mulch for crops.
- Intercropping: Young mango is often interplanted with other fruits and vegetables, and the tree is a
valued component of the traditional homegarden agroforestry system.
- Windbreaks: Mangos are sometimes used in mixed-species windbreaks, but their dense canopies
cause wind turbulence, reducing windbreak effectiveness. Fruit production and quality is poor on
wind-exposed trees

Arid & Semi-Arid Areas (ASALS)

1. Acacia species; Acacia senegal (Gum arabica) or golden sap forages for livestock
Acacia nilotica
2. Salvadora persica (English (toothbrush tree,mustard tree,salt bush); Kiswahili; Mswaki)
- Food: Fruits have a sweet, agreeable, aromatic, slightly pungent and peppery taste. They can be
eaten raw, cooked, or dried and stored. Fruit with or without seeds is said to contain 1.7-1.86%
sugars when ripe. Fermented drinks are also made from the fruit. The leaf is somewhat bitter and
aromatic, with a taste likened to mustard. The leaves are also cooked as a sauce and eaten with
couscous or as a green vegetable. Tender shoots, seeds and seed oil are also edible. Edible salts are
obtained from ashes.
- Fodder: Leaves and young shoots are browsed by all stock, but normally cattle do not occur in the
driest part of the [Link] distribution range and hence it tends to be valued more as a camel, sheep
and goat forage. Leaves make good fodder as their water content is high (15-36%). The high salt
content of the leaves is said to affect the taste of milk, but the leaves are said to increase lactation
in cows.
- Apiculture: S. persica is reported as a good source of nectar.
- Fuel: The wood is sometimes used for firewood and charcoal. However, it is not used for cooking
meat, as it leaves a foul taste.
- Timber: The wood is soft, white, easy to work and is not liable to termite attack. Used for coffins
and clubs.
- Gum or resin: Resin that drips from the tree is supposedly useful for making varnish.
- Lipids: Seeds of S. persica contain 30-40% of a greenish-yellow, non-edible oil that has over 50%
lauric and myristic acids. It has a high melting point and a disagreeable odour that disappears on
purification. The most important aspect of the oil is the presence of a low percentage of C8 and C10
fatty acids that are of great economic significance. The oil is an alternative source of oil for soap
and detergent industries.
- Medicine: Toothbrushes made from roots and small branches of about 3-5 mm diameter have been
used for over 1000 years, especially by Islamic populations in India, Arabia and Africa. Several
agents occurring in the bark and wood have been suggested as aids in prevention of dental caries,
such as antimicrobial agents that suppress bacterial growth and the formation of plaque. The tooth
stick is also said to relieve toothache and gum disease. Roots also are used for
- cleaning teeth and for relieving toothache. Decoctions of leaves are used as a mouthwash, and
masticated leaves for tooth and gum problems.
- A decoction of the root is used to treat gonorrhoea, spleen trouble and general stomach-ache. Roots
are also used for chest diseases or pounded and used as a poultice to heal boils. The bark is scratched
 and the latex used for treating sores. Seeds are used as a tonic, and seed oil is used on the skin for
rheumatism.
- Shade or shelter: Planted as shelterbelts and windbreaks to protect farm habitation, gardens and
orchards.
- Reclamation: Planted in sand dune reclamation and also useful for reclaiming saline soils.
3. Balanite aegypticum – English name; Desert date; Swahili: Mchunju, Mjunju; Local names:
Maasai - Olngoswa, Luo - Othoo, Kamba - Mulului, Kipsigis - Ngoswet, Digo: Mwambangoma;
- It’s a source of fodder for all livestock: Livestock eat fallen fruit on the ground and browse the
leaves.
- Food: evergreen tree with edible yellow fruit for both man and animals. The ripe fallen fruit are
collected and the pulp eaten fresh. They have a bitter taste.
- Cooking oil can be extracted from the seed. Seeds are collected, roasted, pounded and boiled in
water, allowed to cool and the oil skimmed off. The oil is used for cooking vegetables such as peas,
sweet potatoes or cassava.
- Medicinal: A decoction of the roots is used to treat abdominal pains, intestinal worms, diarrhoea
and as an antidote for poisoning (Maasai,). Kamba believe if chewed by men it increases sexual
powers.
- Gum from wood is mixed with maize-meal porridge and eaten to treat chest complaints.
- The wood is used for timber, poles, firewood, charcoal, combs, spoons, tool handles, fencing,
nails for native drums and carvings. The tree is also an important source of bee forage.
TOPIC 3.0 DEVELOPMENT OF AGROFORESTRY SYSTEMS
3.1. Definitions
1. An agroforestry practice- denotes a specific land management unit, such as a field, and a specific
arrangement, temporally and/or spatially, of components. Another term that is also frequently used is
2. Agroforestry technology- This refers to an innovation or improvement, usually through scientific
intervention, to either modify an existing system or practice, or develop a new one.
Agroforestry system
A system of land use in which harvestable woody perennials (trees and/or shrubs) are grown among or
around crops and/or on pasture land, as a means of enhancing and sustaining the productivity of the
land.
An agroforestry system- is characterized by certain types of practices that, taken as a whole, form a
dominant land-use system in a particular locality and determine its overall biological composition and
management. In any one agroforestry system there can be more than one agroforestry practices.
Between 1982 and 1987, the World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF) compiled an inventory of
agroforestry systems and practices being used in the developing countries. This agroforestry systems
inventory (AFSI) was partly financed by the United States Agency for International Development
(USAID).

ICRAF (1987) attempted in analysis according to specific characteristics several criteria can be used to
classify and group agroforestry systems and practices.
CLASSIFICATION OF AGROFORESTRY SYSTEMS
Classification of Agroforestry Systems – by Mirza Hasanusaaman
The main purpose of classification should be to provide a practical framework for the synthesis and
analysis of information about existing systems and the development of new and promising ones.
In order to get clear and complete understanding on agroforestry and its different systems as well as for
their further improvement it is necessary to classify them according to some criteria.
Since all agroforestry systems refer to distinct agroforestry practices in which agriculture(crops),
forestry (trees) and pastures (animals) where uses of land are combined either temporarily or spatially
where the arrangement of different types of components, e.g. crops, animals, perennial trees, etc., the
level of interaction between the components is distinct for individual agroforestry systems.
However, one system differs from the other in respect of structure, composition, age, intensity,
technologies, inputs, etc.
The most obvious and easy-to-use criteria for classifying agroforestry systems are the spatial and
temporal arrangement of components, the importance and role of components, the production aims or
outputs from the system, and the social and economic features. They correspond to the systems'
structure, function (output), socioeconomic nature, or ecological (environmental) spread.
Basis of classification
Nair (1987) used certain criteria for classification of different agroforestry systems.
These are: -
1. The structure of the system (composition and arrangement of components)
2. Function of the system (role and output of components)
3. The socio-economic scale and level of management
4. Ecological spread (ecological zones where the system exists).
5. Physiognomic
6. Floristic
7. History
8. Land use basis

1. Classification of Agroforestry systems based on the structure/type of components

Refers to the composition of the components and arrangement of the woody component, including
vertical stratification and temporal (in time) or spatial (in space) arrangement of the different
components.
There are 3 basic sets of components managed by man in all agroforestry systems. These components
are:
a) Ligneous component; Woody perennials,
b) Agronomic component; Herbacious plants (agricultural/arable crops),
c) Livestock component- Animal (Insects, reptiles, amphibians, domestic animals, bees).
a. Classification of agroforestry based on nature of components
Depending on the combination of these agroforestry components, three major agroforestry systems have
been identified; namely:
i. Agri-silviculture system- the conscious and deliberate use of land for the concurrent production of
agricultural crops (including tree crops) and forest crops (trees or vines). e.g. taungya and alley
cropping.
It is prominent in the highlands.
.
ii. Silvo-pastoral systems - land management systems in which forests are managed for the production
of wood as well as for the rearing of domesticated animals and/or. e.g. trees and shrubs on pastures and
multipurpose trees, fodder trees and shrubs grown on or around cropland.
iii. Agro-silvo-pastoral systems - in which land is managed for the concurrent production of
agricultural and forest crops, pastures and for the rearing of domesticated animals. This system is, in
effect, a combination of agri-silviculture and the silvo-pastoral system. e.g. compound farming.
b. Classification of agroforestry based on arrangement of components
The arrangement of components gives first priority to the plants components of the system. Even in
Agroforestry systems involving animals, their management according to a definite plan.
Such plant arrangements in multispecies combinations can involve the space and time.
Spatial arrangements of plants in agroforestry mixtures vary from dense mixed stands (as in
homegardens) to sparsely mixed stands (as in most silvopastoral systems).
I. TEMPORAL ARRANGEMENT CLASSIFICATION (TIME SEQUENCE)
Temporal arrangements of plants in agroforestry can also take various forms. An extreme example is
the conventional shifting cultivation cycles involving 2-4 years of cropping and more than 15 years of
fallow cycle, when a selected woody species or mixtures of species may be planted or is allowed to
regenerate naturally.
Similarly, some silvopastoral systems may involve grass leys in rotation, with some species of grass
remaining on the land for several years during the grass phase. These temporal arrangements of
components in Agroforestry are described by the following terms as described by (Huxley, 1983;
Kronick, 1984).
 Coincident i.e. occurring simultaneously
 Overlapping – coinciding partly (of which the extreme case is relay cropping),
 Concomitant – accompanying each other
 Sequential/separate cropping – the components occur in succession e.g. crop rotation
 Interpolated – the crops, animals and trees are permanently mixed.
A) SIMULTANEOUS SYSTEM:
Trees and crops or animals grow together, at the same time on the same piece of land. There is
significant overlap in the growth cycles of tree/crop components. As a result, there is direct interaction
between the two species. i.e. the tree and the crop species.
These are the systems in which trees and crops compete most for light, water and nutrients. Competition
is minimized by spacing and other means. Trees in a simultaneous system should not be growing fast
when the crop is growing rapidly, to minimize competition. Trees should have roots that reach deeper
than the crop roots. They should have a small canopy, so they do not shade out too much light from the
crops.

I.) Practices under the Agri-silviculture systems (Food crops + Trees/shrubs)

1. BOUNDARY PLANTINGS
Planting trees, shrubs or hedges on the borders of the farm. Certain multipurpose trees are used to mark
plots or farms. The trees forming the boundary can also provide wood, fodder or other products.
Unlike live fences, the trees on boundaries need not be closely spaced except when soil erosion control
is also desired. Tree growing on farm boundaries requires agreement between neighbouring farm
owners to avoid conflicts. There are difficult ways of sharing trees planted on a boundary.
Sometimes two rows of trees are planted, one on each side of the boundary, and then each farmer grows
and manages his own trees. A disadvantage of this is that it occupies more land than a single row.
Initially trees can be established at a close spacing (0.75 – 1.00m) and then later thinned for poles or
firewood to a final spacing of 1.5 -3.0m. With double rows the spacing between the rows should not be
less than 2m. The tree propagation method will depend on the species, but use of seedlings or
transplanting of wildings is common. Grevillea robusta is commonly used for boundary planting in
Central Kenya.
Its use for this purpose (and also in other agroforestry systems) may be related to its restricted lateral
root system. This makes it associate well with neighbouring crops. In general, trees on boundaries offer
several benefits and these, together with the limitations.
Assignment on limitations
2. ALLEY CROPPING (HEDGEROW INTERCROPPING)
Defined as simultaneous agroforestry system where arable (food) crops are grown between rows of
planted shrubs and trees, preferably leguminous species that are managed and spaced at regular intrvals
and are pruned periodically during the crop’s growth to provide green manure (which, when returned
to the soil, enhances its nutrient status and physical properties) and to prevent shading of the growing
crop(s).
The hedgerows are allowed to grow freely to shade the inter-rows when there are no crops. The woody
plants are cut regularly and leaves and twigs are used as mulch on the cropped alley in order to reduce
evaporation from the soil surface suppress weeds and add nutrients to the soil, N fixing plants are the
main component of the hedgerows.
The primarily purpose of alley cropping is to maintain or increase crop yield by improvement of the
soil and microclimate and weed control. Farmers may also obtain the products from the hedgerows,
including fuel, poles, food etc. and fodder. Alley cropping usually works best in places where people
feel a need to intensity crop production but face soil fertility problems.
Design:
Without doubt, trees compete with farm crops for soil nutrients, soil moisture and light. However, the
right kind of trees at the right spacing, with proper management may actual by produce a net increase
in yield.
The position and spacing of hedgerow and crop plants in an alley depend on plant spp. Climate, slope,
soil conditions and convenience.
In general, hedgerow should be placed in E-W direction at the distance of 4 to 8m. The closer spacing
is generally used in humid areas and the wider spacing in semi-arid regions.
On sloping land hedgerows should always be placed on the contour. Usually leguminous trees/shrubs
are included to improve soil fertility.
Tree/shrub spp. for alley should have following characteristics.
The desirable characteristics of trees will vary depending on the goals, objectives and priorities of the
user. A first consideration is to make sure the soil (site) is suitable for the tree species chosen. Also,
ideally, the tree species should have high commercial or environmental value and the physical
characteristics of the trees must create suitable microenvironments for the companion agricultural crops.
Generally, trees should:
1. It should have a sparse and small crown to permit sunlight to pass through.
2. Be relatively fast growing (medium growth rate on high value trees might be acceptable)
3. Produce appropriate shade for the companion crop (i.e, grain and some forage crops have low shade
tolerance). Shade can be reduced by high pruning the stem (up to 18 feet).
4. It should be capable to respond rapidly- they should be able to re-sprout easily after pruning,
coppicing or pollarding
5. It should form deep root system/ minimal roots at the soil surface to minimize competition with
crops in the alley-way.
6. It's leaf litter should decomposes at faster rate. It should be capable to fix atmospheric nitrogen-
they should preferably be leguminous, so they provide protein rich leaves for livestock and
nitrogen-rich organic matter for the soil.
7. It should be useful as wood, food, and fodder [Link] should be adapted to site and soil conditions;
hardy enough to tolerate saline/acidic/ drought/waterlogged conditions.
8. Glyricidia sepium, Sesbania spp., Leucaena leucocephala, Casea spp. Gmnelia arboria are
commonly used in alley cropping.
9. Produce a high-value product or multiple high-value products such as wood, fruit, nuts, and
chemicals, and have an acceptable local market.
Alley cropping management cycle
1. The trees are planted in lines and crop grown between the rows.
2. When the shade from the trees begins to interfere with the crops they are coppiced or pollarded.
3. The coppiced branches are placed between the rows. Leaves will fall to the ground adding organic
matter to the soil when they breakdown. Branches and twigs can be gathered for fuel or other purposes.
4. Trees resprout.
5. The cycle is repeated
Trees and shrubs in the alley cropping system have the following benefits:
1. Provision of green manure or mulch for companion food crops. In this way plant nutrients are
recycled from deeper soil layers,
2. The addition of mulch can lower soil temperatures, reduce evaporation, and improve soil fauna
activity and soil structure resulting in better infiltration, reduced run-off and improved water use
efficiency.
3. A reduction of the use of chemical fertilizers,
4. Improved crop performance due to the addition of nutrients and organic matter to the soil/plant
system,
5. Provision of biologically fixed nitrogen to the companion crop(s).
6. Provision of prunings, applied as mulch, and shade during the fallow to suppress weeds,
7. An improvement in the physical nature of the soil environment for soil microbes
8. When planted along the contours of sloping lands, control soil erosion,
9. Provision of pruning for browse (to feed livestock), staking materials and firewood
10. A longer cropping period and higher land use intensity. The cropping and fallow phases can take
place concurrently on the same land, thus allowing the farmer to crop for an extended period without
returning the land to bush fallow.
11. On sloping land, the tree rows act as a physical barrier to soil and water movement, resulting in
significant reductions in erosion losses.
12. The provision of additional products such as forage, firewood or stakes when a multipurpose tree
legume is used as the hedgerow,
13. An improvement in weed control. During the fallow period shading of the interspaces may reduce
weed growth, while in the cropping phase, the mulch may inhibit germination and establishment of
weeds.
14. Improved economic stability through increased cash flow
15. Improved aesthetics
Disadvantages:
1. The technique will take some years to establish, so farmers will have to wait for the benefits.
2. Farmers may not have the capital available for the investment in trees.
3. Alley cropping requires considerable labour and management - results will be poor if planting and
pruning schedules are not carried out properly.
4. Competition with crops for water and nutrients. It is important to plant trees with deeper roots than
those of the crops grown alongside.
3. SCATTERED TREES ON CROPLAND OR (PARKLAND AGROFORESTRY)
Trees scattered haphazardly or according to some systematic patterns on bunds, terraces or plot/field
boundaries, crop lands, pastures and rangelands. Some of the trees grow naturally from seed dispersed
by birds and other wildlife. Such trees are retained by farmers during land preparation for agriculture,
and are often randomly dispersed on the land.
Mango are scattered haphazardly or according to certain pattern on bunds terraces or bounders. The
primary role of this system is to meet various needs of grower for food, fodder, timber, soil conservation
or protection of farm.
The most important and dominant tree species in the parklands of the Sahara region include Faidherbia
albida (syn. Acacia albida), Azadirachta indica, Cocos nutifera, Shea butter tree (Vitellaria paradoxa),
Parkia biglobosa, Adansonia digitata (the baobab tree), and Tamarindus indica. Acacia tortilis and
Prosopis species are also often scattered on the farmlands. Through horticultural techniques, improved
accessions of some of these species have been produced.
Benefits of scattered trees on farmland include:
1. Farmers consider such trees not to be competitive against food crops. Faidherbia albida is an example
of such trees.
2. Trees, such as Faidherbia albida, provide shade for livestock during intense heat of the long dry
season.
3. The trees diversify farmers’ products and increase crop production, and the duration of cropping the
land without fertilizer use.
4. Control of wind erosion when tree canopies in parklands intercept wind-blown soil.
5. Sale of non-timber products, such as charcoal, firewood, gum Arabica, wine, oil and fruits
significantly increases income.
Phenology is the partitioning in time of the events of a plant’s life-cycle: seasonal changes in leaf
bearing, leaf shedding, growth processes, flowering and seed production.
The reverse phenology exhibited by Faidherbia albida.
The species develops fresh green leaves during the dry season when other livestock feeds are very
scarce, the green leaves produced by the species during the dry season is the major source of protein-
rich fodder for the livestock during that season.
When F. albida sheds its leaves during the rainy season; evapotranspiration and competition for water
and light with the understorey agricultural crops will be reduced; at a time when the crops need these
resources most. The leaves will decompose and also improve the soil nutrient status for the growing
crops. This will subsequently contribute to an increase in the crop yield.
Limitations
1. Scattered trees are often not at the optimum density that would confer maximum benefits to the
environment and crop production.
2. Reliance on naturally regenerating trees makes it difficult to improve the system through use of better
germplasm.
3. Trees found in parklands, such as Faidherbia albida, are slow growing and so, benefits take long to
accrue.
4. The trees are often browsed by livestock that are allowed to graze crop residues during the dry
seasons.

4. TAUNGYA SYSTEM
The taungya system was first used in Burma in 1862; and it was introduced into-India by Dr. Brandis
in 1890 and the first Taungya plantation was raised in 1896 in north Bengal later introduced to Nigeria
in 1928 in a silvicultural experiment at Sapoba (Edo State). It is now a widely adopted agroforestry
practice in the rainforest and derived zones of Nigeria.
The Taungya system comes originally from Burma’s word. (Toung hill, ya - cultivation). Originally it
was the local term in Burma for shifting cultivation. In East Africa it is known as Shamba system it is
practiced in a areas with an assured annual rainfall of over 1200-1500mm.
This is a modified term of shifting cultivation in which labour is permitted to raise annual agricultural
crops in an area but only along with forest tree species during the early years of establishment of the
forest plantation. The practices consist of land preparation, tree planting, growing agricultural crop for
1 to 3 years until shade becomes the dense and then moving on to repeat the cycle in a different area.
After about five years or so, they are required to move to another patch of land.
Generally, the land belongs to the forestry departments, who allow subsistence farmers to grow their
crops for two or three years. Farmers have to take care of the forestry seedlings, getting in return part
or all of the agricultural produce.
The forest service allows the farmer to use land in a forest plot planted to young trees. The farmer cares
for the trees and at the same time grows crops for several seasons until the trees grow big enough to
cover them; then the forest service takes over the plots again.
The successive areas are then converted into plantations as the farmers shift their farming activities
progressively to new reforestation areas.
In forest farming, high value specialty crops are cultivated under the protection of a forest canopy that
has been modified and managed to provide the appropriate conditions. It is a way of utilizing forests
for short term income while high-quality trees are being grown for wood products. The amount of light
in the stands is altered by thinning, pruning or adding trees,5-40 % crown cover is usually desirable.
Existing stands of trees can be intercropped with annual, perennial or woody plants.
Three Forms of Taungya System
i. The ‘Traditional/ Village Taungya (‘own your crop ‘type)
This is the most successful of all the three Taungya systems.
Under this system, this the people who have settled down in a village inside the forest for this purpose
raise crops, the each farmer is allocated one or more plots and a plot area is about 0.8 to1.7 ha are
responsible for site preparation for the tree planting, and in return for their labour, they are allowed to
grow some food crops such as, maize, yams, cassava, etc.; until the forest trees interplanted by the
Forestry Department close their canopy. Planting of the food crops can continue up to 3 to 5 years
depending, among other things, on the species raised.

ii. Departmental Taungya (‘farming for pay”),

Under this, agricultural crops and plantation are raised by the forest department. By employing daily
paid labours the main aim of raising agricultural crops along with the plantation is to keep along with
the land free of unwanted vegetation.
The major difference between the two systems is that under the traditional taungya, the local farmers
own only the food crops, whereas under the latter, both tree and food crops belong to the government
or the Forestry Department.
iii. A ‘hybrid’ version of the two systems which implies that the local farmers under the traditional
taungya assist the Forestry department in planting the tree crops.
iv. Leased Taungya: The forest land is given on lease to the person who affects the highest money for
raising Agricultural crop for a specialized number of years and ensure care of tree plantation.

Advantages of Taungya System:

1. Artificially regeneration of the forest is done at cheaper rate
2. Economic benefits can be significant. Mushrooms, medicinal plants and floral decorative (including
Christmas trees) are all high-value, besides timber.
3. Forest farming modifies the forest ecosystem and does not significantly interfere with its crucial
contributions of water filtering, soil erosion control, micro climate moderation and wildlife habitat.
4. Forest farming provides opportunities to generate short-term income from existing woodlands, with
minimum capital investment. Especially on small family farms, this can contribute significantly to
diversification and rural economic development.
5. Problem of unemployment is solved to some extent
6. Better utilization of land. Many categories of understorey crops not affected by tree shading
7. Remunerative to forest department
Disadvantages of Taungya System:
1. Require entrepreneurial attitude and skills from farmers and land owners
2. Market research required to locate markets for specialty products Creates certain legal problems
3. Exploitation of human in labour. Market research required to locate markets for specialty products
4. Danger of epidemic
5. Provision
6. Loss and soil fertility

5. CONTOUR VEGETATION STRIPS/HEDGES

Contour vegetation strips are living barriers of trees and shrubs which are planted along the contour
lines of a slope, in order to control water and soil erosion and form biological terraces.
Living hedges, live fences and woody strips are all variations on the technique of using shrubs or bushes
to form a continuous barrier.
These lines of vegetation can also provide useful products such as food, fuel, building poles, and fodder
or gum form animal paddocks. There are many factors to consider when building contour strips as bad
design can lead to even more severe erosion. The effectiveness of the vegetation strips depends on the
type of trees planted, the spacing of the trees and the width of the strip, the steepness of the slope, the
amount of rainfall and the soil type.
Advantages:
1. Strips can provide additional nutrients and organic matter into the soil. This can be increased by
using nitrogen-fixing plants.
2. Excess vegetation can provide food for animals. These can be allowed to browse through the strip
to feed on crop remains after harvesting.

6. PLANTING ON TERRACES
Terraces are normally used as soil and water conservation measures on slopes. They provide flat areas
of land that can be planted with crops.
Building terraces involves digging ditches and making ridges. Along the contours of a slope, grasses,
trees and shrubs can be planted on the ridges, helping to stabilise the ground, providing leaf mulch,
protecting crops from wind and providing other useful products such as food, fuel, building poles or
fodder. Trees can be planted on the ridge of the terrace or at the back of the terrace. If the tree is planted
at back of the terrace it will get all of its water requirements.
If a tree is planted on the ridge of the terrace, it will be on drier ground but the leaves will spread around
more evenly and provide more nutrients for crops. Trees can be planted in both locations if the terrace
is wide enough.
The type of tree or hedge used will depend on the site it is planted on and on the kind of products or
services you wish it to provide. If the aim of the terrace is to stabilise the soil, trees and shrubs with
strong roots systems should be planted. These will be able to withstand the movements of soil and water.
Advantages:
1. Stabilisation of the slope, which results in soil and water conservation and a better environment
for crops to grow in.
2. Shelter from wind.
3. Pest control by providing a breeding place for beneficial insects.
4. Increased area of land that can be cropped.
5. Useful by-products such as food, fuel, building poles or fodder.
Disadvantages:
1. As the structure of the land is changed quite dramatically, land tenure rights may first need to be
established or secured.
2. Building terraces require adequate skills and material, labour and capital and also the capacity to
maintain the structures for years to come.
agro-forests, it contains many different plant species of various sizes, types and growth cycles.

7. TREE COMBINATION /INTERCROPPING WITH PLANTATION CROPS

Perennial trees and shrubs such as tea, coffee, coconut, and cocoa are combined into intercropping
systems in numerous ways including;
a) Integrated multi story cropping of plantation crops.
b) Shade trees for plantation crops coffee and silver oak and Erythrina spp.
c) Intercropping with food crops: Ginger/cardamum/ pepper/ are grown with trees.
d) Mixture of plantation crops in alternate arrangement.
They are major sources of foreign exchange in the tropics. On large estates, these tree crops are grown
in monoculture but on small-holdings, they often grown as intercrops.
The reasons why intercropping in these perennial tree crops is possible or even desirable include:
1. There are large spaces between tree crops during the early stages of growth. In the case of cocoa +
oil palm combination, the wide oil palm spacing of at least 9 – 10.5m reduces the amount of shade on
cocoa.
2. The intercrops reduce soil erosion between widely spaced tree crops, especially during the early tree
growth stages.
3. Roots of some tree intercrop combinations complement each other.
4. Shade tolerance of understorey crops such as cassava, favours growth under some plantation crops.
5. Complementary use of light.e.g. during the first 6 – 8 years and after about 25 – 28 years, coconuts
allow a considerable amount of light to reach the intercrops. Oil palm has a high light requirement that
is available in the upperstorey; cocoa in the understorey requires considerable shade, except at flowering
stage.
6. Perennial tree crops intercropping during early growth period is economically viable while waiting
for harvest of long maturity tree crops.
7. Some intercrops are compatible because of differing labour calendars.
8. Some tree crops require an intercrop to serve as a nurse crop during the early growth period. For
instance, newly transplanted coffee seedlings benefit from the shade cast by taller intercrops, such as
maize.

8. SHELTERBELT
A shelterbelt is a type of windbreak, are long wide strip zone of trees, shrubs and grasses, planted in
multiple rows, usually along sea coasts, to protect agricultural fields from inundation by tidal waves
placed at right angles to the direction of the prevailing winds.
Its aims are:
a. To deflect the air current.
b. To provide fuel, fodder timber etc.
c. To reduce the velocity of prevailing winds thereby reducing wind erosion, evaporation
d. To provide general protection and avoid damage to towns villages and adjoining farmlands by the
wind.
e. To protect the leeward areas from desiccating effects of hot wind -Presents a mechanical barrier to
the impact of the wind, and separates two zones; the windward and the leeward zones.
The windward zone refers to the side from which the wind blows, whilst the leeward zone relates to the
side where the wind passes thus protecting against hot winds. As a rule of the thumb, a belt protects a
distance up to its height on the windward side and up to 20 times its height on the leeward side.
Suitable characteristics of species for shelterbelt establishment:
Consideration must be given to key shelterbelt structural components:
1. Adaptability, 2. Growth rate, 3. Crown formation, 4. Increased land productivity.
Design of the shelterbelts
As the main function is to protect agricultural lands against the hazards of wind and speed, shelterbelts
are placed on the upwind side of land to be protected. They are most effective when the shelterbelt is
situated perpendicular (at right angles) to the prevailing wind direction.
If wind direction changes throughout the year, a chessboard pattern is best possible way to plant
shelterbelts.
Orientation is the direction the windbreak faces. Orientation depends on the direction and velocity of
the winds.
Shelterbelt are most effective when oriented at winds. To allow for changes in wind direction,
shelterbelt are often planted in multiple directions such as an L, U, or E shape. When orienting the
shelterbelt, avoid placement that may cause future management problems such as interference with
utilities or road visibility.
Length: The minimum length of a shelterbelt should be about 25-30 times its height. Length of the
shelterbelt determines the amount of total area receiving protection. For best protection, the
uninterrupted length of a shelterbelt should exceed the height by at least 10:1. For example, if the height
of the shelterbelt is 30 feet, the shelterbelt needs to be at least 300 feet long to minimize the impact of
air turbulence around the end of the shelterbelt. Use the Cassia sp., Clerodendron, Acacia arabica,
Eucalyptus, Prosopis etc.
Shape and Composition: Shelterbelts have a spiracle, triangular shape by raising tall trees in the centre.
Density and Width: Shelterbelts up to 50m width are considered ideal under arid conditions. A certain
degree of penetration by wind is planned.
By manipulating these components, an effective shelterbelt can be designed to meet the landowner's
objectives.
The more solid and dense the shelterbelt is the greater the wind speed reduction. However, less dense
Wind blows over and around a shelterbelt but a portion also flows through the shelterbelt, planting
allows for protection to a greater distance. The density can be managed by the choice of species, conifer
versus deciduous, the spacing of the trees, and the number of rows in the shelterbelt.
9. WINDBREAKS
They are protective plantation in a certain area, against strong winds.
Windbreaks are narrow strips of trees, shrubs spaces at 0.5 to 2.5 m apart and/or grasses planted to
protect fields, homes, canals, and other areas from the wind and blowing sand, and/or affect carbon
dioxide circulation.
Windbreaks are AF systems designed to protect agriculture land, crops, livestock and infrastructure
located along of fields from the wind and its effects, e.g. crop damage, soil erosion, livestock wind chill
etc.
They protect a variety of wind-sensitive row, cereal, vegetable, orchard and vine crops resulting in up
to 15% increases in production; and also control wind erosion and increase bee pollination. Pastoral
livestock, wind breaks help reduce animal stress and mortality, and reduce feed consumption. Weight
gains of up to 10% and milk production increases of 8-20% can result.
Farm homes in windy areas protected by windbreaks can expect heating cots to be cut by as much as
30%. Windbreak spacing depends on wind break height, wind velocity soil erodibility, crop sensitivity
and rotation, and climate.
Windbreaks usually consist of multistory strips of trees and shrubs planted at least three rows deep.
They are placed on the windward side of the land to be protected, and are most effective when oriented
at right angles to the prevailing
winds. While their length and height may vary dramatically, it is common in the dry savannas and
steppes of Africa to plant windbreaks 100 m long or more, with a peak height of 10 m.
Where wind is a major cause of soil erosion and moisture loss, windbreaks can make a significant
contribution to sustainable production.
There is a long tradition of using windbreaks in semiarid temperate regions of North America, Europe,
and Asia for crop- and soil-protection from wind and wind erosion (van Emiren et al, 1964), as well as
in the semiarid tropics (Vandenbeldt, 1990).

The effects of strong winds on crops:

1. Wind may increase transpiration rate, and this may exacerbate soil moisture deficits.
2. It can spread pests and diseases because disease-causing spores and insects are dropped whenever
wind speed is reduced.
3. It can deform plants, cause crop lodging and/or affect carbon dioxide circulation.
4. It can increase loss of top-soil through rill erosion, which may impair seedling growth especially in
semi-arid areas.
5. It can cause drifts during herbicide and insecticide spray; hence, leading to wasteful application and
ecotoxicity.
Main Features of Wind Break:
a) Permeability:
The primary purpose of raising windbreaks is to filter and break up the force of the wind. Permeable
windbreaks, which allow some wind to pass through, are the most suitable. The desired permeability
can be obtained by carefully selecting trees and shrub species. Species such as Eucalyptus and
Casuarina will form dense mind break but most native species are more permeable. A windbreak must
be semi-permeable to the wind in order to slow it down and protect the plant on its way.
b) Orientation:
For best results, wind-breaks should be-raised at right angles to the direction of wind. N - S direction is
good compromise. They should give better shading of adjacent crops and pastures.
Benefits of windbreakers
1. Reduce wind impact over a horizontal distance equalling at least ten times the height of the trees.
2. Wind and water erosion are reduced, creating a moist, more favourable microclimate for any
winter crop. They also improve growing conditions by decreasing water evaporation from water
surfaces, such as irrigation ponds, canals and streams.
3. Help reduce animal stress, mortality, feed consumption, visual impacts, and odours. A properly
designed windbreak can protect livestock from cold winds and still allow hot season winds to
circulate in the feedlot or pasture area, reducing potential heat stress.
4. Reduced feed bills, increases in milk production, and specialized livestock windbreaks called
outdoor living barns are especially helpful during calving and lambing season.
5. They benefit wildlife, especially by serving as wildlife habitat and continuous travel corridors
along which animals can safely move.
6. Beneficial insects find permanent habitat in windbreaks, enhancing crop pollination.
7. Farmers can even develop it into additional profit centres for the farm — hunting leases, selective
timber harvests, firewood sales, and special forest products are some of the possibilities.
8. For fencing and boundary demarcation
9. Improve the quality of life around farmsteads, rural residences. Protect a farmstead from severe
cold weather, reduces dust and chemical drift, is aesthetically pleasing, and increases property
value.
10. Protection of farm or ranch buildings reduces the energy costs associated with heating and cooling.
During the winter months, dense, multi-row windbreaks reduce the effects of cold winter winds
and provide energy savings of 10 to 40 percent. Farmstead windbreaks reduce wind chill, making
outside work safer and more comfortable.
11. Strategically placed community windbreaks can improve environments for both work and play.
12. It can also serve as visual and noise screens between conflicting land uses, such as industrial sites
and residential areas. The rural-community interface can be buffered with a windbreak designed
to reduce impacts of dust and chemical drift from agricultural land.
Windbreaks controlling flash floods around hospitals, schools, and can save lives. Many schools
use their community windbreak as an outdoor classroom.
13. Air and water quality are enhanced by filtering and trapping airborne pollutants like dust and
drifting chemicals.
14. Improves water use efficiency by lowering evaporation rates from plants and soils through reduced
wind speed.
15. Windbreaks can increase economic potential. Windbreaks on a farm or in a community can reduce
energy costs, improve crop yields, maintain livestock health and vigour, and produce specialty
products (nuts, fruits, or decorative floral) or a wood product (firewood, posts, or lumber).
16. Roads and Highways - Trees and shrubs can be planted as living fences. Living fences are more
cost effective than slat-fence require less maintenance once established, have a longer life duration,
and can provide multiple benefits such as livestock and crop protection and soil erosion control.

10. BIOMASS TRANSFER

This is the application of leafy biomass from hedges to crop fields to improve soil fertility. Leguminous
trees are most frequently used as biomass transfer; but there is increasing evidence that non-leguminous
shrubs may also accumulate high concentrations of nutrients in their biomass.
One of such promising shrubs for biomass transfer in humid and sub-humid areas is Tithonia
diversifolia, a non-nitrogen fixer.
It is commonly found along field borders and roadsides at middle elevations throughout East Africa and
South east Asia and has exceptionally high nutrient concentrations ( 3.5% N, 0.38% P and 4.0% K) in
its leaf biomass. The P and K levels are higher than those of commonly used legumes in agroforestry.
Fresh leaf biomass of Tithonia diversifolia decomposes rapidly and it is an effective source of N, P and
K for maize. Application of tithonia biomass increased maize yield at a site that was both N and P
deficient in Western Kenya.
II. PRACTICES UNDER THE SILVOPASTORAL SYSTEMS (TREE+ PASTURE/ANIMAL)
Silvopastoral systems are land-use systems in which trees and/or shrubs are combined with livestock
and pasture production on the same unit of land. Integrating livestock production in the farming system
promotes farm product diversification and improves food security.
The trees and shrubs used primarily constitute the basic feed resource of more than 500 million out of
the 660 million head of livestock in the tropics. This system is needed in dry area to meet the fodder
demand throughout the year. In this system forest tree species for fodder purpose are taken at 10-12 m
distance in rows in between the lines the grasses, Stylo etc. are taken as intercrops.
This system is suitable for providing the fodder for milch cattle and thus for development of dairy
industry. There are several types of practices which can be identified depending on the role of the
tree/shrub (sometimes collectively called “trub”) component.
There are four (4) types main of this system include:
1. PROTEIN BANKS (FODDER TREE BANKS)
They are blocks of forage protein rich multipurpose trees are raised on and around farm lands like
Zizyphus species, Acacia species, Prosopis juliflora, Calliandra, Sesbenia spp. etc. deliberately planted
to alleviate fodder shortages in arid, semi-arid and mountainous regions; especially during the dry
seasons.
The forage plants may be leguminous trees and shrubs or herbaceous legumes, and they may be grown
in combination with suitable grasses. The fodder trees are pruned regularly to feed zerograzed livestock
(animals that are kept in stalls). When based on legumes, the fodder banks become important sources
of protein and are referred to as protein banks.
2. TREES AND SHRUBS ON RANGELANDS OR PASTURES
Fodder, trees and shrub are raised scattered the pasture land. The primary use of trees in range and
pasture land has been the provision of shade. Besides this vital function of trees on rangeland; they
(trees) still provide other benefits to livestock and the herdsmen.
They provide fodder and wood. Normally such trees are scattered at random and there is no need to be
particular regarding any regular spatial arrangement. The number of species with potential for this
practice is great. They include Acacia nilotica, Acacia seyal, Acacia tortilis, Calliandra calothysus,
Gliricidia sepium, Salvadora persica, Leucaena leucocephala etc.
3. LIVE FENCES OF FODDER TREES AND SHRUBS (LIVING FENCES)
Living fences are lines of woody plants and shrub planted on farm boundaries or in the form of hedges
or fences or animals enclosures especially fast growing and coppicing. e.g. Sesbania gandiflora,
Sesbania egyptica, Prosopis juliflora, Carissa carandas, Gliricidia sepium, Bambusa species and
Erythrina indica.
Sometimes they are also used around agricultural fields. They serve mainly as field boundaries, to keep
animals on the farm and off adjacent crop fields or farm areas.
They can be made of single or multiple densely planted rows. Alternatively, one row of living fence
posts can be planted widely spaced, with wire, sticks or dead branches between the trees. Both kinds
are made of permanent lines of shrubs or trees, which are regularly pollarded and trimmed.
Fodder trees/shrubs are planted for the purpose of fodder for cattle, green manure and soil conservation.
The fences provide shade, protection and privacy for the animals.
The trees can also serve as windbreaks that produce wood and foliage products. The foliage can be
eaten by animals. Legumes are especially valued as they usually have high protein content.
4. PLANTATION CROPS WITH PASTURES AND ANIMALS
Plantation trees such as coconut could be planted in scattered form on pasture land. Cattle and small
ruminants can graze in open and lightly shaded pastures under such coconut trees. This is common in
South East Asia and South Pacific. Other plantation crops such as cashew, mango etc. can be on such
pastureland.
This practice is beneficial to the animals in the following ways:
1. Trees pumps limiting nutrients from below pasture rooting depth.
2. Trees may improve quantity and quality of forage available.
3. Some light shade may help pasture growth and quality in dry areas by improving soil surface
microclimate.
4. Trees may maintain forage supply when insects have attacked other pasture species. E. g. Army worm
on prairie or carpet grasses (this occurs in every South Pacific countries at the same time).
5. Forage tree leaves are less trampled than those of creeping or erect pasture grasses and legumes.
6. By having shade beef animals grow better and dairy cows produce up to 3 litres more milk in the
humid tropics.
7. Wind and cyclone protection is provided by the trees.
8. Animals can eat tree fruits and pods.
OTHER SPECIAL AGROFORESTRY SYSTEMS
It is combination of woody component with biotic life like fish, bees and wildlife form this separate
category.
1. AQUAFORESTRY
In this system, trees or shrubs are grown on the boundary around fish ponds like Casuarina, Coconut,
Bamboo, etc.
Other terms that have been used for this practice are silvipisciculture, silvo-aquaculture and
aquasilviculture.
Trees can be linked to fish culture in the following ways:
a) Fodder, b) Fuel wood for processing, c) Planting trees around the pond, d) Tree branches for small
pond constructions, e) Other practices, e.g. ponds providing water and nutrients for trees that are planted
around. Trees have a considerable role in providing some of the nutrition required by fish.
2. APICULTURE WITH TREES
Apiculture is the science of bees and the breeding and care of bees. Bee production is supported by
many tree species.
In this system, the flowering trees like Jacaranda mimosifolia, Spathodia, Ecualyptus, Erythrina,
Chinus mole are planted for producing the honey also planted for honey collection.
Bees and trees are interdependent, and have been perfecting their relationship over the last 50 million
years or so; literally millions of years before man appeared on the scene. Bees benefit trees and trees in
turn provide series of benefits to bees.
The gain can be very high for subsistence farmers because the production from a few hives of bees can
sometimes give them higher income than they can earn by a full-time occupation. Not much work is
needed to look after the bees and all family members can all take part in it. Developing countries of the
subtropics have become the main source of honey, exporting at least 150,000 t per year to the world
market.
3. SERICULTURE
This is the culture of silkworms. Mostly, these silkworms are fed leaves of mulberry tree (Morus alba).
Silkworms produce silk and several by-products, which can be used for many purposes: textile, fibres,
soap, vitamins, medicine and others.
Silkworms depend upon tree leaves for their normal growth and development. Mulberry (Morus alba)
leaves are excellent food. The mulberry tree is a small deciduous tree which tolerates drought and heat
but prefers moist climates and can be grown up to 2000 m. They adapt well and can grow not only in
warm areas but also in cold regions.
The mulberry is not only useful for sericulture. The mulberry tree itself gives a fine wood. Its branches
can be used to make farm tools and its bark to make high-grade paper and artificial fibres. The fruit is
edible and can be used to make wine. Every part of the mulberry tree is of medicinal value. The tree
can also produce fuel wood, vegetable and fodder. It also provides shade and can be used as ornamental
plant. It is useful for windbreaks, soil conservation, soil stabilization, hedgerow planting, bee forage
and live fence.
III. PRACTICES UNDER THE AGROSILVOPASTORAL SYSTEMS
(TREE CROPS + GRAIN CROPS + ANIMALS):
This is the system in which the forest tree crops for fodder are taken with intercrops of grasses like
Stylo, Rhode, Pennisetum grass are taken for fodder purpose as well as the food grain crop like Wheat,
Rice, Sorghum or millet etc. are taken in between the strips of forest tree species.
Most common in AEZs II , III and IV. There are more benefits than in silvoarable or silvopasture
practiced separately because of the synergies got from combining the 3 components of agroforestry.
The forest tree species are planted at 10 to 12 m distance and in the lines the grasses and food grains
are cultivated as intercrops.

Compiled by: Mirza Hasanuzzaman,

Following are the Types of Agri-Silvipastoral System:

1. COMPOUND FARMING (HOME GARDENS)

Compound farming is also known as home garden, village-forage garden, kitchen garden and household
garden. In Africa, they are known as:
 Compound farms in Southeast Nigeria, humid lowlands
 Chagga homegardens in Mt. Kilimanjaro, Northern Tanzania, highlands
 Ka/Fuyo gardens in Hounde region in Burkina Faso, semi-arid to sub-humid lowlands
The word “homegarden” has been used rather loosely to describe diverse practices, from growing
vegetables behind houses to complex multistoried systems.
Refer to intimate association of multipurpose trees and shrubs with perennial crops and annual crops
are grown side by side within the compounds of individual houses which support the variety of animals.
A home garden may serve as a specialized plot within a larger production system or it may represent
the main cultivated plot and major source of food and cash income.
Home gardens consist of diverse mixtures of vegetables, fruits, medicinal plants and fodder grasses,
shrubs or trees in small, intensively cultivated plots in and around home compounds.
Home gardens occur in some form in almost every AEZ. AF practices in home gardens can range from
a few trees and shrubs in a small vegetable and herb garden to a dense multistoreyed plot of fruits,
vegetables, herbs and cash crops with trees planted for timber, fuel wood and fodder.
Fodder and legumes are widely grown to meet the daily fodder requirement of cattle. The waste material
and wastes from home are used for fodder and barn waste is used as manure for crops. These home
gardens represent land use system involving deliberate use of multipurpose trees and shrub along with
annual crops and animals within the compound of individual houses.
This system is highly productive and extremely sustainable and practicable. Mangifera indica, Cocus
pucifera, Anacardium officinale (Cashewnut), Tea, Coffee plus medicinal plants like Black pepper,
Cardiamum, Allspice cumen etc.
Structure of Home gardens
The layered configurations and combination of compatible species are the most conspicuous
characteristics of all home gardens. The gardens are usually carefully structured systems with every
component having a specific place and function.
Typical is also the high species diversity and the complex, layered structure (3-4 vertical canopy layers);
with timber, fruit, fodder, fibre and fuel wood trees over spices, herbs and vegetable crops.
Home gardens are most common and best suited to densely populated areas where land is in short
supply.
It generally consists of a herbaceous layer near the ground, a tree layer at upper levels, and intermediate
layers in between.
The lower layer can usually be partitioned into two, with the lowermost (less than 1m height) near the
ground dominated by herbaceous layer consisting of plants such as beans, pulses, different vegetable,
root crops grasses and medicinal plants, which grow to about 1.5 metres.
The middle layer (1-3 m height) being composed of small trees that tolerate some amount of shade
such as coffee, tea, banana, papaya or food plants such as cassava, etc.
The upper tree layer can also be divided in two, consisting of emergent, fully grown timber and fruit
trees occupying the uppermost layer of over 25m height, consist of trees for fruit, fuel, timber, shade
and fodder and medium-sized trees of 10-20m occupying the next lower layer.
The intermediate layer of 3-10m height is dominated by various fruit trees, some of which would
continue to grow taller. This layered structure is never static; the pool of replacement species results in
a productive structure which is always dynamic while the overall structure and function of the system
are maintained.
Food production from home gardens
A conspicuous trait of the tree-crop component in homegardens is the predominance of fruit trees, and
other food-producing trees. Apart from providing a steady supply of various types of edible products,
these fruit and food trees are also compatible – biologically and environmentally – with other
components of the system.
While fruit trees such as guava, mango and other food-producing trees such as Moringa oleifera and
Sesbania grandiflora, indigenous trees that produce leafy vegetables (Pterocarpus spp) fruit for
cooking (Dacryodes edulis), and condiment (Pentaclethra macrophylla) dominate the West African
compound farms.
Animals are also usually included in the system.
In most cases, animals are kept in the home garden. The animals can browse there and rest in the shade.
Cattle, like buffaloes, are mostly kept for dairy products and land cultivation. Sheep, goats, chickens
and fish are kept for household consumption. Products from animals or the animals themselves can of
course also be sold in the market.
The Chagga home gardens in Tanzania are based on Arabica coffee and banana for commercial
purposes.
To create a multistorey home garden, several approaches are possible:
 Add new tree species to existing gardens.
 Add vegetables, fruits or root crops beneath an open canopy of existing trees.
 Start afresh on a clean tilled plot where you plant trees with crops
Advantages:
1. Production is very diverse and continuous; risk is minimized and there is a daily flow of products
such as food, fuel, fodder, fruit, spices and wood for construction
2. Farmers have easy access to food, timber, fuel, fodder, spices and medicines.
 3. The protective function of home gardens is very high: soil protection, water retention and pleasant
micro-climate for humans, animals and some plants;
4. The use of labour for the farm is very efficient due to proximity of the garden to the house; also
the walking distances in the garden from job to job are short;
5. Produce may be sold locally and act as a financial buffer in times of need.
6. Valuable crops or animals in need of protection can be given extra care by the farm family
(especially at night) because of the short distance from the house;
7. Home gardens ensure a pleasant living environment; shade, wind shelter and provision of privacy;
they can also satisfy aesthetic values and open patches often serve as family or village gathering
places.
Disadvantages:
a. The high diversity of plants in a home garden can provide a habitat for species that could
become pests or introduce diseases.
b. During tree harvesting other plants are often damaged.
c. Proximity to homesteads makes houses prone to damage from falling branches and extensive
lateral roots from trees.
B) SEQUENTIAL SYSTEMS
At certain times in the cycle of a sequential system, trees are the only component. Crops or animals
occur in other parts of the cycle, either with or without trees.
Crops and trees take turns in occupying most of the same space. The systems generally start with crops
and end with trees.
The time sequence keeps competition to a minimum. Trees in a sequential system should grow rapidly
when crops are not growing, recycle nutrients from deep layers, fix nitrogen and have a large canopy
to help suppress weeds.
Examples: shifting cultivation, relay intercropping, improved fallows, multi-strata systems (this system
can also be simultaneous)
1. THE TRADITIONAL SHIFTING CULTIVATION (SLASH-AND-BURN AGRICULTURE)
It is the most extensive farming system in the humid tropics. Farmers cut, let dry and burn the forest
vegetation, then plant crops or pastures, using the ash as fertilizer to enrich (temporarily) the nutrient-
poor soil. They stay for as long as the soil can support their crops usually two or three cycles-and then
let a forest fallow grow for 15-30 years until sufficient nutrients accumulate in the biomass.
Then farmers return, slash and burn the site. This traditional practice works well and was sustainable
for millennia-but it depends on low population pressures, where the farmers are few and the forests
vast. With increasingly dense populations and shrinking forests, the cycles become shorter and shorter
until they are no longer sustainable. The forest does not have time to accumulate enough nutrients in its
biomass-the fallow period is just too short.
2. RELAY CROPPING
Both crops and trees are planted at the beginning of the rains, but the crops grow rapidly and the trees
slowly, thus minimizing competition.
The trees grow rapidly after the crop is harvested, forming a short-term fallow during the dry season.
Before the next rainy season, trees drop their leaflets, providing mulch; they are then cut and harvested
for poles or firewood. The crop is planted again, benefiting from nutrients and improved soil physical
properties, while the trees begin to coppice and re-sprout from seeds.
3. IMPROVED FALLOWS
Fallow are cropland left without crops for a period ranging from one season to several years. Fallowing
is defined as leaving land that is normally cultivated temporarily or uncultivated or grazing during the
whole or greater portion of a growing season often to accumulate moisture, increasing its biomass and
nutrient accumulation as well as to smother weeds.
An improved fallow is defined as replacement or enhancement or enrichment of a natural fallow with
selected trees, shrubs or herbaceous legumes planted at high density to improve soil fertility.
Improved fallow is also known as enriched fallow. When established with only leguminous trees and/or
shrubs, it could be called leguminous fallow. That is, leguminous fallows are natural fallows enriched
with planted legumes to improve soil fertility.
Tillage is usually practiced to control weeds and encourage the storage of moisture in the soil.
Improved fallow is the replacement or enhancement of natural fallow vegetation by the introduction of
selected trees or shrubs.
The purpose of improved fallow is to maintain or restore soil fertility and reduce erosion, shorten the
fallow period and/or increase the yield of subsequent crops, suppress weeds as well as providing useful
by-products. The trees therefore enrich the fallow both biologically and economically.
Establishment:
Improved fallow can be established in a variety of ways and at various stages of the fallow methods.
Direct seeding of clean filled harvest plots and Selective cutting of bush followed by enrichment
planting with tall plants. Introducing tall seedlings and cutting into poor quality fallows.
Improved fallow species are normally planted shortly before or after the crops are harvested. Fast-
growing, nitrogen-fixing species are used, as they do not compete with [Link] tree fallows
have the potential to increase crop yields while also providing wood. They are able to restore soil
fertility more rapidly than the traditional fallows and, hence, allow shortening of the required fallow
period.
By planting soil enriching species, the minimum fallow period can be shortened from 15 to 20 years to
about 8 to 10 years. However, in Kenya, Sesbania is grown in a 3 year rotation and Tephrosia in a 1
year rotation.
Advantages:
1. The time required for soil enrichment can be shortened; the tree canopy and fast growing
species can suppress weeds.
2. Soil erosion is minimised.
3. The use of a wide variety of species can reduce pests, weeds and diseases.
4. This method is relatively inexpensive to establish and maintain.
5. The wood can be used or sold at the end of the fallow period.
Disadvantages:
1. The planting of seedlings and tree cutting must be done during the same period of crop planting
- labour may be a limiting factor at this time.
2. The fallow will need protection from browsing animals.
4. ROTATIONAL WOODLOTS
In rotational woodlots, multipurpose trees and shrubs are intercropped with food crops such as maize,
sorghum and cassava for about 2- 3 years, when the trees are still too small to out-compete the food
crops. This phase resembles the taungya system. In the subsequent phase, the trees are allowed to grow
to maturity in pure stand. Therefore, the second phase resembles a fallow period; soil fertility may be
improved if the trees fix nitrogen and add large amounts of organic matter to the soil.
When the trees are harvested, crop production resumes and the crops benefit from the residual soil
fertility built up during the ‘fallow’ period.
The main function of rotational woodlots is to produce both food crops and tree products and services
such as fuelwood, poles, fodder and soil fertility improvement. In semi-arid parts of Tanzania, 4- and
5- years old woodlots with Leucaena and Acacia polyacantha produce up to 10 – 15 tonnes of wood
per hectare. Because a woodlot keeps the soil surface covered, it is also a soil and water conservation
measure. Acacia, Azadirachta indica, Albizia lebbeck, Delonix regia, Cassia fistula etc are all excellent
tree species for a woodlot.

II. SPATIAL ARRANGEMENT (SPACE):

Spatial arrangements of plants in an Agroforestry mixture may result in dense mixed stands-
Multistrata e.g. Highlands (as in home gardens) or in sparse mixed stands- e.g. ASALs most common
silvo pastoral practices (as in most systems of trees in pastures). The species (or species mixtures) may
be laid out in zones or Strips plantings of varying widths Strips e.g. boundary plantings, hedgerow
intercropping (alley cropping).
Distribution of the plant components can vary in space and time. Plant components can be mixed in
different densities (see images below) and have a separate long/short cropping/fallow cycle.

Random mixture of plant components Alternative rows of plant components

2. CLASSIFICATION OF AGRO-FORESTRY SYSTEM ON FUNCTIONAL BASIS
Refers to the major function or role of the components, mainly of the woody components which can be:
a. Productive e.g. food, water or wood for various purposes. The goods provided by the forests are of
immense importance to animals and mankind.
b. Protective and Ameliorative e.g. shelterbelt – trees planted along boundaries as windbreakers, trees
for soil conservation hedges, catchment protection shade trees etc.
c. Multiple output system
3. CLASSIFICATION OF AGRO-FORESTRY SYSTEM ON SOCIO-ECONOMIC BASIS –
refers to:
Refers to the level of inputs management (low input, high put) or intensity or scale of management and
commercial goals (subsistence, commercial and intermediate).
a. Scale of management/ production i.e. high or low intensity or
b. level of technology input (low-input, high-input: computerized, jua kali, biotechnology), and
c. Commercial goals (subsistence, large-scale, intermediate).

Commercial Agro-Forestry Systems:

The term commercial is used whenever the sale of the production of the output (usually a single
commodity) is the major aim of the system the scale of operations is often moderate to large and land
ownership may be government, corporate or private.
Commercial production of shade-tolerating plantation crops such as coffee, tea and cocoa under over
storey shade trees; rotational timber/food crops systems in which a short phase of food-crop production
is used as a silvicultural method to ensure establishment of the timber species (various forms of
taungya); commercial grazing and ranching under large-scale timber and pulp plantations etc.
Intermediate Agro-Forestry Systems:
They are those between commercial and subsistence scales of production and management, production
of perennial cash crops and subsistence crops undertaken on medium to small size farms wherein the
cash crops cater for the cash needs and the food crops meet the family's food needs.
Subsistence Agro-Forestry System:
They are those wherein the use of land is directed towards satisfying basic needs and is managed mostly
by the owner/occupant and his family. Cash crops, including sale of surplus production of commodities,
and all forms of traditional shifting cultivation are the most widespread examples.
Social Forestry/ Community forestry- areas and forest which are manmade
Define; This the science and art of growing trees in and outside traditional forest areas and managing
like existing forest with intimate involvement of the people and more or less integrated with other
operation resulting in balanced and complementary land used with view to provide wide range of goods
and services to the individual as well as to the society.
The term social forestry was first used by a forest scientist named Westoby in 1976. Social forestry is
the greatest instrument of land transformation. Consider the number of trees, which we have if each
farmer raises even 10 trees on his farmland. Development of trees on agricultural and other waste lands
has tremendous effect
Benefits of Social Forestry
1) Betterment of environment
2) Reduction of pollution
3) Providing the basic needs of rural and urban people for fuel, small timber, manure leaf and other
economic products nearer to home
4) Providing raw materials for industries such as wood, wool, packing cases, slate frames, fibres,
tamarind extract, oil seeds, pulping and husking material
5) Provide shelter for insectivorous birds on the farms
6) Protection from wind
7) Conservation of moisture
8) Prevention of soil erosion
9) Fullest utilization of land unsuitable for cultivation
10) Employment opportunities in rural and urban area
11) Reduction of noise
12) Recreation
13) Reduction of pressure on national forests
14) Achievement of self-sufficiency by the villages
15) Improvement of rainfall by induction precipitation
4. CLASSIFICATION OF AGRO-FORESTRY SYSTEM ON ECOLOGICAL BASIS
Ecological Spread - Refers to the environmental condition and ecological suitability of systems based
on the assumption that certain ecological conditions do exist i.e. there can be separate sets of
agroforestry systems for arid and semi-arid lands, tropical highlands, lowlands, humid tropics, etc.
Ecological aspects of agroforestry
Agroforestry systems have the following basic principles:
 Competition between the plants must be minimised.
This can be achieved by planting the plants in such a way that they are not using resources all at the
same time. For instance, acacia trees (Faidherbia albida) lose their leaves during the millet growing
season, and are suitable to feed cattle, as their pods are rich of proteins. Therefore, many African farmers
grow acacia trees combining with millet and cattle.
 Complementarity among the plants must be maximized and competition depend on the root
system of the crops and trees/shrubs, i.e. on the depth or shallowness of the roots. If one has deep,
the other one shallow roots, they will not compete for nutrients and water, but might complement/
benefit from each other.
Based in the major agro ecological zones, agroforestry systems are grouped into the following
categories:
1) Humid/sub humid lowlands,
2) Semi-arid/arid lands,
3) Highlands
Agroforestry Systems in Humid/Sub Humid Lowlands:
This is characterized by hot humid climate for all or most of the year and an evergreen or semi -
evergreen vegetation. The lowland humid and sub humid tropics (commonly referred to as the humid
tropics) are by far the most important ecological region in terms of the total human population it
supports, extent of area and diversity of agro forestry and other land-use systems.
Because of climatic conditions that favour rapid growth of a large number of plant species, various
types of agroforestry plant associations can be found in areas with a high human population, e.g. various
forms of home gardens, plantation crops with combination and multilayer tree gardens. In areas of low
population density, trees on rangelands and pastures, other silvopastoral systems, improved fallow in
shifting cultivation and multipurpose tree wood lots etc. are the major agro forestry systems.
Semi-Arid and Arid Lands:
This region is characterized by rainfalls confined to 9-12 hours per day in July-Sept 2 to 4.5 wet months,
, solar radiation incidence (400-500 cal/cm2/day), Ambient temperature variation 27-470c high wind
velocity (20 km/hour), high potential evapotranspiration (6 mm/day) and high mean Aridity index (70-
74.8%). These are Arid areas used for grazing and browsing is used for natural pastures, they cover
65% of Kenya, IM -40 to -50, any crop production is by irrigation. This Zone is prevalent in Mwea,
Garissa, Kitui, northern Baringo, Turkana, lower Makueni and vast parts of North Eastern Province.,
Vegetation being Acacia Adansonia digitata, Terminalia prunioides, Dobea spp., Dioppspyros spp. and
Commiphora spp. Common grasses are Eragrostis superba, Cenchrus ciliaris, Cymbopogon spp.,
Agroforestry Systems in Tropical Highlands:
This area is characterized by uneven topography, varying levels of rainfall, degraded and shallow lands
at high altitude to deep rich soils in valleys and great climatic variations. Land use problems in the
highlands are similar to those in humid or dry lowlands, depending on climate, with the addition that
sloping lands and step terrier make soil erosion a major concern.
5. Classification of agro-forestry system on Physiognomic basis
Refers to characters of vegetation where the AF System will be located such as xeromorphic,
mesomorphic and hydromorphic.
6. Classification of agro-forestry system on Floristic basis
Refers to species composition widely adopted in different region and may be taken into consideration
for floristic classification.
6. Historical classification
Refers to the agroforestry systems that evolved over time, due to the spread of knowledge and AF
technologies that have been adopted by farmers.
5. Classification of agro-forestry system on Land use basis
Land use pattern in the given area in the course of adoption of agroforestry.
These broad bases of classification of agroforestry are by no means independent or mutually exclusive.
Indeed, it is obvious that they have to be interrelated. While the structural and functional bases often
relate to the biological nature of the woody components in the system, the socioeconomic and ecological
stratification refers to the organization of the systems according to prevailing local conditions
(socioeconomic or ecological).

TOPIC 4: AGROFORESTRY SYSTEMS IN VARIOUS ECOLOGICAL ZONES

Definitions
Agroforestry System
A dynamic ecologically based natural resource management system that through the integration of trees
in farm and rangeland diversifies and sustains smallholder production for increased social, economic
and environmental benefits.
Ecological zone
1. A land area, generally smaller than a region but considerably larger than a farm, with a definable
combination of climate, relief, altitude, edaphic conditions and natural vegetation.
2. Large biographical unit of land and/or water that is characterized by its distinct species and
communities. A major ecozone is further divided into many smaller ecoregions which share similar
natural communities, climate, meteorological factors, topography, elevation, soil types, edaphic
factors, and/or other physical characteristics.
Agro ecological zone
A land resource mapping unit, defined in terms of climate, land form and sols, and/or land cover, and
having a specific range of potentials and constraints for land use (FAO, 1996).
Agro-ecological Zoning (AEZ) refers to the division of an area of lend into smaller units, which have
similar characteristics related to land suitability, potential production and environmental impact. An
Agro-ecological Zone is a land resource mapping unit, defined in terms of climate, landform and soils,
and/or land cover, and having a specific range of potentials and constraints for land use (FAO 1996).
The essential elements in defining an agro-ecological zone are the growing period, temperature regime
and soil mapping unit.
Concept
Agroforestry systems and practices entail the growing crops and pastures for livestock and human, in
close integration with woody perennials such as trees and shrubs, thereby forming an ecosystem.
An ecological analysis of the spread of various agroforestry systems shows that the existence and
adaptation of an agroforestry system in a given area is determined primarily by the ecological potential
of an area. The growth and equilibrium of agroforestry systems entirely depend on the abiotic
components of the ecosystem which include sunlight, temperature, precipitation, water or moisture, soil
or water chemistry (e.g.P, NH4+) etc.; and the biotic components of the ecosystem which include
primary producers, herbivores, carnivores, omnivores, etc.
All these vary over space and time. By and large, the set of environmental factors is important
everywhere in all ecosystems. Socio-cultural and economic factors determine the complexity of the
agroforestry system and the degree of intensity of its management.
From a purely ecological point, certain types of agroforestry systems can be identified as characteristic
of each major ecological region. Similarly, agroforestry systems can also be identified as characteristic
of the various agroecological zones of a given area. There are certain types of agroforestry systems that
are present in all ecological regimes.
However, the nature of components in each will vary from region to region, depending on the ecological
potential of the regions.
Zone I: Agro-Alpine
The zone has no direct importance in agricultural production, other than being the source of rain and
some streams and rivers. It is confined to mountains and immediate surrounding such as Mt. Kenya,
Aberdare Ranges, Mt. Elgon and Mau Ranges.
Recommended Agroforestry Systems:
 Most (almost all) of the land in Zone I is under trust land i.e. state land tenure, under forests and/or
national parks and game reserves, with/wide ecodiversity.
 Forest gardening systems are suitable with the various categories of specialty crops.
 Dorobo and Sabaot communities are formed in this zone practicing forest gardening agroforestry
systems.
Zone II: High Potential
The zone is generally restricted to the highlands of Kenya between 1980 and 2700 meters above sea
level, and occurs as forest or open grasslands. This zone is found in the surrounding of [Link] (parts
of Meru, Tharaka Nithi, Embu, Kirinyaga and Nyeri counties), isolated parts of the Rift Valley around
Mau and Aberdare Ranges (around Kericho, Narok, Trans Mara, Nakuru, Nyandarua, Kiambu,
Murang'a and Nyeri respectively), and the surroundings of Mt. Elgon (around Trans Nzoia and
Bungoma counties).
The main grasses are Pennisetum clandistenum (Kikuyu grass), Themeda triandra (Red oats),
Andropogon Chrysostachyus, Andropogon pralonsia, Exotheca abysinica, Digiteria scalaram,
Eragrostis lascantha, Seteria sphacelata, Pennisetum catabasis and Sporobolus filipes. The legumes
include Trifolium johnstoni, Medicago sativa (Alfalfa or Lucerne), Sesbania sesban and Leuceana
leucusephala.
The minimum rainfall is 1000mm. Most natural forests and forest reserves are in this zone. This is also
the zone where tea, high altitude maize and wheat, and fodder are grown.
Recommended Agroforestry Systems:
 Forest gardening systems
 Forest farming systems, under the supervision of Kenya Forest Services
 Silvoarable systems cultivated pastures /fodder with valuable tree, tea alternated with fodder for zero
grazing, etc [Link] (Medicago sativa)
Zone III: Medium Potential
This zone occurs mainly at elevations between 900-1800 metres above sea level, with an annual rainfall
between 950 and 1500mm. Trees are numerous here, and somewhat of shorter stature than zone II. The
zone is the most significant for agricultural cultivation and several legume fodders are found here in
crop-livestock systems. It is also the most settled by humans with small scale farming practiced. It
occurs in the vast parts of Nyanza Western and Central provinces, good portion of central Rift Valley
(Nandi, Nakuru, Bomet, Usain Gishu, Trans Nzoia), some parts of Meru, Tharaka Nithi, Embu and
upper areas of Machakos and Makueni, and a strip at the Coast.
The major grassesare Hyperenia and Cymbopogon, Themeeda triandra, Panicum maximum, Seteria
Sphacelata, Sporobolus pyramidalis, Bracharia brizantha (Congo signal), Bricharia siluta, Chloris
gayana (Rhodes grass) and Cynodon dactylon (Star grass).
The main crops grown are tea, coffee, maize, wheat, beans, bananas, citrus, cashew, coconut, etc., and
fodder crops such as Nappier grass for zero grazing.
Recommended Agroforestry Systems:
 Silvopasture systems with tree crops such as coffee, macadamia, avocado, mango, citrus, and annuals
such as maize, beans and potato as alley crops.
 Silvoarable systems - alley cropping with timber trees, fruit trees and hedge trees.
 Agrisilvopastoral systems — alley cropping and home gardening are most common systems
especially in the most densely populated small scale farming areas.
Timber trees such as Grevillea robusta and some Eucalyptus species form the upper layers, fruit trees
such as avocado coconut and mango form the middle layers, while other short tree and shrub crops
and fodder such as tea, coffee, cashew, banana, Leuceana and Sesbania form the lower layers.
Alley crops include a wide variety of cereals, legumes and tubers adapted to this agroecological
zone.
 Contour buffer strips - these are planted to incorporate soil conservation measures on steep slopes
under cultivation. Use of timber and fodder trees on the buffer strips together with alley cropping of
food/fodder/fibre crops, all planted on contour rows to enhance soil conservation.

Zone IV: Semi-arid

This zone occupies more or less the same elevation (900 — 1800 metres above sea level) as Zone III,
or may be at times lower. However it has lower rainfall of about 500 -1000mm annually. This is
typically represented in the surroundings of Naivasha, vast parts of Laikipia, Narok, Kajiado,
Machakos, Makueni and Kitui counties, and vast parts of central and southern Coast region.
It is the home of most acacia trees and shrubs; Acacia seyal, Acacia Senegal, Acacia brevispica,
Acacia drepanolobium and Acacia gerrardii. Euphobia trees occur in some drier parts of this
zone. Combretum and Terchonanthus spp. are also common here.
Grassesfoundinclude Themedatriandra, Pennisetum mezianum, Pennisetum
straminium, Eragrostis spp., Hyperenia spp. Seteria spp., Digiteria spp., Bothriochloa
insculpta, Cenchrus ciliaris. Rare grasses include Chloris spp. and Cynodon spp. Besides acacia, other
important legumes include Indigoferra and Crotolaria.
Common crops include cotton, grams, pigeon peas, sorghums, millets, dryland hybrids and composites
of maize and beans e.g., Katumani and DH04, Mwezi Moja beans, etc. The area is occupied by agro-
pastoralists who have a lot of livestock, some of which are used as drought animals e.g. in ox-ploughing
and planting of arable lands which are much larger holdings than in Zone III.
Recommended Agroforestry Systems:
 Agrisilvopastoral systems - Use of dryland farming methods to maximize on limited moisture.
Application of alley cropping using drought resistant and early maturing species. Harvest residues
are incorporated in cultivation for increasing organic matter to build-up soil qualities for moisture
retention, soil fertility and soil conservation.
 Farm yard manures and minimum tillage are also applied. Grazing must be controlled to avoid to
bare ground and exposure of the soil to various types of erosion. Controlled grazing should also aim
at protecting agroforestry trees from damage by livestock, especially by goats. There is need to plant
multipurpose trees that are drought resistant, are leguminous and nitrogen-fixing and also provide
fodder and fuel-wood.
 Silvopastoral systems - Planted pastures (controlled grazing) with rows of agroforestry trees, in strips
of 3-5 rows (timber and nurse trees).
 Contour buffer strips - agroforestry benefits are combined with soil and water conservation
measures. In this zone, land is plenty; hence the need to plant 3-5 rows of trees as strips, with alley
cropping on contours. Grass strips can also be
 Field windbreaks - These are useful on expansive flat lands to check on wind erosion besides other
agroforestry benefits. Windbreaks must be well designed and semi-permeable for better protection
of the alley crops.
Zone V: Arid Lands
The zone is drier than Zone IV and occurs at lower elevations. The annual rainfall is 300 -600mm. This
zone is prevalent in Northern Baringo, Turkana, lower Makueni, lower Kitui, some parts of Tana River,
Lamu, vast parts of Isiolo, Samburu and vast parts of North Eastern region.
Low trees and shrubs found here include Acacia millifera, Acacia nubica, etc., Euphobia spp.,
Adansonia digitata, Terminalia prunioides, Dobea spp., etc. Common hardy grasses include Eragrotis
superba, Cenchrus ciliaris, Cymbopogon spp., Bothriochloa spp. and Heteropogon contortus.
The common crops in this zone include hardy millets, sorghums, grams, pigeon peas, cotton, etc.
Pastoralism is much more extensive than in Zone IV.
Recommended Agroforestry Systems:
 Agrisilvopastoral systems - Use of dryland farming methods, which include minimum tillage, soil
and water conservation, water harvesting, use of drought tolerant and early maturing crops for alley
cropping, etc. Hardy drought resistant species of trees, shrubs, and herbs e.g. Acacia spp. and
Euphobia spp. Mangoes and dates can be planted as fruit trees.
 Silvopastoral systems. There is need to apply controlled grazing and also stock appropriately with
good marketing systems. Hardy and fast growing grasses and shrubs with high grazing value should
be planted, on long and wide strips in rangelands and ranches. Hardy livestock breeds such as goats
and camels should get higher priority in stocking rather than cattle and sheep. Boreholes should be
well spaced to avoid long treks to watering points that are counter-productive.
 Field windbreaks - It is recommended to use hardy trees and shrubs, which include acacia and
euphobia species.
Zone VI: VeryArid
This zone is considered as semi-desert and driest part of Kenya. Annual rainfall is 200- 400mm and is
quite unreliable. This zone is found in Marsabit, Turkana and Wajir counties. Dominant in this zone are
Acacia and Commiphora shrubs with scattered taller trees of Acacia tortilis,
Adansonia digitata. Balanites eagyptica, Boscia coriacea, Salvadora persica, Acacia mellifera and
Acacia reficiens are important shrubs or low tree species.
The very common and important dwarf shrubs are Indigofera spinosa . Other important shrubs are
Barberia and Duosperma eromophylum. Being the most delicate zone both annual and perennial
grasses
include Aristida adoensis, Chrysopogon aucheri, Tetrapogon spp, Enneapogon cenchroides, Chloris
roxburghiana.

Recommended Agroforestry system

 Silvopastoral system-very controlled overstocking and overgrazing. Only hardy livestock should be
kept-mainly camels and goats to a limited extent, and on expansive grazing areas. There should be
boreholes, appropriately scattered for watering points.
Zone VII: Desert
This is represented by Chalbi desert in Marsabit County. The Chalbi is a salt desert with very sparse
salt bushes as the only vegetation found. Pastoralists use it as a source of mineral lick for livestock,
particularly during the rainy season.
Recommended agroforestry systems.
Silvopastoral System - mainly for supply of salty mineral licks for livestock. The salty bushes are
browsed by camels and goats but cannot sustain life entirely, and the livestock has to depend on other
grazing areas. There is virtually no crop food for humans.
AGROECOLOGICAL ZONES OF KENYA
Agro-ecological zones of Kenya, Soil Survey July 2008 : Kenya System
Kenyas' agro-ecological climate
Kenya has a total area of about 582'646 square kilometers of which 11'230 or about 1.9% is covered by
water. The dry land mass is commonly divided into six agro-ecological zones as the table below
indicates.
Table 1: Agro-ecological zones of Kenya
Zone Approximate Area (km2) % Total
I. Agro-Alphine 800 0.1
II. High Potential 53,000 9.3
III. Medium Potential 53,000 9.3
IV. Semi-Arid 48,200 8.5
V. Arid 300,000 52.9
VI. Very arid 112,000 19.8
Rest (waters etc) 15,600 2.6
From the above table virtually 80% of the country lies in the semi-arid to very arid Zones (ASALs),
which are predominantly inhabited by the pastoralists and agro-pastoralists.
The Kenya's ASALs also support about seven million people and more than 50% of the country's
livestock population. These areas, which are also classified as rangelands, are unsuitable for rain fed
cultivation due to physical limitations such as aridity and poor vegetation.
Agro-climatic zones of Kenya
TOPIC 5: SELECTION OF SUITABLE PLANT AND ANIMAL SPECIES AND GENOTYPES
Definitions
Species
 A group of living organisms consisting of similar individual capable of exchanging genes or
interbreeding. The species is the principal natural taxonomic unit, ranking below a genus and denoted
by a Latin Binomial e.g. Medicago Sativa – Lucerne.
 A reproductively isolated aggregative of interbreeding populations (Mayr 1970).
 The members in aggregate of a group of populations that interbreed or potentially interbreed under
natural conditions (Futuyma 1978).
Species selection
 A postulated evolutionary process in which selection acts on an entire species population, rather than
individuals. This might occur, for example as a consequence of the geographical range of a
population which affects the population as a whole and possibly its longevity or development.
 Higher level analog of normal natural selection within a population species selection means, other
things being equal that have those kind of species that have lower extinction and higher speciation
rates will tend to increase in frequency over evolutionary time.
Concept
Agroforestry is a successful form of land use which achieves increased production and ecological and
socio-economic settings, agroforestry approaches have a higher potential to achieve these than most
other approaches to land use. But, with the wrong selection and choice of species combinations,
management practices and lack of people’s motivation and understanding, AF may not achieve its
overall objective.
The selection of suitable plant and animal species and genotypes is critical to the success of any
agroforestry system. The idea behind selection is to achieve the following: -
1) to select for appropriate agroforestry systems
2) to enhance the numerous attributes and benefits of agroforestry system to have appropriate
agroforestry systems suitable in different agro-ecological zones
3) to have appropriate agroforestry systems that are beneficial, profitable and sustainable
4) to achieve agroforestry system overall objective
5) to achieve agroforestry system
5.1. ANIMAL SPECIES IN AGROFORESTRY
Introduction
Most modern systems of raising animals separate them from their natural environment. In their systems,
many of the cycles of nature which are beneficial to both animals ad their environment is broken. The
use of animals in AF can be controversial. In many situations, animals such as cattle, goats and sheep
are associated with ecological degradation and deforestation.
Inappropriate use of animals and poor management lead to many environmental problems. However,
this does not necessarily have to be the case. If planned and managed properly, appropriate kinds of
animals can be key components in sustainable farming systems.
Agroforestry systems that incorporate animals with tree crops can enhance important cycles of nature
such as nutrient cycling and balancing of insect populations while reducing energy intensive
management techniques. The key is to integrate the natural needs, behaviours and products of animals
with the environment provided by the agroforestry system in a way that maximizes the benefits of the
animals and to the system as a whole.
The choice of animal species is obviously important in achieving the above objective since some species
are better in AF attributes than others. For example; cattle and sheep have more preference in grazing
pastures hence better incorporated in agrisilvopastoral systems and runners. Poultry are notorious for
damaging new plantings especially gardens.
Some environments like savannas are naturally suited for some types of grazing animals. In some areas
smaller animals and birds are more appropriate .Alternative animals eg. Ostrich and Iguanas can be
incorporated in AF systems for sustainability.
Important products and services of animals in Agroforestry
1. Grazing / weed maintenance (livestock , poultry)
2. Insect control (poultry )
3. Cleaning of fallen fruit / nuts and other organic wastes (livestock poultry)
4. Spreading nutrients in the form of their manure (livestock, poultry)
5. Scratching and digging to prepare for planting (pigs , chickens , turkeys , etc)
Animals when selected carefully for the right agroforestry system can carry out many of the
maintenance functions through their normal behavior.
Agroforestry systems provide the following products and services to animal husbandry: -
1) Favorable habitat
2) Access to a diverse diet
3) Access to medical plants and insects
4) Natural population densities
Examples of animals in agroforestry systems
1) Chickens in garden systems , orchards and forest
2) Ducks in aquatic environments eg. rice paddies
3) Geese to control grasses in orchards
4) Grazing livestock in forest plantations (silvopasture)
Advantages of integrating animals in AF Systems
1) Less reliance on outside inputs ie. cost saving
2) Reduced human maintenance
3) Better plant health through natural fertility cycling
4) Provision of organic animal products
5) Animals better of nutrition wise
6) Provision of manures – sustainability
7) Provision of animal draft
8) Provision of energy / fuel – biogas ,saving woody perennials and their important roles
Disadvantages
1) Animals must be carefully selected for particular AF Systems
2) Animals require tending and management of grazing
3) Food and water may need to be supplemented at times
4) Health care required
5) Special set of skills and knowledge required

5.2. MULTIPURPOSE TREES AND SHRUBS IN AGROFORESTRY

Definitions
Tree
 A woody perennial plant, typically, having a single trunk growing to a considerable height at some
distance from the ground.
 A perennial woody plant having a main trunk and usually a distinct crown
 Any perennial woody plant of considerable size (usually over 20Ft high) and growing with a sing
trunk
Shrub
 A woody plant smaller than a tree, with several main stems arising at or near the ground
 A woody plant of relatively low height, having several stems arising from the base and lacking a
single trunk
 A woody plant smaller than a tree, usually having multiple permanent stems branching from or near
the ground.
Herb
 A flowering plant whose stem does not produce wood persistent tissue and generally dies back at
the end of each growing season.
 A flowering plant with a non-woody stem

Multipurpose Tree
 Multipurpose trees are deliberately grown and managed for more than one output. They may supply
food in the form of fruit, nuts or leaves that can be used as vegetable, while at the same time
supplying firewood, add nitrogen to the soil, or supply some other combination of soil nutrients
 A tree or shrub that is deliberately kept and managed for more than one preferred use, product or
service.

Multipurpose Trees and Shrubs

Deliberately grown trees and shrubs and kept in integrated land use systems and are often managed for
more than one output. They are also expected to make a significant economic or ecological impact or
both.
Selection of Trees and Shrubs Species for Agroforestry
Concept
Agroforestry is an integrated approach of using the interactive benefits from combining trees and shrubs
with crops and/or livestock.
Different species of trees and shrubs can be planted with many types of crops in a variety of patterns.
For example, fast growing trees can be planted when the land is fallow or they can be grown at the same
time as agricultural crops.
It is imperative that trees and shrubs selected for agroforestry are as multipurpose as possible and so
that they can enhance most of the valuable agroforestry attributes.
It is a successful from of land use which achieves increased production and ecological and socio-
economic settings, agroforestry approaches have a higher potential to achieve these than most other
approaches to land use. But, with the wrong selection and choice of species combinations, management
practices and lack of people’s motivation and understanding, AF may not achieve its overall objective.
The selection of suitable plant and animal species and genotypes is critical to the success of any
agroforestry system. The idea behind selection is to achieve the following: -
1. To select for appropriate agroforestry systems
2. To enhance the numerous attributes and benefits of agroforestry systems
3. To have appropriate agroforestry systems suitable in different agro-ecological zones
4. To have appropriate agroforestry systems that are beneficial, profitable and sustainable
5. To achieve agroforestry systems overall objective
6. To achieve agroforestry systems
Factors to consider in selecting multipurpose trees for agroforestry
It is important to select the most suitable trees since it is not easy to replace them once they have been
planted. The following factors should be kept in mind when selecting tree species.
Environmental adaptation
A multipurpose tree must be able to adapt to the area's climate, soil, topography, and plant and animal
life. This is especially important for exotic species, that is, species introduced from outside the project
area or from outside the country.
Needs of farmers
The species should meet the needs of farm families. For this reason, it is important to involve farmers,
both men and women, in selecting species. They should identify desired tree products and planting
locations based on local markets as well as conservation needs.
Cost of planting materials
The cost of acquiring seedlings or cuttings should also be kept in mind. Planting stock of most fruit
trees, for example, are expensive. Forest depth can grow and sell multipurpose tree seedlings and sell
to farmers at subsidized prices and also farmer groups.
Ease of maintenance
Some species are more difficult to look after than others. Farmers should consider beforehand how
much time they have to care for the trees. If they require additional skills and knowledge to grow a
particular species, training or demonstration programs should be organized.
Availability of genetic materials
Seeds or seedlings of the species being considered must be easy to obtain. If vegetative propagation is
required, farmers should receive training in how to do this. Seeds of Gliricidia sepium and Sesbania
spp., for example, might not be readily available. Farmers may need help in how to propagate the trees
using root cuttings. They may not even have enough time to harvest the cuttings. Tree nursery managed
by farmers groups, commercial organizations and government depts. are essential in this endeavor.
Multipurpose & Shrubs in different agroforestry
When planted as hedgerows between rows of agricultural crops, some tree species reduce soil erosion.
When planted on slopes trees and alley crops slow down runoff rainwater and trap sediment, which can
form natural terraces after several years.
Alley cropping means growing hedgerows of closely spaced trees (20cm or less) between rows of food
crops. If the land slopes, farmers should plant the hedgerows along the contour, that is, the trees in each
hedgerow should be planted at the same level of slope.
Farmers should prune hedgerows regularly to prevent them from competing with nearby crops for
sunlight and water. When pruned regularly, hedgerows can provide a reliable source of animal fodder
and fuel. Farmers can cut the trees when they become competitive and carry the branches to pens where
animals are sheltered. Longer cutting cycles of 4-6 months provide relatively more wood than shorter
cycles. Short cycles produce relatively more foliage. Most species should not be pruned more often than
every 30 days.
If planted in double lines rather than single lines, hedgerows can produce almost twice as much foliage
and wood, without greatly increasing the competition with nearby crops for water, nutrients, and
sunlight. Where farmers can plant in a north-south rather than east-west direction, this will reduce
competition for sunlight. Whether farmers plant single or double rows depends on how much land is
available and the slope.
"Green manure" refers to foliage and twigs that are spread among food crops as mulch and organic
fertilizer to improve their growth. To obtain green manure, farmers can prune the tops of the hedgerows
every 6-8 weeks.
Following species were found to perform well, in terms of survival, growth, and wood and foliage
production, across diverse agro-ecological zones:
 Moringa oleifera, Senna siamea, Senna spectabilis , Acacia spp.,
 Leucaena leucocephala (except in acidic soils)
 Some provenances of Gliricidia sepium

Characteristics of multiple purpose tree species

a) Easily established and fast growing: require minimum labour for planting and maintenance and
benefits become available to the farm family as soon as possible.
b) Adaptable to close spacing: They should be amenable to early wide spacing; hedgrows require dense
planting.
c) They should possess self-pruning properties; If not self-pruning, they should be able to tolerate
relatively high incidences of pruning, i.e. their photosynthetic efficiency should not significantly
decrease with heavy pruning;
d) Good sprouting: hedgerows continue to grow regularly after pruning.
e) They should have a straight/ vertically growing crown; with low crown diameter to bole diameter
ratio i.e. the width of their crowns should be small relative to bole diameter; to avoid shadowy of the
alley crops
f) They should be light-branching in habit;
g) They should be tolerant of side-shade, if indeed not of full overhead shade in the early stages of
growth;
h) Their phyllotaxis (leaf position) should permit the penetration of light to the ground.
i) Their phenology, particularly with respect to leaf flushing and leaf-fall, should synchronizes with
the cropping cycle and be advantageous to the growth of the annual crop in conjunction with which
they are being raised;
j) Their rate of litter fall and litter decomposition should have positive effects upon the soil and be fast.
k) Their "above ground" changes over time in structure and morphology should be such that they retain
or improve those characteristics which reduce competition for solar energy, nutrients and water;
l) Deep root system: their root systems and root growth characteristics should ideally result in the
exploration of water and nutrients in soil layers that are different to those being tapped by the
agricultural species, thus efficient nutrient pumps and nitrogen fixing: leguminous (nitrogen-fixing)
species can contribute to crop nutrition.
m) They should provide palatable foliage/ fodder, timber producing, fuel wood, fence and tree cover.
n) Easy to propagate: generally, growing hedgerows from seed requires less labour than vegetative
propagation.
TOPIC 6: LAND USE AND AGRICULTURAL SYSTEMS RELATED TO AGROFORESTRY
Definitions
 Land use system: A system that shows how land an essential resource is being utilized and managed
by the household in the farming system or in any production system
 Land use: The exploitation of land for agricultural, industrial, residential, recreational, or other
purposes.
 Agricultural system: A system encompassing various elements and activities of farming, geared to
achieve certain production outputs Agro forestry system:
 A system of land use in which harvestable trees or shrubs are grown among or around crops or on
pasture land, as a means of preserving or enhancing the productivity of the land.
Concept
Land use systems, agricultural systems and agro forestry systems have one common goal: to utilize the
land productively, profitably and sustainably.
Man in his endeavor to meet the demands and pressures of the growing population and declining
productive land, more often than not lays more emphasis on land productivity and profitability at the
expense of sustainability. This indication is more conspicuous in land use and agricultural systems.
However, agroforestry systems do ensure sustainability by utilizing the important attributes of both
agriculture and forestry in various approaches that are complementary and supplementary.
By examining land use and agricultural systems related to agroforestry, the objective is to utilize and
incorporate the import attributes of agro forestry in enhancing the first two systems, and consequently
safe guarding sustainability in productivity. The issue is to ensure that important attributes in
Agroforestry such as afforestation, buffer strips, soil and water conservation and beneficial cultural
agricultural practices etc. are preserved and practiced in land use and agricultural systems.
Systems Related to Agroforestry
Non-agro land use systems
 Forests
 National parks and/ Game reserves
 Quarrying+ mining
 General landscaping
Agricultural systems
 Hunting and gathering
 Tree horticulture
 Plantation farming
 Intensive/mixed small scale farming
 Dry land farming
Hunting and Gathering (H&G)
H&G was the precursor of organized agriculture that was started in the Neolithic Era. H+G has a lot of
agroforestry attributes where soil and land fertility are naturally replenished through soil and aerial
nutrient cycles. H&G resembles forest gardening which is a type of agroforestry. In H&G no cultivation
is done. H&G is currently practiced by a few communities in the world's remote areas including Congo
Forest, Amazon Basin, Kalahari Desert and the Pacifics.
Shifting Cultivation (SC)
In shifting cultivation land and soil fertilities once exhausted after a number of cultivation seasons, are
naturally replenished by the land being left fallow for a number of seasons, while cultivation is shifted
to alternative sites. Trees and thick undergrowth that regenerate during the follow period replenish land
and soil fertilities naturally just as in agro [Link] could easily be equated to forest [Link] is
however heavily limited by increasing population pressure on land, hence it is only practiced in a few
areas in the world today.
Tree Horticulture (TH)
In this agricultural/cropping system, trees, which may be beverage, fruit, fibre, fuel, timber or elastomer,
are the main crop of attention by the farmer, while the undergrowth may provide vegetables and/or
forage for livestock. TH can be equated to forest farming, with all the beneficial agro forestry attributes,
and with minimum or no minimum or no tillage applied at all.
Plantation farming (PF)
This cropping system resembles TH where the trees are the main focus by the farmer, and they provide
agro forestry benefits to the soil and the land in general. However, in PF the undergrowth is not spared
as it is treated like a weed detrimental to the main crop. In. PF, soil fertility is restored through
application of fertilizers and manures.
Intensive (mixed) small-scale farming
This is a type of agric. system, with several crops and livestock species most probably on a small scale
farm. Under this system, all types of agro forestry are practiced. However, soil nutrient replenishment
is mostly done through application of manures and fertilizers, since replenishment by trees and shrubs
on the farm may not be adequate. AF attributes are also inadequately provided due to the limited number
of trees.
Dry land farming
DF areas are characterized by shortage of soil moisture due to inadequate rainfall. Although DF methods
do ensure harvesting of water and conservation of soils so as to sustain productive plant growth,
generation of substantial vegetative growth which contributes to agro forestry attributes and benefit is
always a major challenge in DF. However, selection of appropriate DF species may go a long way in
contributing to agroforestry benefits.
Forests
Natural and plantation forests when well managed and maintained go a long way in improving the
environment and by and large, in enhancing the important attributes of an enriched hydrological cycle
that eventually benefit agriculture and agro forestry. Afforestation and reaforestation should be a
continuous process. Any idle land should be afforested awaiting further land use.
National Parks and Game Reserves
Besides supporting wildlife and tourism economies, parks and game reserves are important aspects of
a wider and rich bio ecology and biodiversity that eventually contribute positively to agriculture and
agro forestry. When well preserved and maintained, they form important reservoirs of bio-diversity.
Quarrying and Mining
Q+M though essential not only to the general economy but also to the agricultural sector, they reduce
farming land. However, abandoned Q+M areas if well rehabilitated through infillings and afforestation
can turn out to be biodiversity reservoirs beneficial to agriculture and agroforestry.
General landscaping
All non-agro land use and agro-based areas should be well conserved, terraced and well covered with
vegetation of forest trees and/or shrubs. Roads, railways and waterways should have avenues of trees
and shrubs that act as buffer strips as well as windbreakers that are eventually beneficial to agriculture
and agroforestry.
6.0. INTERACTION BETWEEN HUMANS, ANIMALS, PLANTS AND THE ECOSYSTEM.
Definitions
Ecosystem
 A system formed by the interaction of a community of organisms with their physical environment.
 A community of organisms together with their physical environment, viewed as a system of
interacting and interdependent relationships and including such processes as the flow of energy
through trophic (relating to feeding and food for growth) levels and the cycling of chemical elements
and compounds through living and non-living components of the system
 All the animals and plants in a particular area and their relationship with their surroundings.
 An ecological community of organisms and its environment functioning as an ecological unit
Interaction
 Communication between organisms/units within the same environment, for mutual benefit
Concept
An ecosystem is a biological environment consisting of all the organisms living in a particular area, as
well as all the non-living (abiotic), physical components of the environment with which the organisms
interact, such as air, soil, water and sunlight. The entire array of organisms inhabiting a particular
ecosystem is called a community.
In a typical ecosystem, plants and other photosynthetic organisms are the producers that provide the
food. Ecosystems usually form a number of food webs. Ecosystems are functional units consisting of
living things in a given area, non-living chemical and physical factors of their environment, linked
together through nutrient cycle and energy flow. Central to the ecosystem concept is the idea that living
organisms interact with every other element in their local environment.
An example of eco system is agro ecosystem. An agroecosystem is a spatially and functionally coherent
unit of agricultural activity, and includes the living and non-living components involved in that unit as
well as their interactions. Agroforestry is also an example of ecosystem, involving interactions of
agricultural and forestry systems.
Ecosystems are as dynamic and complex as the plant, animal, microbial and non-living components of
which they are made. Humans are an integral part of most ecosystems, where they are agents of change
as well as consumers of ecosystem goods and services. Human well-being is inextricable link to the
sustainable use and management of ecosystems.
Agroforestry as an ecosystem has numerous benefits to its components i.e. humans, animals and plants.
The benefits which contribute to the sustainability of the ecosystem include the following:
 Maintenance of biodiversity which protects animals, plants and humans.
 Maintenance of natural cycles such as nitrogen and carbon cycles, important to life.
 Protection and reclamation of land, soil and water resources; to prevent wearing out and exhaustion.
 Preservation and provision of soil nutrients crucial to sustainability of plant life.
 Creation and maintenance of healthy environment critical to humans, animals and plants
Interactions
In the ecosystems, there are various interactions by the three major components of the ecosystems, i.e.
humans, animals and plants. The roles played by each component are hereby examined individually as
follows:
Humans
Man plays the largest role and has the biggest impact in any ecosystem basically because of his
dominion on all earthly resources, including land, soil, water, plants, animals, humans and the
environment at large. In his endeavor to harness and utilize the resources for his own good, man has
had both positive and negative impacts/effects on the resources, thereby destabilizing, degrading and
depleting ecosystems and rendering them poor in sustainability.
Major Areas of human interactions that negatively affect ecosystems most include the follows:
1) Population pressure
 The continuously increasing human population impact negatively in the utilization of the various
resources which are being depleted very fast with poor or no sustainability. The ecosystems are
destabilized

2) Agriculture and farming systems

Provision of food security has meant cultivation and grazing of steep slopes and wetlands thus
degrading ecosystems.
Other roles of agriculture such as provision of raw materials for industries, and provision of exports
to earn much needed foreign exchange, also translate to cultivation and grazing of unsuitable lands
thus degrading ecosystems
3) Other and use systems
Besides agriculture, other land we systems employed by other sectors of the economy degrade and
deplete ecosystems. These include quarrying and mining, crowed and overgrazed wildlife parks and
game reserves, deforestation for lumbering, urbanization, industrialization, sporting facilities,
hydroelectric dams etc.
4) Mismanagement of ecosystem resources through poor governance and poor policies, with low
regard to sustainability
Overall mismanagement of the environment
positive human interactions beneficial to ecosystems:-
 Eco-agriculture, sustainable agriculture Agroforestry system
 Appropriate land use planning, controlled urbanization/industrializing
 Landscaping and appropriate location of infrastructure
 Afforestation, reafforestation
 Protection of wet lands and riparian areas
 Soil conservation Water conservation and harvesting
 Carbon trading to increase overall vegetation cover Population planning and control
 Controlled stocking grazing and management + of range and game areas
Animals
 Livestock keeping and production if/well managed and controlled contribute positively to ecosystem
sustainability. Livestock droppings contribute to and restore soil fertility thus assuming
sustainability/renewed growth of pastures and forages
 Uncontrolled and mismanaged rangelands and game parks and reserves lead to over grazing that lead
to depletion of suitable and high yielding forage/pasture/agroforesty species, and growing and
domination of poor species
 Water resources are also depleted through uncontrolled and mismanaged grazing. Overgrazed land
leads to bare 1--6-riels, hard pans/surfaces, reduced infiltration and reduced soil moisture retention,
increased runoff and increased soil erosion through sheet, rill and gullies
 Land-carrying capacity and productivity are greatly reduced and both environment and ecosystems
are depleted
 Silvopastoral systems of agroforestry and controlled grazing, rehabilitation of degraded range and
game lands will restore the ecosystem.
Plants
Plants are central/fundamental to all agro ecosystems since livestock and game also depend on vigorous
growth of appropriate vegetation-pastures, shrubs. Both humans and animals wholly depend on plants
and sustainable plant growth for survival and for ability to contribute positively to sustainable
ecosystems. The success of agroforestry systems and their sustainability depend on use and application
of appropriate alley crops, and tree and shrub species to be incorporated.
Plants with adequate vegetative growth and cover go a long way in improving various agro-ecosystems
and eventually contribute to sustainable productivity of the land. Land, soil and water conservation are
adequately taken care of.

6.2. TREE – CROP INTERACTIONS IN AGROFORESTRY

When trees and crops are grown together on the same piece of land there will be interactions between
the two components, which may have positive or negative results.
Interaction is defined as the effect of one component of a system on the performance of another
component and/or the overall system.
Different types of interactions have been recognized between trees and crops in agroforestry systems;
namely:
1. Complementary Interaction:
It exists if the presence of one crop increases production of another crop. An example of
complementarity in cropping is the positive effect of one crop on the other crop. Cordia alliodora and
several Erythrina species are used as shade trees for coffee and cocoa.
Trees moderate the intensity of sunlight and wind, and maintain higher humidity. Crops under or
between the trees are protected from sudden changes in climate. Species of Acacia, Leucaena, Gliricidia
and other legumes are often interplanted with crops in agroforestry systems, because the nitrogen fixed
by these plants increases soil fertility and benefits the crop plants.
Interplanting trees and crops as in the taungya system often results in a mutual benefit. Weeding carried
out by cultivator benefits both the crops and the trees in that it reduces competitions for nutrients and
water.
The cut weeds represent a source of readily available nutrients to the crops and trees, if used as mulch.
The crops and weeds, and their litter when they are cut provide a mat over the soil which lessens erosion
and reduces evaporation
2. Supplementary Interaction:
This occurs if the presence of one crop does not influence the production of other crop(s). This is an
independent relationship. This relationship occurs if the different crops draw on resources at different
times of the year, or from different parts of the environment.e.g. different soil depth for nutrients.
In taungya, crop plants occupy space between tree seedlings, and use light, nutrients and water that
presumably otherwise would be wasted. During the first growing season, tree seedlings are so small
that crops usually grow well despite their presence. The relationship between trees and crops during the
first year of taungya appears in most cases to be supplementary.
The next two types of interactions between trees and crops in agroforestry systems are negative in
nature; namely:
3. Competition
The component plants in a mixed system vie for essential resources. Although agroforestry is envisaged
as a system of plant species that benefit each other mutually or unilaterally, it is too optimistic to assume
that all types of competition can be eliminated in these systems, especially in areas with poor soils and
scanty rainfall. Agroforestry systems lose some of the assimilated nutrients in the form of grain, wood,
fodder, etc, at each harvest, thus reducing reserves, unlike natural forests where recycling of nutrients
occurs.
Ideally, the relationship between crops and trees should be of a ‘complementary’ nature. However, this
is not always the case.
In many situations where trees and crops are grown together, they may compete for water, nutrients and
solar energy. The situation is obvious when the canopies of trees begin to close over the tops of crops
such as upland rice.
In Indonesian taungya (Tumpangsan) teak is often interplanted with giant Leucaena leucocephala and
with cassava as a cash crop. The Leucaena leucocephala is beneficial in that it produces shade and
green manure. The side-shading results in good form for the teak. However, competition can be
deleterious when teak is enclosed by two rows of Leucaena leucocephala.
Competition between trees and crops is a long-term problem in plantations when the crop species is a
perennial.

4. Allelopathy
Allelopathy is an interaction between plants or between plants and microorganisms in which substances
(allelochemicals) produced by one organism affect the growth of another (usually adversely).
The term allelopathy was coined in 1937 by Molisch to refer to biochemical interactions between all
types of plants including micro-organisms.
Allelopathy means plant-plant biochemical interactions that have detrimental effects, i.e. certain plants
release into the environment toxic chemicals that are injurious to other plant(s) in their vicinity. Such
toxic chemicals may be injurious to microbes and even to the seedlings of those plants releasing them.
Recent studies have shown that the organic compounds released this way are often phytotoxins which
are released into the environment as leaf leachates or root exudates by certain plants.
The effects of the chemicals may result in complete inhibition of growth or in stunted or retarded
growth. When complete inhibition occurs; this may be noticed in the form of bare areas around the trees
which exude the chemicals.
When the toxic exudates of the adult trees of a particular species suppress and eventually kill their
seedlings; then the phenomenon is called autoallelopathy.
Allelopathic situation has been found around Callitris intratropica in Northern Australia. Grevillea’s
poor performance in Australian tree plantations may be due to autoallelopathy.
Researchers have shown that water-soluble extracts from roots of adult trees suppress and eventually
kill their seedlings. This could prevent trees from growing well when closely space in pure stands.
Allelopathic compounds (allelopathic chemicals or allelochems) may be released into the environment
by:
1. Volatilization,
2. Leaching from living or dead tissues,
3. Exudation from roots and decay of plant tissues
Allelopathic interactions between trees and crops have been investigated in taungya plantations.
Examples: In Southeast Asian scientist (Susech and Vinaya Rai) in 1987 reported on effects upon
Sorghum, Cowpea and Sunflower by Eucalyptus, Casuarina and Leucaena. The crops, grown in topsoil
taken from beneath the trees, had decreased seed germination rate, decreased root growth and decreased
dry matter production compared with crops grown in control soils.
Presently, most of the allelochems known fall into five chemical classes:
1. Phenolic compounds, 2. Aldehydes, 3. Coumarins, 4. Glucosides and 5. Terpenes.
Mechanisms of Action of Allelochemicals
The mechanisms of action of allelochems are diverse and include:
a. Inhibition of cell division and elongation;
b. Inhibition of gibberellins – or Indole acetic acid induced growth;
c. Reduction of mineral uptake;
d. Retardation of photosynthesis;
e. Inhibition or stimulation of respiration;
f. Inhibition or stimulation of stomatal opening;
g. Inhibition of protein synthesis and organic acid metabolism.
TOIPC 7: DESIGN, IMPLEMENTATION AND BIO-ECONOMIC EVALUATION OF
AGROFORESTRY SYSTEMS
Definitions
Design
 A roadmap or a strategic approach for someone / something or an organization to achieve a unique
expectation or a set goals or objectives. It defines the specifications, plans, parameters, costs,
activities, processes and how and what to do within legal, political, social, environmental, safety
and economic constraints in achieving the objectives.
 To work out the structure or form of something, as by making a sketch, outline, pattern or plans.
Implementation
 The act of accomplishing some aim or executing some order.
 The act of providing a practical means for accomplishing something; carrying into effect.
 The carrying out, execution, or practice of a plan, a method or any design for doing something.
As such, implementation is the action that must follow any preliminary thinking in order for
something to actually happen.
Bio-economics
 The science determining the socio-economic activity threshold for which a biological system
can be effectively and efficiently utilized without destroying the conditions roe its regeneration
and therefore its sustainability
 Bio-economics advocates an integrate system such as agroforestry. Bio economics in if favour
of creating communities of producers, agriculturalists and cooperatives that could participate
in integrated activities of production and distribution.
Evaluation
 Systematic determination of merit, worth, and significance of something or someone, using
criteria against a setoff standard.
 The comparison of actual impact against strategic plans. It looks at original objectives, what
was accomplished and how it was accomplished.
 A systematic, rigorous and meticulous application of scientific methods to assess the design,
implementation, improvement or outcomes of a programme.
Bio-economic Evaluation
 Evaluation of a bio-economic activity, undertaking, project programme or organization
CONCEPT
Ecological, economic and social benefits of agroforestry are well documented (Carson, 1992, Neupane
and Thapa, 2000) However, despite the enormous benefits; the overall adoption of agroforestry by
farmers worldwide has been quite low.
One of the main reasons for slow adoption of agroforestry is that little attention has been given to the
marketing problems of agroforestry products, which discourages farmers from large scale adoption of
AF practices (Vosti et al 2003).
Conventionally, AF has been considered a subsistence activity to fulfill food, fuel wood, fodder and
other subsistence requirements of households (Neupane, 2000). Previous AF research and promotion
programmes were targeted mainly on biophysical conditions such as biophysical suitability,
species suitability, soil quality, biological productivity and their technical solutions. Biophysical
suitability and productivity were drivers of AF adoption rather than socioeconomic conditions.
In the recent past, attention has been turned to farmers, their socioeconomic condition, culture
and behavior as important determinants of AF adoption. It is now increasingly realized that to promote
AF, it is necessary to consider it as a competitive land use, and not just a supplementary strategy to
fulfill subsistence requirements.
Profitability is an overriding factor in farmer’s land use decisions, which are, in time, largely
determined by the value of AF products and the availability of marketing facilities.
 It is therefore imperative for AF systems and practices to be appropriately designed, implemented and
evaluated in detail, and a comparative analysis to be done with other competitive land use systems in
terms of financial and economic viability. This will facilitate the drawing of recommendations
necessary for adoption of AF by farmers.
However, farmers’ financial interests may not always match the social and environmental interests as
different land use practices exert a differential level of costs and benefits to the society, soil erosion and
other on-site and offsite effects.
While an individual farmer’s concern is financial, society and environmental requirements which may
enhance sustainability of AF productivity may be less profitable in the short term, but more profitable
in the long term due to sustainability/environmental/biodiversity benefits.
In the assessment of AF economic benefits, it is therefore necessary to carry out a bio-economic
evaluation rather than ordinary economic evaluation, in order to advice farmers appropriately with
regard to adoption of AF systems and practices.
Various studies/ research programmes carried out in the tropics and subtropics have shown that
profitability of agroforestry increased several times if constraints on marketing timber, other forest
products and cash crops are corrected.
The studies suggest that there is not only a trade-off but a win-win situation in AF, where soil erosion
is minimum and farm income is considerably high if market imperfection could be corrected and
infrastructural and marketing facilities could be provided.
There is a great potential to increase small holder income, as well as to slow down the present
degradation processes or even enhance the quality of natural resource base by removing constraints on
AF product marketing.
Factors to consider in Design and Implementation of Agroforestry Systems
1. The set objectives when AF System was being designed and implemented
2. Ecological and Biographic Environmental: Every agro ecological zone has crops, MPT and shrubs,
and animal suited and adapted to it. This will be the first consideration in design and implementation
of an AF system.
3. The needs of the farmers- farmers’ needs may be socio-economic, cultural technological for ease
of labour, nutritional preferences, etc.
There is need to use participatory approach i.e. involve the farmers in design, implementation and
evaluation of AF Systems.
4. Available capital (farmers own funds or credit facilities) to adequately facilitate an AF undertaking
and implementation.
5. AF attributes and benefits
6. AF systems sustainability- at minimal costs and enhancing biodiversity and ecosystems, and with
minimal environmental degradation.
7. Country’s laws and policies regarding agriculture and agro-related areas such as forestry, land,
environment , land use planning , public health , etc.
8. Utilization of factors of production in the AF Systems being evaluated - full maximization of factors
of production i.e. land, labour, capital and management by man
9. Quick return for investment mad e in AF Systems
10. Balancing between AF economic returns and AF biographic benefits (especially soil fertility and
conservation).
11. Selection of appropriate species and genotypes- includes all AF components i.e. crops, MPTs and
animal’s / livestock annuals + woody perennials +animals
Crops should be those suitable in the AEZ where the AF system is to be implemented. MPTs
+shrubs with multiple outputs, all geared to enhance AF attributes (productivity, sustainability and
adoptability) and benefits. The right animals in the right place at the right time
12. Available AF technologies and extension packages
Economic considerations
Economic considerations are among the most important factors that will determine the ultimate value
and feasibility of AF to the land user. However, the majority of AF research to date has concentrated
on the physical and biological factors that affect productivities. Inadequate attention has been paid to
the economic value of directly quantifiable AF outputs such as fodder, green manure, fuel wood and
timber, as well as significant, harder – to –quantify environmental effects including enhanced soil
fertility and watershed protection.
There is serious lack of reliable information base on farm conditions of the economic benefits and costs
that are claim inherent to many AF System may have proven economically viable under the conditions
in which they originally evolved, increasing population pressure on land changing social perceptions
and modern land use options all underscore the need for new bio-economic evaluations of many existing
AF Systems.
To address this need, it is important that proponents of AF have some understanding of basic economic
concepts as well as the procedures that are frequently used by national and international agencies to
assess the feasibility of agricultural enterprises.
General practices of economic analysis
Most of the natural and human resources necessary for sustained economic development in developing
countries are becoming increasingly scarce. Therefore, the decision to invest in one undertaking usually
mandates the exclusion of its possible alternatives.
Accordingly, economics endeavors to determine the ways in which limited or scarce resources can best
be allocated to fulfill the competing wants and needs of a society. More specifically, economic analysis
attempts to demonstrate to decision makers the possible repercussions of trade-offs which will result
from alternative sources of action.
SUSTAINABILITY OF PRODUCTIVITY UNDER AGROFORESTRY
Definitions
Sustainability
 The ability to, maintain a certain status or process in existing systems.
 The ability of an ecosystem to function and maintain productivity for a prolonged period.
 Meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their
own needs.
 Sustainability from the latin sustinere (tenere- to hold, sus – up) to sustain – maintain, support, endure.
 Using methods, systems and materials that will not deplete resources or harm natural cycles.
Sustainability embodies ‘stewardship’ and ‘design with nature’, well established goal of design and
‘carrying capacity’
Productivity
 The level, the rate and the efficiency at which a given production system or process releases outputs
or products, as a result of various resource inputs injected into it. Productivity is said to be high when
the value of output is very close to the cost of the inputs used in production.
AF Sustainability Concept
Agroforestry attributes and benefits make AF systems superior to agricultural and forestry systems
applied separately.
AF attributes and benefits need to be made sustainable since an AF undertaking is a medium to long
term investment especially when considering the woody perennial components. Benefits form MPTs
and shrubs take time to be realized.
Production and protection (which is the cornerstone of sustainability) are two fundamental attributes of
all agroforestry systems. This implies that AF systems have a productive function yielding one or more
products that usually meet basic needs, as well as service role, i.e. protecting and maintaining the
production degree of commercialization.
The emphasis on production of outputs should not diminish the importance of sustainability. Although
production is a very important consideration in AF, it is the sustainability attribute that makes it different
form other approaches to land use. Moreover, in all AF, produce more than one basic need output
(largely because of the multipurpose nature of the associated woody perennial component). Therefore,
all AF systems have both productive and protective (sustainability roles, though in varying degrees. The
productive role is for the immediate benefits which keep the farmer in the farming business, while the
protective role safeguards or sustains farmers ‘AF business in future. It is prudent to balance the two
roles.

AF sustainability approaches.
There are four key components to the Agroforestry/ Sustainable land use philosophy, which include
intention, intensity, integration and interactivity.
Intention means that the trees, crops, livestock and shrubs are intentionally created and designed in the
most favourable way to achieve the most benefits and highest yield possible, and for a long time.
(Sustainability)
Intensity means that the practices and processes of AF are managed intensively so as to preserve the
basic functions of production and protection operations such as pruning, and thinning, fertilization,
irrigation and cultivation are often included in intensive management practices for sustainability.
Integration means that all the individual components of AF are brought together and combined into a
single cohesive unit for overall maximum benefits that are sustainable.
Interactivity means that the agroforestry components (trees, crops, etc.) are managed and utilized in
an active way while at the same time balancing the benefits of conservation and the local ecology, thus
safeguarding sustainability.
By planting permanent vegetation such as trees and grasses in between bodies of water and cropland,
the ecosystem is benefited by reducing pollution, stabilizing water banks, and improving habitat for
both aquatic and terrestrial life.
Windbreaks such as hedgerows work to protect crops and provide many additional benefits as well.
Alley cropping with alternating AF (MPT) trees and shrubs provides for economic diversity as well as
biodiversity. Silvopastoral combined livestock production with trees and pasture to create a symbiotic
structure providing for Sustainability.
Forest farming is the sustainable land use practice of growing specialty crops of high value in the
understory of trees that provides the microclimate conditions needed by the crops.
An agroforestry system is said to be more sustainable when the vegetative cover of the various plant
components is always high and well maintained for season to season.
TOPIC 8.0. PLANNING AGROFORESTRY PRACTICES
Few things disappoint a landowner more than spending money, time, and effort on a project that
fails...especially one like agroforestry, where it can be years before problems become apparent.
Agroforestry practices can provide many different environmental and production benefits for a farm
and its surrounding area. However, it can be a complex task to determine what opportunities, limitations,
and trade-offs exist in each situation, and to design an agroforestry practice that achieves the best
balance among them.
Planning helps determine the best design before the landowner commits to something in the field.
It can improve the level of success and reduce the risk of failure. Planning typically starts when a
landowner contacts a resource professional. The landowner may express an interest in some type of
agroforestry or describe a problem that agroforestry can solve. The resource professional can develop
a practice that meets the landowner’s needs by systematically conducting three basic tasks:
• Determine objectives of the practice;
• Develop viable options for the landowner to select from;
• Implement the practice and monitor the results.
1. Determine Objectives
Before you design and install it, you have to know what it’s supposed to do. Initially, a landowner may
have only a general idea of problems to solve (e.g., poor cash flow) or conditions to improve (e.g., more
wildlife).
This provides a starting point. Further discussion may help clarify those ideas and bring up additional
ones, particularly as the resource professional helps the landowner become aware of the capabilities
and limitations for agroforestry on that farm or ranch. This information helps the landowner more
clearly identify an initial set of planning objectives.

Purposes planning agroforestry practices

Wildlife enhancement; flood control; income generation; erosion control; livestock protection; fishing
improvement; water pollution control; crop protection; land beautification.

Site Assessments
These identify more clearly the landowner’s initial ideas and verify his or her needs. It should also
identify any other conditions that could be improved by, or limit effectiveness of, agroforestry at the
site.
Site-scale information can be obtained by talking with the landowner, making field observations, and
consulting resource surveys. For example, some conditions that indicate opportunities for improvement
include: total farm income based on a single crop; unacceptable erosion from stream banks or cultivated
fields; wind stress on crops or livestock; periodic damage from flooding; and sparse fish or game.

Landscape assessments
These aid to identify resource conditions and problems in the surrounding area that could affect, or be
affected by, an agroforestry practice at the landowner’s site. For example, you might find that the site
is: within a critical breeding area for certain at-risk species of wildlife; upstream from a popular, but
rapidly degrading recreation lake; or drains to a stream that provides drinking water to a local
community. Landscape-scale information can be determined from neighbours, community leaders and
groups, agency representatives, and conservation organizations.
Other good sources include county and regional assessments and development plans. Site and landscape
assessments will enable the landowner to become aware of all the potential benefits and limitations for
agroforestry on their land.
The landowner can then make an informed decision about which benefits to address. Where there are
several, have the landowner prioritize them in case some trade-offs are necessary in the design.
It is often helpful to specify what measurable level of each benefit (or suitable indicator) is desired.
Such indicators and target levels will be useful later in developing optional designs, and for monitoring
to determine if an installed practice is successful.

2. Develop options and select one

There’s more than one way to get a job done... and some ways are better than others. Since the
landowner makes the final call on what is “better,” it is important to prepare a range of viable options.
Some optional designs may not be what the landowner originally had in mind and some may not even
include agroforestry. But, good planning and design will ensure that each option can achieve the
objectives of the landowner. Present each option and help the landowner evaluate and compare them.
Formulating a viable option typically requires repeated design, evaluation, and refinement.
A complete agroforestry design indicates its location, size, and vegetation composition, as well as
how the practice should be managed.
Professional judgement, accepted rules-of- thumb, and scientific models can be used to estimate
how well a design may achieve each planning objective.
There may be other criteria, not among the objectives, that also affect how desirable a design is.
Environmental impacts (positive and negative), economic costs, and general appeal of the design, for
example, represent additional benefits, important limitations, and trade-offs that should also be
evaluated for each option.
After preparing a few different options, compare each one to the others. Base this comparison on how
well they achieve each planning objective, and on each of the other important criteria. When there are
numerous objectives and other criteria. A matrix is also a useful tool to educate the landowner about
advantages and disadvantages of each option.

3. Implement and monitor

Small agroforestry projects can be installed with a minimum of planning, however, relatively large and
more-complicated projects may require implementation planning to organize numerous activities,
people, and equipment, particularly if installation is a long-term activity. After installing the selected
design, monitor how well each of the planning objectives (and other criteria) are being met.
The measurable indicators and target levels that were specified when developing the objectives should
be used for this purpose. For example, your indicators and targets might be: farm income diversified to
20% from agroforestry products; livestock weight gain increases by 10%; crop yields increase by 10%;
or stream water nitrate levels fall below 10 mg/L.
Some objectives may not be achieved for several years. In these cases, regular monitoring can still help
determine if there is satisfactory progress toward them.
The plan can be revised and re-implemented if monitoring suggests that the planning objectives are not
going to be met.
Effective monitoring identifies problems early, when they are more-easily corrected. Some solutions
may simply require re-installation of the original design. In other cases, the design may need to be
modified to achieve the objectives.
In still others, the objectives may become unobtainable, so they must be changed and a new design
developed. This kind of planning activity, after the practice is installed, is sometimes called “adaptive
management.”
The planning process is a learning process for the resource professional and the landowner. New
information often leads to better assessments of problems and limitations; changes in priorities; and
new or modified objectives. Revision represents an opportunity to apply that information and improve
an agroforestry design.
Expect to “cycle back” through each part of the process a few times, particularly the objectives and
options activities, before an effective agroforestry design is produced. Planning for the development of
agroforestry in large areas, such as counties or watersheds, can follow the same basic process that have
been described above, but with two important adjustments:
• Emphasis is placed on identifying and addressing landscape- and community-scale resource issues,
• Landscape assessments should pinpoint locations where the potential for agroforestry benefits are
especially promising.
A landscape-scale design can be used as a guide by landowners, resource professionals, and other site
planners for blending their individual agroforestry practices with surrounding land uses to enhance
benefits to communities and resources throughout the larger area.

8.1 MONITORING AND EVALUATION

As a basis for the Monitoring & Evaluation system, each of the five projects undergoes a logical
framework planning process.
The identified objectively verifiable indicators therefore form the basis for the programme's monitoring
and evaluation system. Each project has a database with the names of all households in each area of
concentration.
A typical database for a project has more than thirty thousand registered households. From this database,
a sample of between 1000-1400 households is drawn, normally by a cluster sampling technique.
A questionnaire is then administered in order to establish baselines/bench marks for future impact
monitoring. After the first baseline is completed, the monitoring and evaluation concentrates on
administrative monitoring, which entails measurements of the efficiency of the conversion of
programme inputs into outputs, and the effectiveness of activities by giving the right outputs.
Some staff have reservations about the monitoring and evaluation activity, mainly because it is
perceived as a way of “controlling” staff. However, it is not introduced to punish and kick out non-
performing staff, but to develop activities and build competence among staff. The Regional Coordinator
is responsible to the headquarters in Stockholm for reporting the outcome of the monitoring and
evaluation work.
The following field activities are monitored and evaluated:
• Home nursery establishment, planting out of multipurpose tree species
• Direct sowing of multipurpose tree species,
• Direct sowing of soil improving tree species
• Direct sowing of fruit trees
• Trees and seedling protection against roaming animals, fire, rodents and poultry
• Tree management and silvicultural practices: looping, pruning and pollarding
• Management of soil improvement alley crops; pruning side branches of fodder trees
• Pricking out, from seed beds to containers.
Common, remaining problems include:
• Poor collaboration with local leaders, Late preparations for tree planting, Roaming animals

8.2. DIAGNOSIS AND DESIGN (D & D) Methodology for technology development in Agro-
forestry
Concurrent with the conceptual developments and biophysical investigations in agroforestry during the
1980s, there was also substantial progress with regard to research methodologies for biophysical and
social aspects of agroforestry.
These methodologies consisted essentially of two types:
1) procedures for holistic assessment of the constraints and problems of land use leading to
identification of specific intervention points and methods for improvement of a given land use system,
and
2) adaptation of methods and procedures that were already available for research in specific branches
of agricultural sciences, such as soil and plant sciences, to the specific conditions and needs of
agroforestry.

When the terms research and design are used together, most biological researchers in land-use
disciplines immediately think of experimental designs of a statistical nature. Before embarking on such
specific experiments, however, it is necessary to determine in a holistic manner what the problems are
(in other words, to "diagnose" the problem), and what kind of research would best address the problem.
This analytical logic is the cornerstone of the "Diagnosis and Design" methodology, the development
of which represents the most significant tool for the design of agroforestry systems in the 1980s. The
adaptation of experimental procedures and designs of a statistical nature for specific agroforestry
experiments will be addressed in the next topic.

8.3. THE GENESIS OF DIAGNOSIS AND DESIGN (D & D) METHODOLOGY

Just as agroforestry itself is often correctly described as a "new name for an old practice," the diagnosis
and design methodology is an adaptation of old or existing methodologies to the specific needs and
conditions of agroforestry. Several methodologies have been developed for holistic evaluation and
analysis of land use systems.
The most significant among these, which were already in place before diagnosis and design was
developed are;
a) Farming systems research/extension (FSR/E), and
b) Land evaluation methodology.
In broad terms, each of them is quite consistent with one another, and attempts to accomplish similar
tasks; but each was developed for specific objectives and conditions.
For example, the FSR/E program was developed in response to the failures or inadequacies of the
traditional transfer-of-technology extension methods that were initiated to disseminate the researcher-
driven green revolution technologies to resource poor, small-scale farmers.
FSR/E was designed to be interdisciplinary and holistic (i.e., encompassing the whole farm), as well as
demanding farmer involvement from the outset.
The D & D arose, in the words of J. B. Raintree, who directed its development at ICRAF, "out of the
demands of the agroforestry situation; it gives a special focus on agroforestry-related constraints and
opportunities within existing land-use systems, and highlights agroforestry potentials that might be
overlooked by other methodologies.
For example, for most FSR/E practitioners, the trees within the farming system tend to be invisible".

CONCEPTS AND PROCEDURES OF D & D METHODOLOGY

Diagnosis and design is a systematic and objective methodology used to initiate, monitor and evaluate
agro forestry programmes was developed by ICRAF in 1980’s.
D & D is a methodology for the diagnosis of land-management problems and the design of agroforestry
solutions.
There is an adage in the medical profession that "diagnosis must precede treatment." Anyone concerned
with problem-solving applies this principle in one way or another. In the work of the forester, or the
farmer, the ability to solve a problem begins with the ability to define what the problem is. A clear
statement of the problem is often all that is needed to suggest a solution.
D & D is simply a systematic approach to the application of this principle in agroforestry.
The basis of diagnosis and design is in the fact that knowledge of existing situation (diagnosis). Is
essential to plan and evaluate (design).
Diagnosis and design borrows heavily from other methodologies such as participatory rural Appraisal
(PRA). PRA baseline surveys, farming systems survey, feasibility studies and sectorial studies.
Objectives of D & D
a) To assist agro forestry researchers and development field workers and planners to plan and in
implementing effective research programmes and development projects.
b) To improve performance and benefits of rural households.
The basic unit of diagnosis and design is the land use system (LUS). LUS is defined by 3 factors;
a) Land resources
b) Technology
c) Land user/land use unit
The 3 elements are essential to a functioning LUS, land use unit is the main decision maker and all
operations of LUS depend on the user.
For land resource to be useful there must be a technology to exploit the resource a land resource can be
defined by number of factors;
1. Climate
2. Physical factors – steep, slope, hill
3. Biological factor
4. Technological factor
5. Economic factor
6. Social factor
7. Political factor
8.4. Process/Procedure of Diagnosis and Design
The basic procedures of D & D consist of five stages each of the stages can be further divided into
smaller steps as circumstances might warrant. The nature of data and information to be gathered, as
well as the types of questions to be asked or inquiries to be conducted at each stage.

The basic D & D process is repeated throughout the life of the project that follows, so as to refine the
original diagnosis and improve the technology design in the light of new information from on-farm
research trials, more rigidly controlled on-station investigations, and eventual extension trials in an
expanded range of sites.

.
Basic procedures of the Diagnosis and Design (D & D) methodology.
 D&D Stages Basic questions to answer Key factors to Mode of inquiry
consider

Prediagnostic Definition of the land use Distinctive Seeing and comparing

system and site selection combinations of the different land use
(which system to focus on?) resources, technology systems
and land user
objectives
How does the system work? Production objectives Analysing and
(how is it organized, how does and strategies, describing the system
it function to achieve its arrangement of
objectives?) components
Diagnostic How well does the system Problems in meeting Diagnostic interviews
work? (what are its problems, system objectives and direct field
limiting (production observations
constraints, problem generating shortfalls, Troubleshooting the
syndromes & intervention sustainability problem subsystems
points?) problems)
Causal factors,
constraints and
intervention points
Design & How to improve the system? Specifications for Iterative design and
evaluation (what is needed to improve problem solving or evaluation of
system performance) performance alternatives
enhancing
interventions
Planning What to do to develop and Research and Research design,
disseminate the improved development needs, project planning
system? extension needs
Implementation How to adjust to new Feedback from on- Rediagnosis and
information? station research, on- redesign in the light of
farm trials and special new information
studies

Source: Raintree (1987 a).

This iterative D & D process provides a basis for prompt feedback and complementarity between
different project components. By adjusting the plan of action as indicated by new information, the D &
D process becomes self-correcting.
In an integrated agroforestry research and extension program, pivotal decisions are made in periodic
meetings of the various project personnel who evaluate new results and revise the action plan
accordingly. The process continues until the design is optimal and further refinement is deemed
unnecessary.
Information needs and sources for agroforestry diagnosis & design.
Design decisions Questions and sources of information
External knowledge base Diagnostic field survey
Potentially relevant AF What kind of a system is it? What are the identifying
Prototypes (environment, land use system characteristics of the system?
(provisional identification) type, land use intensity, sources (what are its component parts,
of production increase, typical how is it organized, how does it
problems, potentials and work?) (from brief
functional needs, adoptability reconnaissance survey)
considerations)
Site-specific design What kinds and rate of change is What is the best overall
algorithm this type of system able to absorb? development strategy for the
Development strategy What is the optimal pathway of system? (incremental
intensification? improvement
 vs. complete transformation;
phased approach to introduction
of changes)
What problems and potentials What are the typical problems and What are the actual problems
should the design address? potentials of this type of system at and potentials of the system?
its present stage of development? (How do local people normally
cope with these problems?)
What functions should the What functional needs and What are the actual functional
design perform? constraints are typical of such needs of the system? (as
systems? perceived
by both farmers and
researchers)
Which functions should be What are the needs and How does the land user
performed separately & possibilities for functional perceive the relative advantages
which in combination? combinations in such systems? of different possibilities?
At what locations within the What landscape niches are What landscape niches are
landscape should these usually found in such systems? actually available, which offer
functions be performed? the best choice, what are the
land user's preferences?
What species components or What exotic components are What indigenous components
component combinations are thought be suitable for these could perform these functions?
best used to perform the functions in this environment' (local ethnobotanical
desired functions? knowledge)

How many of each are What is the expected yield of the Is it possible to fit the required
required to achieve the chosen components in this number of components into the
objectives of the design? environment? (If for service role, available spaces? (If not, how
how much impact are they likely can the supply gap be filled?
to have?) Review local strategies for
coping with supply shortages
and other problems to suggest
additional approaches.)
What precise arrangement of What arrangements are possible? Which arrangements are
the plant and animal (simultaneously in space and/ or preferred by the land users?
components is envisaged? sequentially in time)
What management practices What are the management Which management options are
are envisaged to achieve the options? preferable to local land users?
performance objectives? (check compatibility with local
skills, availability of labour and
other inputs)
Source: Raintree (1987 a).

Prediagnostic

Diagnostic

Technology Design & evaluation

On-Farm Research Planning Decisions On-Station Research

 Implementation

Extension Trials

Flowchart of iterative activities and feedback in a D & [Link]: Raintree (1987 a).
8.5. Key features of D & D
D & D is a methodology that has been developed specifically for agroforestry applications, with
emphasis on a comprehensive diagnosis of the problems, followed by design and implementation of
appropriate interventions to solve the diagnosed problems. Its prominent features are:
 Flexibility - D & D is a discovery procedure which can be adapted to fit the needs and resources of a
wide variety of land users.
 Speed - D & D has been designed to allow for a "rapid appraisal" application at the planning stage of
a project with in-depth analysis occurring during project implementation.
 Repetition - & D is an open-ended learning process. Since initial designs can almost always be
improved, the D & D process need not end until further improvements are no longer necessary.
D & D is based on the premise that, by incorporating farmers into research and extension activities,
subsequent recommendations and interventions will be more readily adopted. During the prediagnostic
and diagnostic stages, a multidisciplinary team of researchers interacts with farmers and other land users
either individually or in groups.
These group exercises are used to characterize current agroforestry practices, identify economic,
agronomic, social, and other forms of constraints to production, and discuss alternate production and
management strategies.
These activities are needed to identify or elicit farmer perceptions of land-use constraints. Special efforts
are also made to involve women in the diagnostic interviews; by doing so, problems such as fuelwood
shortages, which men may be unaware of or not concerned about, receive deserving attention.
Farmer interviews are also useful in initiating linkages and developing trust between farmers and
researchers, which is necessary for future program development.
This framework is said to be applicable to both research and extension activities. If the agroforestry
technologies that are envisaged in the design already exist, the D & D methodology can be used directly
as a guide for agroforestry interventions by extension workers.
If, on the other hand, the desired technologies do not exist or are not fully developed, the designs can
provide a basis for identifying the kind of research that needs to be undertaken.
However, in reality, most applications of D & D to date have been for development-oriented projects.

Variable scale D & D procedures

Another key aspect of the D & D approach is its scale-neutrality, which enables it to be applied at
different levels in the hierarchy of land-use systems.
Thus, the procedure can be applied with minor modifications at the micro level (household management
unit such as the family farm), meso level (local community, village, or watershed), or macro level (a
region, country, or ecozone).
The most distinctive feature of the methods used at the micro level is the "basic needs approach," which
identifies constraints, and a "troubleshooting procedure," which is used to design agroforestry solutions
for diagnosed problems. Food, fuel, fodder, shelter, raw materials for local crafts, and cash are
considered to be the important basic needs; problems that the farmers encounter in meeting these basic
needs are identified.
The D & D team then probes the causes of the identified problems, using a troubleshooting logic, e.g.,
what is causing this problem and why is this so? Each identified cause is then linked to an appropriate
agroforestry intervention, with great emphasis placed on discussion of the interventions between farm
household members and the D & D survey team.
a) Macro diagnosis and design
b) Micro diagnosis and design
1. Micro diagnosis and design:
This is a detailed analysis of household or a specific production system. Usually it relies on specific
prioritized from macro diagnosis and design. Afterward the research processes may be designed to
specifically recognize potential intervention to address the constraints.
Although the micro D & D is a useful approach to identifying problems for individual farms, it simply
is not comprehensive enough for large-scale agroforestry undertakings.
The solutions to some of the problems, for example, may need to be applied over an area that covers
hundreds or thousands of farms (e.g., soil erosion on a slope in a watershed, or pest infestation in a
region).
Furthermore, "the household" is certainly not a homogeneous unit; besides the intrinsic differences
among households, different members of a household will have different perceptions of problems, and
different resources to address the problems.
Fuelwood is often considered as a "woman's problem," whereas the cash economy of the household is
usually the man's domain. This necessitates special efforts within even a micro D & D approach in order
to design relevant interventions for different households and different household members.
Objectives are three;
1. Describe and analyse a land use system in order to identify constraints
2. Design and evaluate agro forestry technologies to address the constraints
3. Design and evaluate appropriate research programme to develop the technologies further.
The objectives of macro and micro diagnosis and design may be similar but macro has a broader scope
whereas micro diagnosis and design is more focused and detailed.

2. Meso diagnosis and design:

The meso scale D & D is used to work with units larger than farms, such as watersheds and other
landscape zones.
Typically, following an initial phase of household-level D & D, a landscape planning exercise is
conducted for the design of a comprehensive and integrated agroforestry solution.
For example, if soil erosion is identified as a major problem that needs to be tackled at a larger-than-
farm level, aerial photos of the watershed could be analyzed to identify topographic features of the
watershed landscape to design hedgerow planting of multipurpose trees, supported by check dams and
gully plugs.
Another type of meso-scale D & D analysis is to examine differences between land-use systems in
different landscape zones within an area, to determine whether opportunities exist for complementary
production, e.g., production of fuelwood by low-resource farmers in the upper watershed for sale to
fuel-needy commercial farmers in the valley bottoms.
This kind of socially sensitive analysis of user needs in relation to landscape opportunities is a rather
complex undertaking requiring highly skilled personnel.

2. Macro diagnosis and design:

This is an analysis of an ecozone within a country for purpose of accessing the institutional environment
agricultural policy and the typical land use system including the constraints.
The macro-scale D & D involves the use of D & D procedures for a much larger application than the
micro- and meso-levels.
Finally, potential agro forestry interventions and research priorities are recommended to
alleviate/mitigate the identified constraints.
Macro diagnosis and design is a rapid Appraisal technique. It relies heavily on Secondary data and the
Secondary information is complimented by quick field surveys.
For example, some of the problems of an ecoregion or a province may need to be addressed at levels
larger than households and watersheds. Moreover, some of the environmental survey techniques, for
example, those associated with the land evaluation methodology (FAO, 1976), which are very useful
tools in land-use constraint analysis, lend themselves to large-scale perspectives and may only be
compatible with D & D at this level.
The framework for such a version of D & D methodology was thus developed in response to these
situations. It should be noted, however, that this level of application is exceedingly complex and will
normally result in recommendations for a wide array of agroforestry interventions within the given
ecoregion, state, or province.
The D & D procedure has been applied in initiating agroforestry projects in a number of locations
throughout the world, at the micro-, meso-, and macrolevels. ICRAF has published a "user-friendly" D
& D manual which is used extensively by D & D practitioners.
N/B: procedural aspects of D & D, must always be adapted to the needs and circumstances of particular
users. The best results will be obtained when the procedures are used, not mechanically as a rigid tool,
but creatively as an aid to sensitive diagnosis and creative design.
Examples: Problems encountered: Soil erosion, Low incomes, Poor crop yields, Inadequate labour,
No food security, Uncontrolled needs, Inadequate cash.
CAUSAL DIAGRAM
Hedgerow intercropping

Soil erosion No food security

Low income
Poor yields Inadequate labour
Woodlots in Farm Management
Agro forestry contributions to human welfare and environmental resilience and sustainability poverty
and increasing, cash income, improving food and national security.

Agro forestry improves the soil fertility contribute to soil conversion, biological diversity and
sequestration of carbon. Trees can act as carbon sinks 1Ha of forest. Trees convert about 40 tonnes of
carbon per year.

Services Agro Forestry Products

Improved human welfare and Increased income and poverty

environment resilience reduction

Environmental benefits
Food nutritionals security
Comparison of D & D with similar methodologies
Comparisons have been made between D & D and these other longer-established methods. With regard
to procedural aspects, D & D is more closely related to the FSR/E (sometimes D & D is even portrayed
as a form of FSR/E).
According to Raintree (1987a), D & D is, however, different from FSR/E in the following aspects:
• It possesses a broader diagnostic scope, giving specific attention to the role of trees within the farming
system;
• It has a more elaborate technology design step, which is needed to visualize the more complex
landscape intervention typical of agroforestry;
• It may be applied at variable-scales; and
• It places a greater emphasis on the iterative nature of the diagnostic and design process.
Both the Land Evaluation and D & D methodologies attempts to accomplish virtually the same task: to
find out the best system of improved land-use for a given site (Young, 1985). However;
In Land Evaluation, there is a stronger treatment of environmental aspects while in D&D a stronger
treatment of social aspects.
Another relatively new methodology of a similar nature is the agroecosystems analysis (Conway, 1985).
This is a conceptually simpler methodology for rapid rural appraisals.
Although no systematic comparison has been made between D & D and agroecosystems analysis, the
two approaches share the same philosophy.
Another recent holistic approach to land management that has originated from a rangeland management
perspective places a greater emphasis on design as opposed to diagnosis.
It will thus appear that all these methodologies have the same essential features; each, however, has
specific merits for specific situations.
The D & D, because of its agroforestry orientation, is more popular in agroforestry circles.
Nonetheless, if agroforestry itself is considered as a subset of farming systems, and FSR/E becomes
broader and visualizes trees on farms as essential components of farming systems, the remaining
differences, if any, between FSR/E and D & D will be of purely academic interest.
But the fact remains that these are only methodologies for logically addressing land-use problems; they
are not substitutes for action, i.e., testing, refining, and disseminating interventions.
Additionally, a sound grasp of biological and social problems, as well as a knowledge of possible
interventions and a creative approach, are required of the multidisciplinary teams.
The suitability of the diagnosis and the design will be a function of their knowledge and creativity;
similarly, the success of the action depends on the merits of the available technologies. Furthermore,
the methodologies can, at best, only identify the problems and suggest the solutions; the solutions
themselves depend on how the knowledge is advanced and applied.
TOPIC 9.0. TREE NURSERY

9.1. Introduction to Tree Nursery

The need for tree nurseries emphasizes an important difference between agriculture and forestry. The
farmer sowing the seeds where his crop is to grow. The farmer in most cases sows seeds and raises
seedlings in a nursery and then plants them on specific site of the land.
There are two reasons for this
1) Newly germinated seedlings of most tree species fell in competition with the plants and it is
impractical to give each tiny seedlings 3 or 4 m. apart in a plantation, the care needed for survival.
Therefore, seedlings are raised together free of any competition until they are sturdy enough for planting
out.
2) Only in a nursery can the farmer afford to provide growing condition to raised healthy vigorous
plants. Mainly for reasons of economic, the tree planting sites receives a minimum of soil preparation,
fertilizing and maintenance.
Definition: A nursery is a place where seeds are; sown, germinated and raised up to the time when they
are ready eventual planting out in the field. It comprises of nursery beds, paths irrigated channels etc.
Nursery bed is defined as a prepared area in a nursery where seed is sown or into which seedlings or
cuttings are raised either for, transplanting in other beds or for planting out.
On the bases of kind of plants growing in them nursery beds are classified into;
Seedling beds and transplant beds,
A nursery which has only seedling beds i.e. in which seedlings are only raised, for transplanting is
called seedlings nursery.
Transplant beds are those nursery beds in which seedlings raised in seedling beds are transplanted
before planting out in forest.
A nursery that has only transplant beds i.e. in which seedlings are transplanted in preparation for forest
planting is called transplant nursery.
In Kenya separate seedling and transplant nurseries are seldom made in the same nursery. Generally,
whatever is grown in nursery for planting out is called Nursery stock.
A seedling is ready for planting out when it has a size of 20-30 cm in height, root collar diameter of
4mm and a diameter at breast height diameter of 1.3m

9.2. Objectives of Nursery:

The following objects for which nursery is generally made, clearly bring out its importance.
1. Some important species do not seed ever year. Plantations of these species can be raised annually,
only by sowing all available seeds in nursery to raise seedlings to be planted out various years.
2. Some species grow very slowly and if the seeds of these species are sown directly in plantation, the
seedlings are most likely to-be suppressed by weeds and ultimately killed. Therefore, slow growing
spices are generally raised in nursery and planted out, only when the seedlings are not liable to be
damaged by weeds.
3. Success of road side avenue plantations depends largely on planting tall and sturdy plants which can
be only obtained from nursery.
4. Plantations of some species, when raised by direct sowing are not so successful when raised by
transplanting their seedlings. In such cases, nursery is an essential part of artificial regeneration to these
species.
5. The best method for introduction of exotics, tropical Pines, Poplars Eucalyptus etc. is only by,
planting and therefore nursery is very essential for them.
6. Planting of nursery grown plants is the surest method of artificial regeneration on poor and barren
sites.
7. Causalities in plantations have to be replaced either for the year of planting or in the next year. Sowing
done in the gaps is liable to be unsuccessful as a result of suppression from weeds and cannot catch up
the growth as from, original sowing. Therefore, replacement of causalities is always done by planting
nursery grown plants or stumps and so nursery is very essential for causality replacement also.

9.3. Selection of Site for Nursery and Fencing of Nursery Site

Selection of Site for Nursery:
i). MANAGEMENT FACTORS
- Proximity to a water source, whether its permanent or perennial water source.
- There should be good source of irrigation, preferably well-right, inside the nursery area.
- Nearness to accessible and reliable manpower, as labour is a key input of nursery operations.
- Good physical infrastructure in terms of proper road networks for accessibility and communication
purposes.
- It should be situated centrally as close to the area to be planted as possible. Preferably it should be
near ranger of forester’s quarters for closer and regular supervision, or an urban centre for ease of
accessing markets.
- Availability of land and the cost of its acquisition.
ii). SILVICULTURAL FACTORS
This is in reference to factors that make it optimal for seedlings to survive and grow in a nursery. This
includes the following;
a) Soil; in the nursery should be of good texture e.g. sandy loam soils with good drainage with a pH
ranging from 4-7.
b) It should be made in a newly cleared forest land- with partial shade but that should be thick shade
in hot, dry localities. Some shade from the southern side is however, usually beneficial.
c) It should never be in a natural tank. It should be in the hills having a gentle slope not exceeding 5%.
If the slope is more, cost of terracing increases.
d) Climate; there site should not have extreme temperatures, thus prudent to avoid frosts pockets
found in depressions and high altitude areas prone to hailstones. As mitigation a netting sheet is
used to prevent hailstones from damaging seedlings. Also to be avoided are windy sites like hilltops.
Create windbreaks in such sites by planting of hedgerows.
e) Topography; Nursery should be located in a level or gently sloping area (1-2% drainage). Sites
with deep slopes, bench terraces can be dug to reduce excessive soil erosion.
f) Light; nursery sites should avoid densely shaded areas, however partial shading is encouraged
during pricking out through trees’ shading effect or by artificial means (roofing the pricking out
shed).
g) Previous Land Use; In setting up a site a history of the area’s land use is important e.g. former
dumping sites should be avoided because of potential presence of pests; fungi, bacteria and weeds
and diseases.
Fencing:
After the selection of area for nursery, efforts should be made to fence it.
Fencing Consist of Mainly Four Types:
1. Fencing by barbed wire.
2. Fencing with Trench digging.
3. Fencing with stones.
4. Fencing by all the above three types combined.

9.4. Classification of Nursery for Forestry

Nurseries are classified either on the basis of irrigation facilitates or the duration of their use. On the
basis of irrigation facilities nurseries are classified into:
a) Dry Nursery: It is a nursery that is maintained without any irrigation or other artificial watering.
b) Wet Nursery: It is nursery that is maintained by irrigation or other artificial watering during the dry
period.
Nurseries are classified into grades according to their duration of time. These are as follows.
a) Temporary Nursery and
b) Permanent Nursery.
a. Temporary/ Satellite Nursery/flying nursery
This describes a nursery that is maintained for supplying nursery stock for short period to meet
requirement of limited area or a local demand after which it is abandoned (closed) it is usually small in
size. e.g. a project whose objective is conservation work with a target of planting seedlings for 2-3
years.
Local people are involved for the continuity of the project’s work. The temporary is located near or
within a planting area on flat ground where soil is workable and water supply is available or it may be
rained.
The seedlings species selected will be dependent on the project’s objectives
Advantages:
1. Nearness to the planting site improves survival because transit time between nursery and plantation
is short and plants suffer less from transporting shock due to vibration on long journey.
2. Transport cost of bulky container plant is much reduced.
3. The capital investment needed is low.
4. Due to isolation the spread of disease and pest checked.-
5. It is usually made in clear site; fairly rich in humus and therefore does not require any manuring.
Disadvantage:
As it is made in rocky places, proper growth is not possible in the absence of irrigation facility, the
growth of seedlings is usually slow and there is usually heavy mortality. It is relatively costlier to
maintain as compare to permanent nursery.
b. Permanent Nursery
Is a nursery that has been established on a long term basis for raising many seedlings that are used for
afforestation programmes especially in forest stations. They provide seedlings of tree species of high
commercial value e.g. cypress, pines, eucalyptus. It is usually made in a central place in a range near
the head quarter or some subordinate's quarters for proper supervision.
The duration of service life of permanent nursery is long (> 5 years) and it is maintained till seedling
can be raised in it at reasonable cost. As it is intended to meet the requirement of one or more different
types, it is relatively larger in extend area.
It should be on, or near some road for quick transport of nursery stock. As plants are raised year after
year for long time, its initial fertility dwindles and it has to be manure regularly. It has facilitated for
irrigation and shading of plants.
Most species raised are exotic species and can be sourced from KEFRI. At times they raise indigenous
species from neighbouring forests usually in the form of wildling seedlings.
Advantages:
1. The site is carefully selected. The soil is easily workable sandy loom and virtually free of weed seed.
Hence seedlings can be produced year after year.
2. Staff lives near the nursery in permanent housing which results better care and supervision.
3. The concentration of capital investment enables to purchase of modern Silvicultural aids, cultivation
and irrigation equipment, sprayers to control pest, diseases and weeds etc.
4. High production, high survival and good quality make for efficient operations and consequently low
unit costs per seedlings.
5. Centralized operations permit easier planning, maintenance of record and stock control, which allows
better forecasting of production costs.
Disadvantages:
Cost on construction of building and layout is more and spread of diseases and pest not checked
properly. There is considerable damage to the nursery plants
c. Stock Nursery
Refers to a nursery that has been set up for a short term basis. Also referred as a Stop Over Nursery
seedlings have been removed from the main nursery and taken to a temporary nursery before they are
planted. They require adequate security and water.
d. Extension Nursery
It’s a nursery that has been established on a long term basis on a small scale to produce the seedlings
for the supply of community people at low cost for planting. A range of species will be demanded by
local people so as to meet their local demand e.g. Grevillea robusta has multiple uses
School Nursery: the schools and institutions also, raise the seedlings to be supplied-to the social
forestry department for plantation, these nurseries are called as School or College nursery.

9.5. SEEDLING REQUIREMENTS

For any nursery management or initiatives a local survey is done to determine the required seedling
species e.g. Grevillea robusta is normally in high demand by the locals because of it has multiple
purposes. Importantly seedlings should be ready at the right time i.e. the time for planting should
coincide with the raining season.
Examples the Eucalyptus sp. normally take 3 months, Pines and Cypresses, 8 months while indigenous
species take an average of 15 months.
Consequently, for exotic nursery preparations should be started in December so that by April when the
long rains commence they are ready for planting. The indigenous species they should be prepared earlier
than December so as to be ready in April.
Seedlings should also be of the right size and sturdiness. Sturdiness hereby refers to the hardening of
the seedlings by gradual reduction of the watering regimes.
The normal watering regime is 2 times per day, during the hardening period approximately 1- 11/2
months before planting the watering regime should be once per every 2 days in slow reductions upto
once per week.
The aim of these differential water regimes is to reduce succulent (flush) growth thereby guaranteeing
high survival rates in the fields. A vital requirement is that seedlings should be of sufficient numbers,
to be of significant impact when planted in area.
Successful establishment of newly germinated seedlings in sufficient number as a member of forest
crop is undoubtedly, the weakest link in the whole chain of process (a to c) which make up the
regeneration of forest crops.

The factors responsible, for seedlings establishment are as:

1) Climate: Light / moisture rainfall / temperature / frost
2) Edaphic - Soil / nutrient / aeration / texture / structure.

9.6. NURSERY OPERATIONS

This includes activities from seed collection to the time of planting out the seedlings. Nursery operations
entails the following in logical/chronological order: seed extraction, seed storage, pre-treatment,
sowing, soil mixing, pricking out, standing out, weeding, watering, root pruning, protection, grading,
packaging and dispatch.
SEED
9.6.0 Obtaining tree seed
If seedlings are to be raised, or if trees are to be directly sown, seeds are essential.
Access to seed and information about different kinds of seed is often a limiting factor in the growing of
certain species.
There are two major ways of obtaining seed:
• Local collection
• Organized distribution from central institutions or projects.
Both methods have their advantages and disadvantages.
Seed provenances
Indigenous trees growing in a particular area have become adapted to the conditions in that area over a
very long period of time. Trees of the same species growing in different areas may be slightly different
from each other from the genetic point of view. These genetic differences are, of course, reflected in
the seed.
Foresters call these different types of the same species "provenances".
The choice of seed from good provenances may be as important as the choice of good species. But for
most agroforestry tree species there is no information about which are the good provenances, so it is
best to use seed from the area where the seedlings are to be planted or the seeds sown. This
recommendation is mainly valid for indigenous trees.
Exotic trees have been introduced very recently in genetic terms, so significant local adaptation to site
conditions in Kenya has not yet taken place.
Commercial species, mainly the ones used in forestry plantations, have, however, been subject to
research for a long period and central institutions such as the
Kenya Forestry Research Institute (KEFRI) can supply seeds of particularly good provenances of a few
of those species.
Selection of mother trees
Genetic factors combined with environmental factors determine the characteristics of the young tree as
it grows. Seeds from straight and vigorous trees will most likely produce straight and vigorous trees,
while twisted or stunted trees may produce the same deformities. Thus the selection of good mother
trees is important.
Selection of mother trees should be related to the intended use of the trees to be grown. Shrubs or trees
that produce particularly dense or thorny branches are best for fencing, whereas fast-growing and
straight trees are best for poles and timber. Trees that produce palatable, dense foliage and /or pods are
best for fodder.
If seeds are collected on a large scale, it is important to collect them from several trees in order to
provide genetic variation in the new generation of trees.

9.6.1 SOURCES OF SEEDS

1. Seed orchards: are plantations which are raise exclusively of genetically superior trees isolated to
reduce pollination from genetically inferior once with the aim of producing seed.
2. Seed Production areas or seed stands:
Stand: An aggregation of trees or other growth possessing sufficient uniformity in composition,
constitution, age arrangement or condition, to be distinguished from adjacent crops and forming a
silvicultural unit.
The seed stands are established by removal of the inferior frees. They are area set aside exclusively for
the purpose (i) to produce seed of high quality from genetically superior trees available in the stand (ii)
to concentrate seed collecting operation in a small sphere or area.
Seeds orchards may be of two types:
(i) Clonal: raised by grafting clones of superior trees on 2-3 year old seedlings
(ii) Seedling raised from obtained from seeds of superior trees.

9.6.2 Time for seed collection

Different tree species produce seeds at different times, and one species may even produce seeds at
different times in different areas. Seed collection is, therefore, an activity that can and should be
considered throughout the year.
Seeds should be collected when they are mature and ripe, but not damaged by insects or fungi. This
calls for close monitoring of seeding trees of the desired species during the seeding period. It is
necessary to check the seed quality with regard to insect damage even if the seeds are collected directly
from the tree, and even more so if the seeds are collected from the ground. Seeds of Croton
macrostachyus and Albizia spp. are examples of seeds which are often damaged while still on the tree.
Local seed collection
Advantages
Local collection of seeds has the following advantages:
• There is no provenance problem with indigenous trees since seeds are collected locally
• Seeds of the desired species are available at the right time; no dependency on other people
• The method is cheap both for the government and for farmers; little expense for transport of seeds
• This is the only possible way for seeds that cannot be stored even for a short period, e.g. Citrus
micrantha and Syzygium spp.
It is not difficult to collect seed locally. It is simply necessary to observe the flowering and fruiting of
the desired species so that you can get to know when mature seed are available. It is good to take notes
on this and to keep the notes or use in future years.
Timing
When seeds appear to mature it is good to check the inside of the seed (the seed aril). Using common
sense is often enough to determine if the seed is mature or not. For most species the seed aril should be
hard and white. If the aril is still soft and wet it is better to wait and check again a few days later.
Seeds of certain species, e.g. Combretum and Terminalia spp., appear to be ripe long before they are
ready for collection since they turn brown very early.
Another way of telling whether the seed is mature or not is to test the dryness of the seed cover.
Immature seed, e.g. of Combretum, are moist and soft as compared to mature seed which are hard and
dry. Species with edible fruit can be tasted. If the fruit is ripe the seed is also ready for collection.
In certain Acacia spp., e.g. Acacia Senegal, seed are best collected before they have fully matured and
dried. The best time is when the seed coat is still pale in colour and relatively soft and the swollen pods
are just beginning to turn brown. In this way insect damage is minimized and germination is good even
without pre-sowing treatment.
A brown, black or dust-like aril is normally a sign that the seed is damaged.
Insect holes can also be spotted on the seed surface, occasionally large and easily seen as on Acacia and
Albizia spp., but sometimes very small and difficult to see as on Terminalia spp. Insect damage can be
very local. If damaged seeds are found on one tree, it may be worth trying other trees some distance
away since they may have escaped damage. This applies to Croton macrostachyus, Terminalia and
Albizia spp., for example.
An effective way of gaining experience in this regard is to run small local trials to determine the best
times and methods for seed collection. If there is doubt about seed maturity or damage, for example, it
is recommended to try a small amount of seed first and to monitor the outcome even if this means a
year's delay in giving clear advice to farmers.
The best way of collecting most seeds is to harvest the pods or fruits when they are ripe but before they
open and the seeds disperse. Some large and hard-coated seeds and fruits can, however, be collected
after they have fallen to the ground.
Seeds and fruits should then be collected immediately they have fallen to reduce insect or other damage.
When seeds are collected before they have fallen to the ground, which is recommended as the best
practice for most species, several methods can be employed. A simple way is to shake the tree, or
branches of the tree, so that the seeds fall down. The same effect can be achieved by beating the tree
with a long slender pole, by throwing sticks at the branches, or by climbing the tree.
Methods of seed collection
It is helpful to clear the ground below the seed tree of bushes and weeds.
1. Newspapers, polythene sheets or sacks can be placed under the tree so that the seeds fall on them and
can be collected easily.
2. Picking direct from the tree branch- If there are branches within reach of the roof rack of a vehicle,
for example, seeds can be picked directly from the tree. Climbing the tree or use of a ladder may also
be possible.
3. A rope with a weighted end can be thrown over small branches which are then broken off by pulling
the two ends of the rope. Branches up to 12 m from the ground can be reached using this method. Of
course large branches can be cut using a panga, or the whole tree can be felled in order to get access to
seeds, but these are destructive methods and hence not to be recommended if there are other alternatives.
If seed collection is carried out on private land, permission must always be sought from the land owner
before any collection starts. Local seed collection is normally best carried out by the farmers themselves
with advice from extension workers. It is recommended that extensionists take on the role of facilitators,
helping with exchange of seeds, information on where and how good seeds can be collected, etc.
Seed from central institutions
A number of projects operating in different areas of Kenya can be approached for seeds, but the most
prominent central institution for tree seed is the Kenya Tree Seed Centre at the KEFRI headquarters at
Muguga near Nairobi. This institution has advanced facilities for testing and storing seeds, and has
organized collection through its field stations. Tree seeds for Forest Department plantations are often
procured from KEFRI, and seeds of many species are available for purchase by projects and even for
export. The Tree Seed Centre can also advise on seed pre-treatment, storage, etc., and may buy seeds
from collectors if prior arrangements are made.
Reliance on centralized seed supplies should, however, is avoided. Local collection is a more effective
way of ensuring a timely supply to the user of the seed of the right species and provenance. An
advantage of central seed handling, however, is that it can provide seeds of the best genetic quality. So
far this is valid mainly for commercial timber species, but with increased efforts to breed good varieties
of agroforestry trees, centralized seed supplies may become increasingly important in the future.

9.6.3 Seed Extraction and Cleaning:

After collection, seeds should be extracted. The methods for this vary according to the seed type.
Pods, cones and certain other types of fruits, e.g. of Croton spp., can be dried in the sun until they split
open. When they begin to open, the fruits can be shaken or beaten to remove the seed. This can be done
by placing the drying pods or capsules in a sack and beating the sack with a stick (threshing).
There are some pods for which this method is not appropriate, e.g. Prosopis spp. and Piliostigma
thonningii do not easily split open when they are dried. Such pods either have to be mechanically
opened, which is cumbersome, or alternatively the whole pod can be sown.
The seed extraction is done from cones, capsules, pods carefully; pulpy fruits of Neem, Mango, are
extracted by crushing in a sack.
Methods of seed extraction
Seeds which are in fleshy fruits should also preferably be extracted before sowing, soaking in water for
a day or two until the fruits start to ferment or decompose and allow the fleshy part to separate from the
seed.
The seed from the dry, legumes and pods is done by drying the legume pods and seeds in the sun light
to stimulate opening and then separating seeds from Chaff and other impurities. Sun drying time may
vary from species to species for ex. Pinus patula for one day, Eucalyptus for 4-5days
Sundering and removing pulp mechanically by hand
After seed extraction, the seed should be separated from the husk, fruit pulp, etc. The method for doing
this may vary according to the nature of the seed.
Sometimes wind can be used, or the seed can be sieved out, or simple mechanical separation may do.

9.6.4. Seed Testing and Seed Certification and Storage of Seed of Forest Trees
Seed Testing:
Purity of the seeds and viability of the seeds is tested through the germination test. Viability of seed is
its capacity to retain germination ability after harvest.
Viability is tested by
a) Germination Test: In which the seeds are kept in tissue paper under controlled conditions of
temperature, light and relative humidity. The per cent count gives the germination percentage. The
germination percentage various from the species to species for ex. Casurina, Eucalyptus record 85-90%
germination, Teak 60%, Australian Babul 50-70%, Neem 40% etc
b) Tetrazolium Test: The seeds are treated with Tetrazolium bromide solution, the red staining in
embryo shows viable seeds.
c) Excised Embryo Test: The embryos of some seeds cut open to see whether they are viable and in
good condition.
Seed Certification:
The seed certification is done by competent, authority obtaining information from seed producing and
supplying authority. The information is a filled up in particular pro forma which shows the origin of
seed from where the seeds are collected and parents trees from which the seeds are collected. Dates of
packing, Germination % etc. is mentioned in the form.

9.6.5. Seed Storage:

The ability of seeds to remain viable under natural conditions varies greatly. Hard impermeable seed
coats of many legumes such as Acacia species have long viability if kept dry and free from insect and
rodent damage.
Certain species produce seed more or less all the year round, e.g. Leucaena spp., Sesbania sesban, and
Markhamia lutea, and for such species it is better simply to collect the seeds when they are needed. For
other species the desired seed-sowing time may not correspond to the seeding time and then it is
necessary to store seeds.
Storage of seeds should be avoided as much as possible. Some species cannot be stored at all they have
to be sown immediately - whereas others store for shorter or longer periods without too much loss of
viability.
Seeds are best stored in dry and at low temperature 2 to 5°c, or even very cold, in which they best retain
germination capacity during the interval between collection and sowing, to protect seeds from damage
by rodent, birds, and insects and to preserve quantities of seeds collected during years of heavy seed
crops to use during years of little or no crop
Before storage the seeds must be properly dried otherwise they will become mouldy. Airtight
containers, e.g. tins or bottles, are good for storage of most seeds, and are essential for storage of seeds
that are easily attacked by insects, e.g. Acacia and Albizia spp.

9.6.6. Pre Sowing Seed Treatments:

Seeds of many species do not germinate well unless they are exposed to certain conditions. This state
of not germinating unless the required conditions are met is called dormancy.
In the natural environment the conditions may be exposure to fire or being eaten by animals. When
seeds are eaten they are exposed to the hydrochloric acid in the stomach of the animal, and this breaks
the dormancy without damaging the seed.
There are several methods of pre-treating tree seeds, but knowledge of a few simple techniques is
sufficient to get reasonable germination of almost all species.
For pre-treatment purposes, seeds can be divided into five groups.
1: Seeds requiring hot water treatment- Stratification
This group includes most leguminous trees with pods and more-or-less flat seeds with a hard seed coat.
Normally, such seeds germinate faster and better if treated with hot water. The procedure is as follows.
Heat some water to near boiling point and then take it off the fire.
Pour the hot water over the seed in another pot and leave the seed to soak for about 24 hours. (Do not
boil the seed.)
The seed will absorb water, swell and sink to the bottom of the pot. All swollen seeds should be removed
and sown immediately, whilst those which are not swollen should be left in the pot for a further 24
hours. After they have swelled up, they should be sown too.
Another efficient but time-consuming technique of pre-treatment for hard-coated seed is to nick the
seed coat with a knife or fingernail clipper. Only a small nick is required. Due to the amount of labour
required, nicking can only be recommended for small quantities of seed. Examples of species in this
group are Acacia spp., Calliandra calothyrsus, Cassia spp., Leucaena leucocephala, Cassia spectabilis,
and Parkinsonia aculeata.
Seeds in this group can usually be stored for some time, and hot-water treatment is normally more
important if the seed has been stored than if it is fresh.
2: Small light seeds with no need for pre-treatment
Many important species have small, dry seed, some of which can be stored for at least a few months
without losing viability. Examples are Eucalyptus spp., Casuarina spp., Cupressiis lusitanica,
Jacaranda mimosifolia, Juniperus procera, Pinus spp., and Psidium guajava.
Other species also have small, dry seeds which do not require treatment but they cannot be stored for
long. For these species the best germination is obtained from fresh seed. Examples are Grevillea robusta
and Markhamia lutea.
3: Large seeds with wings which should be removed before sowing
Species with large winged seeds normally do not require treatment, but removal of the wings makes the
seed easier to handle and speeds up the penetration of water after sowing. Combretum fruit should be
opened and the fleshy seed sown immediately. Seeds of many Terminalia species and of Tipuana tipu
can be stored for some time, but Combretum seeds should be sown fresh. Examples of species are:
Combretum spp., Tipuana tipu, Terminalia spp.
4: Medium-sized or large seeds with no need for pretreatment
This group includes many seeds with a high oil content, e.g. Croton spp. and Vitex spp. Some of these
seeds are surrounded by fruit pulp, which should preferably be washed away before drying or sowing
the seed. Seeds of Azadirachta indica, Bauhinia spp., Bridelia micrantha, Croton spp., Dovyalis caffra,
Eriobotrya japonica, Erythrina abyssinica, Prunus africanus, Syzygium spp., and Vitex spp., for
example, should be sown as fresh as possible for best results, whereas seeds of Afzelia quanzensis,
Cordia spp., Melia azedarach, Schinus molle and Sesbania spp. can be stored for some time.
Albizia seeds can also be stored for some time, but only if they can be kept free of insects. Seeds of
Calodendrum capense should be floated in water before sowing to separate the floating non-viable seed
from the sinking good seeds. Examples of species are Afzelia quanzensis, Albizia spp., Azadirachta
indica, Bauhinia purpurea, Calodendrum capense, Cordia spp., Croton spp., Dovyalis caffra,
Eriobotrya japonica, Melia azedarach, Prunus africanus, Schinus molle, Sesbania spp., Syzygium spp.,
and Vitex spp.
5: Large seeds with hard seed coats which require cracking- Scarification.
Some seeds which have a very hard seed coat are mechanically ruptured by breaking the seed coat and
allow water to penetrate inside the seed and good germination. Cracking the seed coat must, however,
be done with great care in order not to damage the seed. This type of seed can normally be stored.
Examples of species are Adansonia digitata, Podocarpus spp. and Ziziphus spp.
In some seeds the cold treatment at low temperature of 1 to 2°C is given for 2-3 months
For Seeds, the dilute or strong acid / alkali treatment is given. E.g. Teak wood. Some seeds like Mulbery
soaked in Kerosene which acts as repelling action on insects and paste.
9.6.7. Sowing, Cultural Practices and Seed Treatment for Bare Rooted and Containerized
Seedlings
Type of planting stock to be raised the nursery technique to be adopted is determined the type of planting
stock to be produced to suit specific site conditions the planting stock used for raising plantations in the
field, along roads, canal banks and railway lines consist generally of container grown plants, nursery
raised plants planted out with balls of earth's and banked root plants. This technique is generally used
in temperate regions for species like walnut, pine, poplar, etc. of these, the container grown plants are
currently most commonly used as they perform better in establishment than others.

9.7.0 NURSERY DESIGN AND LAYOUT

For better management and smooth running supervision of various operations of the nursery and proper
movement of nursery stock, layout of nursery is very essential. The nursery layout depends on: size;
terrain; method of raising seedlings.
While laying nursery out following points should be considered.
1. Beds should be prepared east-west direction to protect tiny seedlings from sun and frost. Orientation
of the beds should be in the N-S direction to provide minimal shading of the seedlings.
2. Sufficient areas should be kept for ready nursery stock.
3. There should bone storehouse and potting house to carry potting and re-potting operations.
4. There should be shade for keeping newly planted shade loving plants at initial stage.
5. Watchman shade should be prepared at higher elevation so as to keep better supervision.
6. Water source should be created at central area.
7. There should be sufficient space for pump house.
8. Drainage trenches should be along with pathway. Pipeline for irrigation should be installing along
with road side.
9. Live hedges should be prepared towards windward site to protect from stormy and hot winds.
10. A nursery should be compact and approximately squared divided at rectangular plot by preparing
main pathway and sub pathway to minimise the perimeter fence for the boundary to protect from stray
cattle.
An orderly internal layout reduces wastage of ground space within the nursery. Provide an expansion
area roughly 20% of current area size. Nurseries are usually divided into blocks that have nursery beds
i.e. germination beds and maturing beds.
9.7.1 NURSERY STRUCTURES
- Water tank; for storage of water
- Pricking out sheds
- Nursery bed; germinating and maturing bed.
1. Administration office
2. Canteen
3. Changing room, showers, etc.
4. Operations area
5. Storage for equipment, management of records
6. Production areas
7. Bare root production area
8. Reserved for expansion
9. Potting soil storage
10. Compost area
11. Boundary fence; can be a hedge/live fence or barbed wire
12. Weed free buffer strip
13. Parking
[Link] gate
Nursery Equipment
Spade, containers, garden rakes, pruning knife, shears, jembe, pangas, watering cans, pipes, measuring
tapes, spray pumps, wheel barrows, hammer, nails , wood planks, timber off-cuts.

10.0. RAISING SEEDLINGS

10.1.0. METHODS OF RAISING SEEDLINGS
Two major methods are used; 1) Bare rooted method 2) Container method
1) Bare Rooted Method
It’s used in high potential areas thus high seedling survival rates due to adequate rainfall. The spacing
of seedlings should be 5cm between seedlings and 10 cm between row spacing. This is a cheaper
method.
A) Raising Seedlings on Beds:
a) Raised Bed: In some regions particularly heavy rainfall area, raised beds are prepared for preparing
raise beds. Soil is ploughed twice or thrice cross wise and bringing it to fine tilth. The height of bed
should be 15cm. It should have dimension 1.8 into 10m, 20-30 Kg decomposed FYM or cow dung per
bed and small quantity of carbaryl powder is applied. Then raised bed is prepared across slope.
b) Sunken Bed: In dry and grid region sunken beds are prepared. It helps in pounding water. These
beds should be drained.
c) Flat Beds: These are prepared in and zone, well-drained soil is required. In this method, soil is
prepared as in raised bed method. FYM and carbaryl powder are mixed in soil. Leveling is done for
uniform irrigation. The dimension of beds may vary depending upon slope, number of seedlings to be
raised, spacing etc. (1.2 x 10 to 12 m).
In water logging condition this method is not applicable. It is usually followed in and region to conserve
the soil moisture for long period sowing. As far as possible, fresh seeds should be sown to obtain early
and better germination.
Care, Protection and Conditioning of Bare Rooted Seedlings
The necked seedlings in Walnut, Apple, Pear, are raised on the raised beds, they are uprooted during
the next planting season. These bare root seedlings are planted without a ball of earth after about a
year’s growth in the nursery. In tropical condition also the bare rooted stumps of Teak wood and other
seedlings can also be carefully uprooted with a ball of earth and during rainy days transplanted carefully
in the already prepared pits. The seedlings on the beds are carefully nourished in the nursery for one or
two year by taking following cares in the nursery.
2) Container Method
This method makes use of containers. These containers include; semi-impervious (banana leaves, paper
packets), earthen pots, and cavity trays have holes beneath; to encourage air training of roots they are
raised above ground level on a platform so that roots penetrating into the air can be pruned. These trays
are used for raising seedlings in large quantities since they occupy small space. (5cm X 5cm)
Impervious (polyethylene bags of medium size are prepared from 200-300 gauge thickness); at the
bottom of the bags drainage holes are prepared. The size of bag may be depending upon the period of
seedlings to be maintained in the Nursery, e.g. seedlings are raised till first year then large bags are
needed. Bags should be filled with potting mixture containing fine fertile soil and compost in 3:1
proportion. If the soil is sticky then to increase the porosity of soil one part of sand is also added to the
moisture. Small quantity of carbaryl powder is added to get rid of termites and ants. While filling the
bags 1.5 to 2 cm of mouth side should be left for irrigation water. 2-3 seedlings are sown in each bag.
The bags are placed in line and watered regularly.
Time of Sowing: Time of sowing can also be adjusted according to time of planting. It also depends
upon time of seed maturity and seed viability. This will avoid excessive cost of maintenance of the
seedlings.
Time of sowing can also be adjusted according to growth of seedlings e.g. fast growing species like
Acacia, Casuarina can be sown late whereas slow growing species like sandalwood require early
sowing to attain proper height or growth at the time of planting. To avoid rise of damage of seeds due
to natural hazards like change in climate conditions (adverse), heavy rains, extremely low temperatures,
high temperature, so all seeds are sown in 2-3 lots at an interval of 10-15 days. The seeds are sown on
the onset of monsoon. Some seeds require pre-sowing treatment for better germination.
Care Taken for Containerized Seedlings:
In addition to watering, shading, shelter, seedlings nutrition and weed control, the container raised
plants require to be shifted in the new beds after every two to three months to avoid penetration of deep
tap root system in to soil.
The black polyethylene film is used below the polyethylene bags and, the bags are arranged in sunken
nursery beds obtained by 10 m size in rows of 10 in number which accommodate about 1000 plastic
bags.
The polyethylene bags are changed to larger size and the plant are transplanted into new bags this is
done in case of the road avenue plants and other seedlings which are require two to three years and 1 to
1.5m in height for example Eucalyptus is sown in 20 x 10 cm bags and are seedlings transplanted after
3-4 months in 40 x 20 cm polyethylene bag and shifted to new place after every 1 or 2 months.
The hardening of seedlings is done before the seedlings are planted in field. Hardening is the operation
of reducing amount of irrigation water 10-1-5 days prior of planting out. This operation is necessary to
make the seedlings physiologically fit to thrive over transplanting shock, adverse climate condition in
the field.
Comparison of Bare Rooted & Container Method
ITEMS BARE ROOTED CONTAINER
Materials and Few materials required A lot of materials and equipment required as
equipment each seedling needs a container or tube.
Labour Less labour needed More labour because of many operations.
Transport Easier to transport, many can be Bulky makes transportation expensive. Uses big
packed in a container and and small containers.
transported.
Silviculture Low seedling survival rates High seedling survival rates.
Protection Easy spread of soil borne Diseases not easily spread.
diseases and pests.
Cost Cheap Expensive
Suitability Used in high potential areas Most applicable in ASALs
Supervision Needs high levels of Requires low levels of supervision.
supervision.
10.2.0. SEEDLING MANAGEMENT
There are certain management techniques which are applied to trees and shrubs in agroforestry systems.
Some of these techniques are similar to those used in the management of trees in forestry plantations,
but others are different. The most important management techniques with regard to the part of the tree
which is above ground are:
10.2.1. Regular Watering:
The seedlings need watering, weeding, root pruning and protection against sun and animals.
Provision of adequate moisture at all times is essential for a nursery in the tropics. The seedlings should
be watered twice a day, morning and evening, when the sun is not too hot. A tin with punched holes
can be used for sprinkling the water.
The water with fine spray of rows fitted to the watering can is essential in the early growth period of
nursery so that the small fine seeds sown on the surface should not be washed out. The seed bed should
never dry out be kept continuously moist.
10.2.2. Shading:
Construct a light shelter with sticks, about 75 cm high, and a roof of grass, straw or leaves to shade
the seedlings. Reinforce the sides with a rough fence of thorny branches or sticks to protect the
nursery from browsing and trampling.
Shading is related to protection against the scorching heat of sun, the seed trays, containers as well as
nursery beds should be provided with temporary shadings structure because the younger seedlings are
more sensitive to the scorching (Sun heat) in the month of January to March.
10.7.4. Shelter:
Seedlings need shelter from four climatic phenomenons that is wind physically damages seedlings,
large hailstorms break and crush seedlings, frost is only important in high elevation in certain location
and heavy rain causes physically damage both to the beds and containerizes seedlings.
10.2.3. Seedlings Nutrition:
The production of healthy seedlings depends on an adequate supply of nutrients 120 Kg of N, 80 Kg of
P and 120 Kg of K with 12 Kg of Calcium per hector is added for good growth of seedlings. Fertilizer
are applied either before sowing when the bed is prepared.
10.2.4. Weed Control: Competition of weeds for moisture, nutrients, and light depress seedlings
growth, if not controlled can lead to seedlings death. Weeding is therefore essential 2-3 times at interval
of 3-4 weeks at the initial stage of growth of seedlings.
Weed regularly and thin the seedlings to an in-row spacing of 5 cm.
10.2.5. Root pruning
It helps the seedlings grow stronger and to build up a balanced root system. The first pruning is done
when the seedlings are 5 cm high. It should be done in the early morning or in the evening.
Remove pegs or stones from around the frame and water the nursery bed thoroughly. Use a sharp panga
and run it underneath the nursery bed to prune the roots by running the panga carefully between the
rows of seedlings. Put back the supports around the frame after pruning.
Newly pruned seedlings are sensitive for the first few days and need careful watering and shade. Root
pruning should be done at least once a month, and more often for fast-growing species. Before out
planting, the seedlings should be hardened off during the last month. This involves gradually removing
shade until the seedlings are exposed to full sunlight, reducing the watering to once a day and gradually
increasing root pruning to once a week.
10.3.0. Planting/ Pricking out
When the seedlings have to be kept in the nursery for more than a year, it must be transferred to beds,
other than the seedling beds or to transplant small seedlings individually in to nursery beds or boxes.
Water the nursery bed and remove the frame. Use a sharp panga to cut up the nursery bed into one soil
block for each seedling. Carry the seedlings carefully to the planting site where holes have been
prepared in advance. Place the soil block in the hole and firm soil around it. Water the seedling
immediately after planting if it is not raining. Weed and protect the seedling just like any other planted
tree.
Where are on-farm nurseries feasible?
Very small on-farm nurseries using household waste water can be established and managed both in
high-potential areas and in ASAL areas. Larger on-farm nurseries which depend on a permanent water
source cannot so easily be run in ASAL areas due to the scarcity of water sources there.
Group, school and central nurseries
So far we have discussed farmer-managed tree propagation techniques.
Propagation of certain species does, however, require skills that not all farmers will have, and such
seedlings are best raised by specialists for sale to other farmers. These specialists can be entrepreneurs
running commercial nurseries, groups running commercial nurseries or government authorities or
NGOs running nurseries.
Government-run nurseries should not primarily aim at mass production of seedlings. Farmer-managed
methods are more suitable for this. Government nurseries and other central nurseries should, however,
serve as experimental stations and extension centres where new or less well-known species are tried out
and tree propagation techniques can be demonstrated to farmers. The production should primarily be
geared towards a wide variety of species, with priority on those species that people cannot easily raise
themselves. Fruit trees that require budding and grafting and species where aspects of seedling health
and good propagation material are important can be raised in central nurseries.
Species for which simple propagation techniques are applicable and known to farmers should be raised
for demonstration only, i.e. in small numbers. Schools may also run tree nurseries with a dual purpose:
both to act as training grounds for pupils and for production of seedlings for the school.
A good and permanent water source nearby is a must for all nurseries of any size. Management of larger
nurseries requires good organization to cater for continuous attention and care. A short period of
negligence, e.g. due to one member of a group failing to meet his or her obligations, or a school failing
to organize people to water the nursery when the pupils are on holiday, may ruin months of work.
Since information on nursery techniques is available from many other sources no further elaboration is
made here.
10.3.1. Tree-planting techniques
Time of planting
Tree seedlings are best planted out at the onset of the long rains, i.e. by the beginning of April in most
parts of Kenya. In some areas, e.g. in Meru and in -eastern Kenya, the short rains are preferred, and in
those areas the best planting season is November or December. The rains should be well established,
and it is recommended that the soil be moist to a depth of at least 20 cm at the time of planting. If after
one or two showers only a few cm near the surface are wet, the seedlings may easily dry out if those
showers are followed by a dry spell. In some areas where the infiltration capacity of the soil is poor it
may take a very long time before the upper 20 cm of soil are wet. In such areas it is necessary to loosen
the soil by digging and to refill the holes prior to the rain.
Tree planting is best done on a cloudy day. Since this tree planting will coincide with a peak period for
other farm work, as much preparation as possible should be made in advance.
Site preparation
A hole 30-40 cm deep and equally wide should be dug for each seedling. In this way, the soil is loosened
and the roots can establish easily. The topsoil should be separated from the subsoil, and when the hole
is filled up again the topsoil should be put back first since it is usually more fertile and should be near
the tree roots. The holes can either be dug at the time of planting or in advance. Digging holes in advance
has the advantage that it saves labour during the tree-planting period and if the soil is loosened early it
may trap and retain more moisture. If the soil at the planting site is poor it can be improved with manure,
compost or other organic matter.
Care of seedlings
Ideally, seedlings should be about 30 cm high when they are planted out. Smaller seedlings may
compete less successfully with weeds, and since their stems are not yet very woody they are easily
damaged during transport. An exception to this is the case of wildings which are sometimes planted
when they are much smaller.
Overgrown seedlings are also easily damaged during handling and may have lost vigour due to many
root-pruning operations and a too-small root compared to the shoot. In order to avoid damaging them,
seedlings grown in pots should not be carried by the shoot but rather by holding the pot.
N/B: The night before planting out, water the seedlings thoroughly, never pull by the shoots
If seedlings are raised without containers, care should be taken to retain soil around the roots when the
seedlings are planted out. Occasionally this may fail, however, and in such cases it is very important to
avoid the roots drying out or being exposed to sunlight.
How to plant
While planting the following points are important:
• After planting, the soil surface should be level with the overall ground level in the nursery, neither
deeper, nor higher up.
• If the seedling was grown in a pot, the pot should always be removed. Otherwise the pot may restrict
the growth of the roots eventually strangulating the seedling and severely reducing its growth.
• After refilling the hole, pack the soil firmly around the seedling's root mass and make sure that there
are no pockets of air in the soil. Water if there is no rain.
• Mulch near the seedling to reduce evaporation of moisture and to suppress weeds.
Application of a small amount of fertilizer or manure will help fruit tree seedlings to get a good start.
Tree planting in ASAL areas
It should be avoided as much as possible due to the high investment required for raising and transporting
seedlings, the huge areas that may be involved and the high risk of failure due to erratic rainfall. Always
consider whether natural regeneration or direct seeding of trees and shrubs is possible before starting
major tree-planting activities.
It is, however, sometimes necessary to plant trees in ASAL areas, e.g. fruit trees near houses or along
streams or shade trees around homesteads or at meeting places. Water-harvesting techniques, if
effectively and correctly applied, can significantly reduce the risk and improve seedling performance
in these areas.
Tree planting in waterlogged areas
In waterlogged areas, such as marshy low-lying areas of a farm, only those trees that are known to
tolerate such conditions should be planted. Among such species are Sesbania sesban, Syzygium
guineense, and Eucalyptus camaldulensis, E. globulus and E. microtheca. Natural vegetation growth in
wet areas is likely to be lush, so the tree grower must be prepared to cut back competing vegetation
periodically.
10.4.0. CARE AFTER PLANTING
Regularly spot weed around the seedling for at least a year after planting.
Weeding reduces competition for nutrients and moisture and dramatically enhances growth.
10.5.1 Protection against livestock trampling and browsing is, of course, important, as is protection
against fire during the dry season.
Mulching helps to retain moisture and suppress weeds, but may also attract termites. If termites attack
young trees, an application of ash can help. Leaves of neem, Azadirachta indica, also act as termite
repellants. If a few valuable seedlings are attacked by scales or aphids, wash them with a strong solution
of detergent (e.g. Omo) and water the tree if the soil is dry.
Some species tend to bend or produce many branches in the early stages, e.g. Cordia abyssinica and
Acacia spp. Such seedlings may perform better if they are trained up a stake and side pruned.
10.5.2. Pruning-The process of cutting branches from the lower part of the tree crown, including roots,
but more particularly, side branches of trees, or the sides and tops of hedges from the bole in order to
maintain the quality of timber. While pruning a tree, branches are always cut near the stem.
The objectives of pruning in agroforestry are threefold:
• Reduction of shade for crops near the tree
• Improving the quality of the trunk, mainly for timber and poles
• Early harvest of branch-wood for fuel or other use.
10.5.3. Lopping: the cutting of branches or even young stems not from the base. This leads to the
development of new shoots. It is carried out on a number of broad leaved species for fuel and fodder
and as Kigelia africana (rotin in Pokot) and Balanites aegyptiaca (tuyuno). These are lopped for fodder
during the dry season., Morus alba etc., for rearing silkworm. Acacia mellifera (ebenyo in Turkana)
and Acacia tortilis (eoi) are lopped in order to harvest thorny branches for fencing, and Cordia sinensis
(edome) is lopped for branches that can be used for construction. Lopping is a good harvesting method
for some Acacia. If the whole tree is cut, often it will not resprout and therefore coppicing is not
recommended.
10.5.4. Pollarding – Cutting all the branches and the top part of a tree in less systematic fashion but
leaving a main trunk to 1.5m or so.
it involves the removal of the tree’s crown, leaving a main stem of about 1.5-2.0m in order to promote
vigorous multi-stem regrowth.
There can be several objectives with pollarding:
• Early harvest of wood, fodder or other biomass
• Production of wood or fodder that is out of the reach of livestock, hence there is no need for protection
from browsing
• Reduction of shade for crops near by
• Regeneration of the tree crown to promote regrowth of the trunk for timber or poles.
Not all species can withstand pollarding. Some commonly pollarded species are:
Balanites spp., Bridelia micrantha, Casnarina spp., Cordia abyssinica, Croton spp., Erythrina
abyssinica, Faidherbia (Acacia) albida, Ficus sycomorus, Grevillea robusta, Jacaranda mimosifolia,
Manihot glaziovii, Markhamia lutea and Morus alba.
10.5.5 Coppicing - cutting broadleaved trees close to the ground level to produce sprouts or regrowth.
Trees are also coppiced if they are damaged.
The young, vigorous trre is cut to a “stool” about 30cm high, with clean angled cuts. The wood harvest
can be left on the cro-alley while it drops its dead leaves as mulch. The stool will resprout and grow
alongside the crop, being harvested annually.
Many species of trees and shrubs have the ability to resprout after the whole tree has been cut. Coppicing
can almost be regarded as a method of tree propagation since it can substitute for the task of planting a
new tree after a mature one is felled.
Systematic coppicing is applied as the management technique in alley cropping, and it may be an option
for trees on soil-conservation structures.
In such a situation coppicing may be done annually, but in other situations, e.g. regeneration of
Eucalyptus for pole production, it may be much less frequent. In that case, an interval of 6-8 years may
be more suitable.
Not all tree species will coppice after being cut. Some commonly coppiced species are:
• Calliandra calothyrsus, Cassia siamea, Cassia spectabilis, Eucalyptus spp., Leucaena leucocephala
and Markhamia lutea.
Certain species coppice well when young but may not do so if cut at maturity. Examples are Casuarina
spp., Grevillea robusta, Sesbania sesban and some Albizia spp.
N/B:Some species only coppice well when young
10.5.6. Thinning
Trees established by direct seeding or that have been planted with little space between them will soon
start to compete with each other. A dense stand initially promotes straight growth and small branches,
but later the trees must be thinned otherwise they will grow too slender and eventually not reach the
desired size.
Thinning is particularly important for trees grown in woodlots, but applies also to other situations where
trees are growing close to each other.
Thinning can, for example, be done by removing every second tree or two out of every three trees.
Thinning is also a way of obtaining some early harvest.
10.5.7. Management of roots
Just as the tree crown can be managed to reduce competition, so can the roots be managed for the same
purpose. Trees growing in cropland can have their shallow roots cut 0.3-0.6 m from the trunk when they
reach a height of 2-3 m. This is applicable to species which would otherwise compete with crops.
Another option practised by farmers in western Kenya is to dig a relatively deep trench (0.3-0.6 m)
along the edges of woodlots of, e.g. of Acacia mearnsii, where the woodlots border cultivated land.
This also serves to minimize competition.
They require a lot of work.
Lateral roots that would compete with crops can be pruned from young trees once they have established
themselves. Dig a trench 50-100cm from the tree line and cut the exposed lateral roots with clean slant
angled cut.
10.5.8. Protection of Seedlings
Disease Protection
A major disease in the nursery is Dumping off a fungal infection that attacks the young seedlings that
are still in the germination stage. There are two types of Damping Off;
i/. Pre-emergence Damping Off- this occurs when seeds are still beneath the seed bed and when they
are about to sprout out resulting in poor germination. It’s caused by a fungus that attacks the radical of
seeds.
ii/. Post-emergence Damping Off- in this young seedlings germinate accordingly but 1-3 weeks before
transfer/pricking out they topple over. The fungus attacks the root collar hence the toppling over and
the seedlings seem as if to be wilting.
The conditions favourable to Damping Off:
 Over watering/humidity
 Poor drainage of nursery bed
 Excessive shading
 Poor ventilation
 High temperatures
Insect Protection Larval insect stages are most destructive of all insects in the nursery as they defoliate
leaves, suck and bore seedlings. Weevils damage stored seeds. The most common insects in the nursery
include: leaf cutter ants, termites, cut worms, white grubs.
For control of these there the use of: sterilization procedures, chemical method (application of
Malathion, pyrethrin), neem tree extracts (effective in termite control), wood ash, avoiding the use of
vegetative material in mulch application.
Protection from Animals & Birds Damage
Roaming livestock and wildlife destroy seedlings by trampling and browsing on seedlings. Proper
protection includes reinforced fencing. Monkeys also do cause havoc on nurseries they only control
measure is scare tactics by nursery workers plus proper fencing of site. Rodents cause damage by eating
stored seeds and destroying young seedlings, there control is by trapping and poisoning. Birds are
known to eat the seeds buried just beneath the ground and they feed on the tender leaves of young
germinating seedlings.
10.6.0. TRANSPORTATION OF SEEDLINGS
Stock Quality Control
This entails the grading of seedlings done 1 month prior to planting out. Grading involves grouping of
seedlings into various set sizes and categories;
 Good grade; 20-30 cm height
 Overgrown seedlings are enriched by stumping them and changing containers
 Undersize seedlings are not planted out and continued to be nurtured until mature.
Other seedlings could be of required size but may be disease infected hence they are destroyed by
burning to prevent the spread of the disease in the nursery.
1. Lifting and Packing
Lifting is the removal of seedlings from the ground in readiness for transfer to the planting site. Lifting
is actual uprooting and is applicable only to rooted seedlings.
Packaging entails the placing of seedling into containers e.g. polythene bags, sisal bags (most preferred
as they allow ventilation and moisture absorption).
Seedling transportation is viable only in the morning and evening as the daytime sunlight causes high
evapo-transpiration losses and windy conditions all can lead to seedling damage.
When packing and transporting precautions are taken to avoid:
- Damage to roots and shoots of seedlings
- Drying out of the seedlings
- Heating of the seedlings
TOPIC 11.0 APPRAISAL OF AGROFORESTRY
The practice can offer good land use alternative which are sustainable particularly where land is scarce.
Therefore it can be used as a strategy / method to solve problem. However it should not be included as
a universal rail for rural problems.
11.1 Agroforestry & Food Production
The nature of food supply from trees can either be: supplemental, emergency food, and as a seasonal
source of food. These aspects contribute to household food supplies. Some food types increase the
absorption of Vitamins e.g. Acacia arabica and Acacia Senegal.
Traditionally trees have acted as food snack for herders in pastoral communities who depended on fruits,
berries and nuts from wild trees and shrubs; these were sources of important micronutrients.
Trees provide crucially important foods during hunger periods especially in ASALs where fluctuation
in food supply is a seasonal occurrence.
Foods sourced from trees are a buffer in emergency periods of drought, famine and tribal warfare.
However with the advent of food aid agencies such as World Food Program (WFP) and increased
commercialisation have diminished the importance of trees as potential emergency foods in marginal
areas.
Wild fruit trees also improve the status of present agricultural crops through research breeding.
The application of biotechnology has reduced the time taken for breeding by combining the gene
transfer/marking of different plant species.
Emergency food plants can be categorized into the following:
 Rhizomes, tubers and roots
 Leaves, flower stalks
 Fruits and seeds of trees and shrubs
 Grains and grasses e.g. bamboo reeds
 Bark and starchy pith of stems
 Resinous and gummy exudates
Nutritional Status of Marginal Trees
1). Adansonia digitata (Baobab) mbuyu/ mabuyu
-Vitamin B, C, deficiencies by use of bark, leaves, roots and fruits
-Phosphorous and calcium deficiencies, Energy giving food, protein source
2). Tamarindus indica
-Provision of energy calories (fruits), medicinal (improves appetite), source of phosphorous
3. Balanities aegyptica (leaves, pods,barks,roots)
-Animal fodder, vegetable and fruits source, medicinal, energy food & protein and fat source
11.2 Crop Husbandry- Agroforestry Interactions
Undoubtedly trees aid in restoring the fertility of soils and the nutrient cycles under natural vegetation
are relatively closed loops. The factor affecting crop growth is inclusive of; -soil nutrients, -moisture
availability,-shade/light, -disease and pests, -animals and birds
In many ways trees bear an influence on each of these factors. Agro forestry is beneficial to the farmer
if the net effects of all the factors mentioned is of positive [Link] improve soils by increasing
the input of organic matter, Nitrogen fixation, and nutrient uptake. Furthermore they reduce loss of
nutrients through organic matter and nutrient recycling in the system. Trees lead to the improved soil
physical properties e.g. structure and porosity.

Soil Improvement Processes by Trees

A/. Nutrient Addition
Increment and maintenance of soil organic matter through carbon fixation by photosynthesis. Trees act
as Carbon sinks then the Carbon is made available through decomposition of organic matter. Another
way is by Nitrogen fixation by leguminous plants by the rhizobium located at the root nodules of
legumes.
Nutrient uptake is also a route by which trees add to soil fertility. Tree roots uptake nutrients via their
roots from the rock weathering processes later availing these nutrients to crop plants. Normally applies
to rocks found at greater depths where roots of crop plants are unable to reach. This is inclusive of
macronutrients such as N, P, K, Ca, Mg e.t.c.
B/. Reduction of Soil Loss
Trees protect from soil erosion thus leads to lower organic matter and nutrients loss. There is also the
aspect of nutrient retrieval by trapping and recycling nutrients. Trees also reduce the rate of organic
matter decomposition through the shading effects of the trees. As the release of excessive nutrients at a
go leads to lack of optimal uptake by plants leading to nutrient loss. Example in Western Kenya the tree
species Tithonia divusifolia sheds its leaves in 2 weeks thereby slowing adding N to the soil.
C/.Soil Physical Conditions
Maintenance and improvement of soil physical properties of structure, porosity, moisture retention
capacity and permeability). Breakage of compact soil layers by the rooting activity of trees with deep
root depths as they penetrate soil in search of water and nutrients. Trees also play a role in the
modification of extreme soil temperatures through a combination of shading effect of canopy and
ground litter cover. This is a modification of the microclimate of an area.
D/. Soil Chemical Conditions
Trees contribute to the reduction of soil acidity through the addition of alkaline from the tree leaf litter
system. The alkaline bases include Ca, Mg e.t.c. Reduction of salinity and acidity (excessive Na) is also
through the addition of leaf litter high in acidity.
E/.Soil Biological Processes
This by the production of a range of different qualities of plant litter through the supply of a mixture of
woody and herbaceous materials including root residues. The timing of nutrient release through
synchronization of tree and crop biological processes is key. The potential to control litter decay with
the requirements of tree species and management of pruning thereby to synchronise the nutrient release
from leaf litter decay with plant requirements for nutrient uptake.
Furthermore plant residues are a source of food to soil micro-organisms who in turn have mutual-
symbiotic relationships with plants with important roles in nutrient cycling and decomposition.
The transfer of assimilates between the root systems by exudation processes via roots or leaves of
materials that is taken up by other plants. Such plants are found in forestry systems that play a major
role in improving the survival of important but fragile tree species.
Table of Nitrogen Fixing Tree Species
SPECIES Nitrogen Fixation (KgN/ha/yr
Acacia albida 20
Acacia mearnsi (black wattle) 200
Leucaena leucocephala 100-500
Prosopis glandulosa 40-50
Prosopis tamaruyo 200
Casuarina equisetifolia 60-110
Erythrina pueppigiana 60
Gliricidia sepium 13
Sesbania rostrata 83-109
11.3. Agroforestry &Livestock Production
Fodder trees play an important role in human food security through their function as animal feed. In
marginal areas they are used as drought fodder reserves.
This system is referred as silvopastoral system and is mainly applied in the marginal areas due extensive
pastoralism practices.
Tree fodder is referred to as (browse) green parts of the tree, eaten by browsing or grazing animals –
shoots or sprouts especially tender twigs and stems of woody plants with their leaves and pods. Their
advantage is that they are lopped for animal feed as they are rich in animal protein, less affected by
 climate change. Tree fodder can be used as primary feed when grass is scarce or as a supplementary
feed where grass is of poor quality.
In the ASALs fodder trees constitute the primary feed source during the dry season as they give upto
half of the total feed of animals.
Many trees & shrubs produce fodders in dry seasons when there is little herbaceous fodder. Similarly
leaf production for fodders species in dry tropics occurs at the end dry season and is also available when
herbaceous plants have dried.
Pods/fruit/seeds production usually occur during dry season or at the end of rainy season.
Livestock are more strongly dependent on browse in the drier area e.g. Baringo. The diversity of animals
helps to maximise the utility of fodder trees i.e. camels, cows, goats and sheep have preferences for
feeding on different parts of a fodder tree.
During the dry season the pods and seeds of Acacia nilotica constitute about 60% of dry weight of
fodder intake by cattle. In high potential areas the leaves of Calliandra sps. and Leucaena sp. are used
as supplementary feed in dairy production. These are known to increase milk yields by 10-20%.
Calliandra grows up to 4 to 6 metres, requires rainfall above 1000 mm per year and grows well in well-
drained soils. Nine months after planting, fodder can be harvested. Harvesting can be done 4 to 6 times
per [Link] beef cattle they increase weight by upto 2-4 times.
Table of Crude Protein Content of Trees/Shrubs
Species Crude Protein %
Acacia arabica 12.8-20
Azadirachta indica (Neem tree) 13.4
Cajanus cajan (pigeon pea) 29.8
Gliricidia seplum 17.4
Leucaena leucocephala 16
Acacia tortillis 14.1
Prosopis juliflora 10.1
Acacia nilotica 10-16.1
Calliandra callothyrsus 20-25
Napier grass 8.5
Criteria for good fodder tree spp
- Must provide accessible browse; edible fruits, leaves, twigs, pods, or flowers
- Must be preferred by most animals or palatable
- Must have a high digestibility (more than 55% dry matter)
- Must have a high nutritive quality (provision of ample energy, protein and minerals)
- The species should not contain digestibility inhibitors e.g. cyanines, tannins, polyphenolic acids.)
e.g. Acaccia meansii causes liver cirrhosis.
- Must be ecologically adaptable to a given conditions.
11.4 Agroforestry & Bio-Energy
Wood energy is the primary fuel used by man since the discovery of fire in the Stone Age. This is
critical energy from used by more than 90% of Kenya’s population and more than half of the world’s
population.
According to studies Kenya’s energy consumption patterns are:
- Woodfuel, 68%, Petroleum, 22%, Electricity, 9%, Others, 1%
With socio-economic progression some households are switching to other alternatives such as paraffin,
cooking gas, electricity as energy sources for cooking and lighting. However due to economic
constraints and cultural preferences, wood still is an important energy source in national economies.
This essential energy resource i.e. woodfuel (inclusive of charcoal and firewood) is under threat in the
developing world due increased populations resulting in high demands against acute wood fuel
shortages. An average person is said to consume about 1 tonne/1M3 per year of woodfuel.
Forms/ Ways in which Wood is used
 Fuel consumption differs depending on: traditions, cooking habits, diets, climate and availability of
wood.
Bricks processing, brewing, pottery, warming of rooms, charcoal burning, Processing of food, lighting,
and training/ironing.
Wood as firewood accounts for the most dominant energy source in rural areas whereas charcoal is
mainly used in the urban slums.
Industrial demand by agriculture based industries on wood fuel is some environmental significance e.g.
a lot of wood used in curing tobacco, tea and coffee. For instance it has been estimated that curing of 1
ha of tobacco uses 1 ha of savannah woodland clear felled. This has led to these firms buying trees like
Grevillea robusta as alternatives from the increasing restricted-access forests. Included also are
industries involved in brick-making, use of poles for telephone and power transmission. ( Preferred
trees for these are Eucalyptus sp. such E. Grandis, [Link] and E. Teriticarnis).
This has resulted to:
1) Increased prices of wood fuel
2) Increased physical energy in the collection of wood fuel by women and children
3) The use of animal manure and crop residues for cooking.
4) Deforestation of natural forests.
Qualities of Wood fuel Tree Species
- High calorific value i.e. burning index should be higher for better quality woods
- Burn slowly at high temperatures
- User friendly capacities. i.e. Combust without sparks and or toxic smoke
-The type of species required should be able to adopt well difficult ecological regions and environment
conditions or problems; toxic, saline, slopes or swamps.
-Establish early, faster growth, N-fixation and require little care.
-They should have more than use, multipurpose output.
- Have few thorns and split easily
- Medium to Large size
- Coppicing ability i.e. to regenerate once after it has been cut.
Multi-purpose Trees & Shrubs (MPTS) for Wood Fuel
Species Calorific Value (Kcal/kg)
Acacia mearnsi 3,500-4,000
Eucalyptus globules 4,800
Melia azedarach 5,043-5,176
Calliandra calothrysus 4,500-4,750
Gliricidia sepium 4,900
Leucaena leucocephala 4,200-4,600
Acacia nilotica 4,800-4,950
Balanites aegyptica 4,600
Eucalyptus camaldulensis 4,800
Prosopis cineraria 5,000
Zizyphus Mauritania 4,900
Indices of Wood Fuel Scarcity
1. Collection methods, increase in collection time and increase in distance travelled, change in who
collects.
2. Type of wood fuel extraction process e.g. changes from dry (dead) to green wood. Use of less preferred
spp and parts of trees /biomass alternatives.
3. Fuel using practices; reduction in less essential utilization ends, e.g. boiling water to bathe or drinks,
social fire.
4. Penetration of commercial markets; e.g. Use of liquidified petroleum gas, electricity, kerosene, biogas
or any other solids fuels.
5. Enhancement of wood fuel supplies, e.g. Deliberate planting for purposes of fire wood e.g. along
boundaries and other parts, off-farms trees.
Strategies against Fuel wood Scarcity
1. Reafforestation of gazetted forests, afforestation on farmlands by establishment of woodlots
2. Introduction of wood conservation options:
- improved kilns such as the half orange shaped type greatly improves energy conversion efficiency
-Improved jikos/ cooking stoves .g. ceramic jiko saves up to 50-70% of wood used
-Improved cooking methods: soaking grains in water, covering pots with lids, using small wood pieces,
simmering food and not boiling it, use of fireless cooking baskets.
3. Use of Alternative Bio energy options: Biogas production, Wind energy, Tidal energy, geothermal
energy, solar energy
11.5. Agroforestry & Soil-Water Conservation
Agroforestry is key in promoting soil productivity presently declining at fast rates.
Soil erosion is a major form of soil/land degradation, excessive deforestation and depletion leads to
erosion. Erosion in ASAL is very significant due to sparse or no vegetation cover for the soil such areas
include Marigat & Makueni.
Due to population pressures the available agricultural land is utilised continuously lead to fertility decline
due to lack of proper land use and management practices. On the other hand soil erosion has increased
due to cultivation on steep slopes and also on forested land resulting to removal of the top soil normally
the most fertile. This has led to siltation of dams downstream which leads to water pollution.
Forests play a major role in the protecting water catchment areas but due to deforestation these areas are
no longer serving their purpose. In the ASALs there is a lot of wind erosion which takes place and this
is more serious during the dry season when vegetation is scarce.
Soils are vital for crop growth and productivity in order to feed the ever increasing population.
In minimum tillage practices frequent high soil disturbance is reduced. The initial cost of agroforestry
establishment usually is lower than that of constructing erosion control structures Use of agroforestry
bother than controlling erosion improves the infrastructure as well as provision of nectar, firewood,
increased soil fertility and this overall land productivity due to recycling of nutrients and fixation of
nitrogen.
The crop litter rot and increases organic matter, it is therefore essential and economical to use
agroforestry on degraded land.
How land benefits from trees
Research findings have proved that the system can be efficient in controlling erosion and runoff. This is
done in 2 ways:
i. Direct use
-Increased soil cover by litter,
-Provision of semipermeable barriers which sieve run off and therefore protect soils that would have
been eroded.
-Maintain organic matter levels that replenish soil nutrients.
ii. Indirectly/ Supplementary use
-Stabilises earth structures that are constructed for soil conservation e.g. bunks, strips and contours- Plant
trees, shrubs or grasses.
-Enable productive use of the conservation work (structures)
Approaches of Checking Impact of Run off on Soil
i. Barrier approaches:
This checks on run off and removal of soil by means of barriers which may be terraces, ditches, earth
small machines, grass strips or hedge rows. This is effective means of stabilising the soil against removal
by agents of erosion.
Selected trees/shrubs are planted very close to form a semi-permanent barrier. Hedgerows can be
regulated by cutting, ripping hedge at certain level, the cutting can be used as fodder or mulch.
ii. Cover approach
This method emphasis the maintenance of soil cover by using organic matter, dead or alive litters e.g.
herbaceous plants, crop residues, tree litter.
It applies to the principles of minimum tillage and intercropping with cover crops. This reduces the
eroding and transporting of soil by rain drops and surface run offs.
N/B: In ASALS sand and stones are used to avoid the ants eating the mulch. Hedge row establishment
is much cheaper than construction of fanya juu terraces.
A/F also helps in conservation and management of water as the trees grow in water shade areas stabilises
the catchment and hydrological cycle.
The trubs rehabilitates the waste lands e.g. Casuarrina in quarries, gullies, mines and Eucalyptus in
swamps.

TOPIC [Link] STUDY- THE AGROFORESTRY PROGRAMME IN KENYA

The AgroForestry Programme vision: “A green belt of vegetation covers around the Lake Victoria
basin within small-scale holdings”.
Programme mission: “To integrate AgroForestry within the farming systems of small holders in the
Lake Victoria basin, and make it the engine of economic growth and poverty alleviation.”
Programme goal: “To contribute towards improved livelihoods of small scale farmers in selected
districts around Lake Victoria basin.”
Immediate objectives:
• Increased food and nutritional security in selected villages in a period of 1 to 5 years
• Increased fuelwood availability in selected villages in a period of 1 to 5 years.
• Increased sources of income in selected villages in a period of 1 to 5 years.
Target group: Small-scale farmers with average five acres of farm land who depend on their farms to
derive their livelihood using their own labour.
Programme strategy: Participatory AgroForestry extension with emphasis on gender equity.
Program matrix: (PM) shows the programme in a nutshell, including relevant indicators and external
factors influencing the Programme.
KITALE/KISUMU PROJECT, KENYA
This first Vi project started in 1983 in the West Pokot District. Following initial success and increased
budgets, it expanded into the Trans Nzoia District in 1986 and a joint project office was established in
Kitale. The project is involved in 13 zones in three Districts. At the end of 2003 the project employed
a total of 255 staff and had 59,100 farmer households registered in the database, out of which 38,106
implemented one or more agroforestry activities (64%). The Olof Palme AF Centre demonstration
garden in Kitale had 3,900 registered visitors in 2003.
On farm research trials in collaboration with the Kenya Agriculture Research Institute (KARI) have just
been initiated and will expand. Other collaborators are the Kenya Museum in Kitale, the Manor House
Agriculture Institute, the Kapenguria Bible Centre/Pokot Development program, RELMA, and Moi and
Nairobi Universities.
Extension Approach, Methods And Messages
The programme uses an extension approach that lays emphasis on group extension, rather than
approaching farmers individually. Circumstances may sometimes compel the AoC extensionists to
approach farmers individually but the main contact is supposed to be through groups of 12-15 farmers.
Already existing active village groups are contacted before any separate Vi-agroforestry group is
established. It is only where farmers wish to form a new group for any particular purpose related to the
programme that Vi gets involved in developing group objectives and action plans. Schools are also
encouraged to get involved in agroforestry activities, especially the upper primary sections.
Before the extensionists start activities in a village in a project Area of Concentration (AoC), the whole
village is invited for a participatory planning process, where resources and potentials are mapped out
and joint action plans are made. Farmer tours are organised to successful villages and farmers in the
neighbourhood.
Radio advertisements and dissemination of agroforestry and tree planting information are some other
extension approaches. Quarterly plans and activity calendars are also prepared every third month and
distributed to farmers as an incentive. The calendars carry important and timely information about
suitable agroforestry activities. Farmer group workshops are conducted with the aim of introducing
agroforestry systems and technologies and how they can be used to improve farm productivity.
Communicating with farmers in their own language and working alongside them is an effective method
of extension, although it may take time. Farmers must be convinced that technologies promoted will
result in benefits to themselves, rather than selling messages with some lofty environmental or societal
arguments. The family and the immediate group of relatives and neighbours must gain. The Vi
programme is trying to work with simple and often well proven methods, species and products, to
minimise the risk of failures.
Entry points vary between the different Vi projects, between zones and Areas of Concentration, and
even within an AoC depending on the interests of the farmers. The extensionists have to find out the
best technologies to promote with each group of farmers. It is important to address not only agroforestry,
and not only one species, but to offer a menu of alternatives.
The most immediate need of the farmer will often be water, in which case rainwater harvesting and
water storage may be natural entry points for the extension efforts, and only after that is addressed will
the extensionists introduce the topics of how best to use trees and shrubs. If health problems are
prevalent, most probably clean water and sanitation will be given priority, and trees sometimes have a
potential for contributing to eco-sanitation solutions.
If the most pending needs relate to cash income, it is natural to consider the potential of fuel wood,
poles and fodder from trees for sale. Also non-agroforestry technologies, e.g. related to food crops
and/or domestic animals, will be promoted whenever relevant, even if trees and shrubs normally are
then introduced at a later stage.
Using a participatory rural approach (PRA) is not considered by the Vi programme as a goal in itself,
but as a means for cooperation. According to the programme, PRA has been too much focused on
problems in the past, and they now try to use the approach to find out what the visions for the future are
among the farmers. Ideally all farmers in a micro catchment should accept to work together in a local
group because it is more effective to address an entire area – however small – at the same time to spread
risks of failure share the benefits in a fair way. The extensionists themselves form teams in each zone
to share experience and develop methods. During the establishment phase in a zone, existing
organisational structures and “powers” are inventoried, e.g. village leaders, influential persons, religious
groups, district agriculture and forestry extension services, etc.
There is sometimes an unfortunate conflict between old indigenous knowledge and new research
findings, which can be unfortunate for at least two reasons: a) if traditional agriculture practices are not
looked into, understood and respected by extensionists, the farmers will close their minds to any change,
and, b) traditional practices are very rarely totally wrong, after all, people have survived for considerable
times using them. Thus, attempts of introducing new farming methods, such as agroforestry, should
initially combine traditional and new knowledge.
The Vi projects have often been regarded as old-fashioned because they have not immediately taken on
new research findings into their extension portfolio. This careful attitude has its roots in the realisation
that new technologies have often been developed under controlled conditions at research stations and
have not been sufficiently tested (neither in time nor under a broad enough set of “real” conditions)
before being released. Also in agroforestry there are many examples of new species and new systems
advertised too [Link] is gender important? The target groups are farmers and the local culture in
much of East Africa is that women do most of the farm work. Thus, it is often an advantage with female
extensionists, since it is easier for them to talk to other women farmers than it is for male extensionists.
The Vi programme encourages the growing of short rotation nitrogen fixing trees and shrubs, which
men normally do not consider as “real” trees. Such trees mature in one to two years and give a lot of
firewood as well adding nutrients to the soil.
The Vi programme has placed a lot of emphasis on the issue of gender in tree planting and agroforestry
activities. All programme and all project staff are sensitised to gender aspects through regular seminars
and workshops. Staff recruitment at all levels emphasises the need for a balanced gender situation.
Out of total nine persons in the Vi programme Board, four are women, among them the chair person.
The total number of Vi project staff in 2003 were 784, out of which 275 were women (35%). In group
meetings and gatherings, such as PRA exercises, gender is always on the agenda as an item for
discussion.
The Vi programme's ambition is to have 80 % of the households in the project villages with ten fruit
trees of five different species within a period of five years. The main fruit trees promoted are: Carica
papaya, Psidium guajavsa, Persea americana, Mangifera indica, Passiflora edulis, Anona
senegalensis, Anona cherimoya, Anona muricata, Sclerocarya birrea, Syzygium cuminii, Anacardium
occidentale and Morus alba. Other tree species that are promoted have special functions, such as water
purification and medicine, like Moringa stenopetala, Moringa oleifera and Azadirachta indica (Neem).
On the question on whether to recommend organic or inorganic fertilisers, the Vi extensionists avoid
recommending chemical fertilisers, mainly for economic reasons, but also to avoid negative
environmental impact. The obvious need for more nutrients can partly be addressed by use of
leguminous trees and plants that fix nitrogen from the air. However, shortages of potassium,
phosphorus, calcium and many micronutrients can only be provided by designed chemicals. However,
low soil content of nitrogen is normally the most limiting nutrient growth factor in the parts of Africa
where the Vi programme operates. Therefore farmers are encourages to grow, through direct seeding,
fast growing leguminous trees e.g. Sesbania sesban, Gliricidia sepium and Calliandra calothyrsus in
areas with higher precipitation. These species are used for both soil fertility replenishment and as a
source of fodder for animals and for wood production. The detailed planting configurations are dictated
by the farmers needs, although the general principle is the establishment of improved fallows.
Use of long rotation tree species for timber production and nutrient cycling is also encouraged by
the Vi programme. These include among others: Cedrela odorata, Maesopsis eminii, Milicia excelsa,
Markhamia lutea, Azadirachta indica, Albizia lebbeck, Tectona grandis, Vitex keniensis, Samanea
saman, Khaya anthotheca, Croton macrostachyus, Cordia africana and Prunus africana in areas with
higher precipitation. In the long run, these timber trees will be the main sources of firewood, timber and
poles. They will also be useful in cycling nutrients from deeper soil horizons to be available for crops.
About 50 indigenous and exotic tree and shrub species are recommended by the Vi projects, among
which around 60% are indigenous species and 40% exotics. The former are preferred by the Vi
programme because seeds can normally be collected locally and bought by the projects. Local species
are often (but not always) better adapted to the site, give some cash income to seed deliverers and are
generally more readily accepted by farmers.
However, many of the tree species which today are looked upon as “indigenous” are in reality exotics
but they were introduced some time back and have been included in the “indigenous message” because
they are well known since long. One important exotic genus not included in the Vi arsenal is Eucalyptus,
because it is not included in the Vi’s definition of the “agroforestry concept”.
The programme handles a total of about 20 tonnes of tree seed annually. Women groups and individuals
collect most of the seed. Some quantities are also procured through the national tree seed programmes
in respective countries.
The need for supply of seed of fast growing tree species is reduced each year because farmers involved
in the Vi projects are encouraged and trained to establish on-farm seed production units. Most of the
fast growing leguminous tree species start producing seeds shortly after establishment. Seeds for the
long rotation tree species will always be in demand.