Q: Terms Related To AC Circuits (not for exam)

Waveform: The path traced by a quantity (such as voltage or current) plotted as a function of
some variable (such as time, degree, radians, temperature etc.) is called waveform.
Cycle:
 One complete set of positive and negative values of alternating quality (such as voltage
and current) is known as cycle.
 The portion of a waveform contained in one period of time is called cycle.
 A distance between two same points related to value and direction is known as cycle.
 A cycle is a complete alternation.
Period: The time taken by a alternating quantity (such as current or voltage) to complete one
cycle is called its time period “T”.
It is inversely proportional to the Frequency “f” and denoted by “T” where the unit of time
period is second. Mathematically;
T = 1/f
Frequency: Frequency is the number if cycles passed through per second. It is denoted by “f”
and has the unit cycle per second i.e. Hz (Herts).
The number of completed cycles in 1 second is called frequency.
It is the number of cycles of alternating quantity per second in hertz.
Frequency is the number of cycles that a sine wave completed in one second or the number of
cycles that occurs in one second.
f = 1/T
Amplitude: The maximum value, positive or negative, of an alternating quantity such as voltage
or current is known as its amplitude. Its denoted by VP, IP or EMAX and IMAX.
Alternation: One half cycle of a sine wave (Negative or Positive) is known as alternation which
span is 180° degree.

Fig 9 – Different Terms used in AC Circuits and Sine Wave

A sinusoidal waveform consists of various values namely peak value, average value, RMS
value.

Instantaneous value:
The value attained by an alternating quantity at any instant is known as instantaneous value. It is
denoted by “i” and v.
in other words, the value of an alternating current or voltage at any particular moment is called
an instantaneous value.
In following figure, different instantaneous values of voltages or currents are shown at specific
point and time period. The value of instantaneous current or voltage are “+” in the positive cycle
and “-” in negative cycle in a sinusoidal wave. The curves are showing the values of different
instantaneous voltages while the same curve can be drawn for current as well. In the fig 7, the
value of instantaneous voltages are 2.5V at 1μs, 5.1V at 2μs, 8.9V at 3μs. While it is -2.3V at
4μs, -6.1V at 5μs and -9.2V at 6μs.
Mathematically,

Here represents instantaneous value for different time .

Maximum Value, Crest Value or Amplitude:

The maximum value attained by an alternating waveform during one cycle is known as its peak
value. The peak value is also termed as crest value. The sinusoidal waveform starts from zero
attain peak value and again come down to zero in a positive half cycle. In the next negative half
cycle, the waveform goes through a negative peak value and comes down to zero value. Thus in
one complete cycle, the waveform attains a positive peak value at 90 degrees and a negative peak
value at 270 degrees.
The peak value of symmetrical alternating voltage and current waveform can also be determined
by measuring the peak to peak value of the waveform.

In simple words, it is the instantaneous value with maximum intensity.

Equations of Peak Voltage Value are:

VP = √2VRMS = 1.414 VRMS
VP = VP-P/2 = 0.5 VP-P
VP = π/2VAV = 1.571VAV
Peak to Peak Value:
The sum of positive and negative peak values is known as peak to peak value. Its expressed
as IPP or VPP.
Equations and formulas for Peak to Peak Voltage:
VP-P = 2√2VRMS = 2.828VRMS
VP-P =2VP
VP-P = πVAV = 3.141VAV
Average Value:
The arithmetical average of all the instantaneous values of an alternating quantity over one cycle
is known as the "Average Value of Alternating Quantity".

Average Value of Symmetrical Waves:

For the symmetrical sinusoidal waveform, the positive half cycle is symmetrical to the negative
half cycle. Therefore, the average value of one complete cycle is zero. However, the average
value is calculated without considering the signs. Therefore, only a positive half cycle is
considered for determining the average value of the alternating waveform.
The work is done by both, positive and negative cycle and hence the average value is determined
without considering the signs.

Average Value of Unsymmetrical Wave:

In case of unsymmetrical waves like half wave rectified voltage, the average is calculated over
the full cycle.

Since the sinusoidal alternating voltages and currents are most wide used all over the world.
Hence, we find the average and RMS values for the sinusoidal voltage and current.

Q: Derive the formula of average value of sinusoidal waveform (not for exam)
The average value of the sinusoidal waveform is obtained by adding instantaneous values of
voltage or current over one-half cycle only.

Example:
The peak value of the sinusoidal voltage is 300 volts, the average value will be;
Vav = 0.637 x 300
Vav =191.1 Volts
Q: Significance of average value:

The average value of AC (sinusoidal voltage or current) is the value of DC which would send the
same amount of charge through the circuit for half cycle of the AC as is sent by the AC through
the same circuit in the same time.
The Average Value (also known as Mean Value) of an Alternating Current (AC) is expressed by
that Direct Current (DC) which transfers across any circuit the same amount of charge as is
transferred by that Alternating Current (AC) during the same time.

Q: RMS Value
The „RMS Value‟ stands for Root Mean Squared value. It is defined as the square root of the
sum of the squared value. It is also known as the effective value of A.C.

Q: Significance of RMS AC
The RMS value of an alternating current is given by that DC current which when flowing
through a given time produces the same amount of heat as produced by the AC when flowing
through the same circuit for the same time.
The Root-Mean-Square (RMS) or Effective Value of a sinusoidal alternating current (AC) is the
value of DC which when flowing through a given resistance for a given time produces the same
amount of heat as produced by the AC when flowing through the same resistance for the same
time.
In the above diagram, if we calculate the amount of heat produced with the flow of electric
current through the same circuit for the same time, the AC current which produces the same heat
in the circuit as heat produced by DC is called the RMS value of AC. The RMS value is 240
VAC – It means if the 240 VAC produced the same heat as produced by the 240 Volts DC
voltage for the same circuit.

Actually, the RMS value of a sine wave is the measurement of heating effect of sine wave. For
example, When a resistor is connected to across an AC voltage source, it produce specific
amount of heat (Fig 2 – a). When the same resistor is connected across the DC voltage source as
shown in (fig 2 – b). By adjusting the value of DC voltage to get the same amount of heat
generated before in AC voltage source in fig a. It means the RMS value of a sine wave is equal
to the DC Voltage source producing the same amount of heat generated by AC Voltage source.

Q: Formula Derivation of RMS Value of Sinusoidal Waveform

Two methods:
 Graphical
 Analytical Method
Analytical method:
For symmetrical waveforms, the RMS value can be calculated by considering half cycle or full-
cycle. But, in case of Unsymmetrical waveforms, full-cycle should be considered. For
symmetrical wave.
Q: Example
If the peak value of AC voltage is 25 volts its RMS value will be;
Vrms = 25/1.414 = 17.68 Volts
RMS Voltage Equations
Vrms = 0.707 Vm
Vrms = 1.11 Vavg
The ratio of the RMS value and the average value of the pure sinusoidal waveform is equal to
1.11 (form factor). If the RMS to average value ratio is other than 1.11 the waveform is said to
be distorted.
Q: Numerical Example #1
A sinusoidal current has maximum value of 650 mA. What is its average value?
Solution
The average value of sinusoidal alternating current is given by

Q: Numerical Example #2
The equation of alternating voltage is given by ν = 325.22 𝑠𝑖𝑛314 . Find (i) RMS value (ii)
Frequency (iii) Average value.
Solution
Q: What do you mean by 220 VAC supply in home?
In more clear words, The domestic voltage level in US is 110V, while 220V AC in UK. This
voltage level shows the effective value of ( 110V or 220V R.M.S) and it shows that the home
wall socket is capable to provide the same amount of average positive power as 110V or 220V
DC Voltage.
Keep in mind that the ampere meters and volt meters connected in AC circuits always showing
the RMS values (of current and voltage).

Q: Is the 220-volt AC supply an RMS value or a peak value?

220V is the RMS value of domestic AC electric supply. This can be verified using a
multimeter. Multimeter always shows an RMS value of AC voltage.

Example:

Q: Example:

Q: Example:
The household supply of electricity is at 220 V (rms value) and 50 Hz. Find the peak voltage and the
least possible time in which the voltage can change from the rms value to zero\

Q: What is Peak Factor? (not for exam)

Peak Factor is also known as Crest Factor or Amplitude Factor.
It is the ratio between maximum value and RMS value of an alternating wave.

For a sinusoidal alternating voltage:

For a sinusoidal alternating current:

Q: What is Form Factor? (not for exam)

The ratio between RMS value and Average value of an alternating quantity (Current or Voltage)

is known as Form Factor.

Q: RMS Voltage Value Formulas for Different Wave forms (not for exam)
In the below table, the RMS Voltage Value formulas are shown for different kind of sinusoidal
wave forms.

Waveform Type Formula for RMS Value (VRMS)

Sine Wave VPK / √2

Half wave rectified sine wave VPK / √2

Full wave rectified sine wave VPK / √2

Square wave VPK

Triangle waveform VPK / √3

Sawtooth waveform VPK / √3

Q: Average Value & RMS Value Formulas for Different Wave forms (not for exam)
In the below table, the Average Value and RMS Voltage Value formulas are shown for different
kind of sinusoidal wave forms.
Formula for RMS Formula for Avg
Waveform Type
Voltage Voltage

Sine Wave VRMS = VPK/√2 VAV = 0

Full rectified wave VRMS = VPK/√2 VAV = 0.637 VPK

Half rectified wave VRMS = VPK/2 VAV = 0.318 VPK

Sine wave with DC offset VRMS = √(VDC2+VPK2/2) VAV = Vdc

VAV = 2f x T x
Half sine with duration T and frequency f VRMS = VPK x √(f x T/2)
VPK/π

Positive square wave with duration T and

VRMS = VPK x √(f x T) VAV = f x T x VPK
frequency f
Saw tooth wave with duration T and VAV = f x T x
VRMS = VPK x √(f x T/3)
frequency f VPK/2

Trapezoidal wave with frequency f, top VRMS = VPK x √(fx ((B- VAV = f x VPK x
segment T, and base segment B. T)+3xT)/3) ((T+B)/2)

Q: The form factor formulas and values are shown for different kind of sinusoidal wave
forms. (not for exam)
Waveform Type Formula for Form Factor Value

Sine Wave π/2√2 1.11072073

Half wave rectified sine wave π/2 1.5707963

Full wave rectified sine wave π/2√2 1.11072073

Square wave 1 1

Triangle waveform 2/√3 1.15470054

Saw-tooth waveform 2/√3 1.15470054