We hereby approve this

dissertation titled A Project

Submitted in Partial Fulfillment

of the Requirements for the Award of the Degree of

Bachelor of Technology
in
Electrical Engineering

by
Payal Roy(Roll:- 10901617080 )
Joydeep Dey(Roll:-10901617094 )
Anwesha Sahoo(Roll:-10901617114 )
Debdatta Praharaj(Roll:-10901617100 )
Nilakshi Chakraborty(Roll:- 10901617084 )

Department of Electrical Engineering

Netaji Subhash Engineering College

Kolkata-700152
MODELING AND CONTROL OF HYBRID
AC/DC MICROGRID
A Project Report Submitted in Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Award of the Degree of

Bachelor of Technology
in
Electrical Engineering

by

Payal Roy
Joydeep Dey
Anwesha Sahoo
Debdatta Praharaj
Nilakshi Chakraborty

Under the supervision

of
Prof. Sindhura Gupta

Department of Electrical Engineering

Netaji Subhash Engineering College
Kolkata-700152
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
NETAJI SUBHASH ENGINEERING COLLEGE
GARIA, KOLKATA, INDIA

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the Thesis Report entitled “MODELING AND

CONTROL OF HYBRID AC/DC MICROGRID”, submitted by
PAYAL ROY, JOYDEEP DEY, ANWESHA SAHOO, DEBDATTA
PRAHARAJ ,NILAKSHI CHAKRABORTY in partial fulfillment of
the requirements for the degree of Bachelor Of Technology in
Electrical Engineering during session 2017-2021 at Netaji Subhash
Engineering College, is an authentic work carried out by them under
my supervision and guidance.

Date:- Prof. Sindhura Gupta

Place:-Kolkata Department of Electrical Engineering
Netaji Subhash Engineering College
 Declaration
We hereby declare that this project report titled

MODELING AND CONTROL OF HYBRID

AC/DC MICROGRID
is our own original work carried out as a under graduate student in Netaji
Subhash Engineering College except to the extent that assistances from other
sources are duly acknowledged. All sources used for this project report have
been fully and properly cited. It contains no material which to a substantial
extent has been submitted for the award of any degree/diploma in any
institute or has been published in any form, except where due
acknowledgement is made.

Student’s Name Signature Date

 CERTIFICATE OF APPROVAL

We hereby approve this dissertation title

MODELING AND CONTROL OF HYBRID

AC/DC MICROGRID
carried out by

Payal Roy Roll No. -10901617080 Regd No. – 171090110585

Nilakshi Chakraborty Roll No. – 10901617084 Regd No. - 171090110581

Debdatta Praharaj Roll No. – 10901617100 Regd No. - 171090110565

Joydeep Dey. Roll No. - 10901617094 Regd No. -171090110571

Anwesha Sahoo. Roll No. - 109016171114 Regd No. –171090110551

Under the guidance of

Sindhura Gupta

of Netaji Subhash Engineering College, Kolkata in partial fulfillment of requirements for award of
the degree Bachelor of Technology (B. Tech) in Electrical Engineering of West Bengal University
of Technology.

Date :

Examiner's Signature:
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
With deep regards and profound respect, We avail this opportunity to express our deep
sense of gratitude and indebtedness to my supervisor Professor Sindhura Gupta, Electrical
Engineering Department, Netaji Subhash Engineering College for her inspiring guidance,
constructive criticism and valuable suggestion throughout this work. It would have not been
possible for us to bring out this thesis without his help and constant encouragement. We are
also thankful to all faculty members of Electrical Department, Netaji Subhash
Engineering College. We are also eually thankful to all those who have contributed, directly
or indirectly, to this present work.

PAYAL ROY
JOYDEEP DEY
ANWESHA SAHOO
DEBDATTA PRAHARAJ
NILAKSHI CHAKRABORTY

vii
 ABSTRACT
Renewable energy based distributed generators (DGs) play a dominant role in electricity
production, with the increase in the global warming. Distributed generation based on wind,
solar energy, biomass, mini-hydro along with use of fuel cells and microturbines will give
significant momentum in near future. Advantages like environmental friendliness,
expandability and flexibility have made distributed generation, powered by various
renewable and nonconventional micro-sources, an attractive option for configuring modern
electrical grids. A microgrid consists of cluster of loads and distributed generators that
operate as a single controllable system. As an integrated energy delivery system microgrid
can operate in parallel with or isolated from the main power grid. The microgrid concept
introduces the reduction of multiple reverse conversions in an individual AC or DC grid and
also facilitates connections to variable renewable AC and DC sources and loads to power
systems. The interconnection of DGs to the utility/grid through power electronic converters
has risen concerned about safe operation and protection of equipment’s. To the customer the
Type equation here .microgrid can be designed to meet their special requirements; such as,
enhancement of local reliability, reduction of feeder losses, local voltages support, increased
efficiency through use of waste heat, correction of voltage sag or uninterruptible power
supply. In the present work the performance of hybrid AC/DC microgrid system is analyzed
in the grid tied mode. Here photovoltaic system, wind turbine generator and battery are used
for the development of microgrid. Also control mechanisms are implemented for the
converters to properly co- ordinate the AC sub-grid to DC sub-grid. The results are obtained
from the MATLAB/ SIMULINK environment.

viii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Certificate i

Acknowledgements ii

Abstract iii

List of figures vii

List of tables ix

Acronyms x

Chapter 1 Introduction to microgrid

1.1 Introduction 1

1.1.1 General information regarding microgrid 1

1.1.2 Technical challenges in microgrid 3

1.2 Literature review 4

1.3 Motivation 8

1.4 Objective 9

1.5 Thesis organization 9

Chapter 2 Photovoltaic system and battery

2.1 Photovoltaic system 11

2.1.1 Photovoltaic arrangements 11

[Link] Photovoltaic cell 11

[Link] Photovoltaic module 12

[Link] Photovoltaic array 12

2.1.2 Working of PV cell 13

2.1.3 Modeling of PV panel 14

2.2 Maximum power point tracking 17

2.2.1 Necessity of maximum power point tracking 17

2.2.2 Algorithm for tracking of maximum power point 18

ix
 [Link] Perturb and observe 18

[Link] Incremental conductance 20

[Link] Parasitic capacitances 21

[Link] Voltage control maximum power point tracker 22

[Link] Current control maximum power tracker 22

2.3 Battery 22

2.3.1 Modeling of battery 23

2.4 Summary 24

Chapter 3 Modeling aof droop Control 25

26

26

26

28

32

Chapter 4 AC/DC Microgrid

4.1 Configuration of hybrid microgrid 33

4.2 Operation of grid 36

4.3 Modeling and control of converters 36

4.3.1 Modeling and control of boost converter 36

4.3.2 Modeling and control of main converter 37

4.3.3 Modeling and control of DFIG 38

[Link] Control of grid side converter 40

[Link] Control of machine side converter 42

4.3.4 Modeling and control of battery 45

4.4 Summary 45

x
Chapter 5 Results and discussions

5.1 Simulation of PV array 46

5.2 Simulation of doubly fed induction generator 48

5.3 Simulation results of hybrid grid 50

5.4 Summary 56
57
Chapter 6 Inverters

Chapter 7
63
Using Of Filters.

Chapter 8
Conclusion and suggestions for future work

8.1 Conclusions 57

8.2 Suggestions for future work 57

References 58

xi
 LIST OF FIGURES
Fig 1.1. Microgrid power system 1

Fig 2.1. Basic structure of PV cell 11

Fig 2.2. Photovoltaic system 13

Fig 2.3. Working of PV cell 13

Fig 2.4. Equivalent circuit of a solar cell 14

Fig 2.5. MPP characteristic 17

Fig 2.6. Perturb and observe algorithm 18

Fig 2.7. Flowchart Perturb and observe algorithm 19

Fig 2.8. Incremental conductance algorithm 20

Fig 2.9. Model of battery 23

Fig 3.1. Dynamic d-q equivalent circuit of DFIG (q-axis circuit) 26

Fig 3.2. Dynamic d-q equivalent circuit of DFIG (q-axis circuit) 27

Fig 4.1. A hybrid AC/DC microgrid system 33

Fig 4.2. Representation of hybrid microgrid 34

Fig 4.3. Control block diagram of boost converter 37

Fig 4.4. Control block diagram of main converter 38

Fig. 4.5. Overall DFIG system 39

Fig 4.6. Schematic diagram of grid side converter 40

Fig 4.7. Control block diagram of grid side converter 41

Fig 4.8. Control block diagram of machine side converter 43

Fig 4.9. Control block diagram of battery 45

Fig 5.1. I-V output characteristics of PV array for different temperatures 46

Fig 5.2. P-V output characteristics of PV array for different temperatures 47

Fig 5.3. P-I output characteristics of PV array for different temperatures 47

Fig 5.4. I-V characteristics of PV array for different irradiance levels 47

xii
Fig 5.5. P-V characteristics of PV array for different irradiance levels 48

Fig 5.6. P-I characteristics of PV array for different irradiance levels 48

Fig 5.7. Response of wind speed 49

Fig 5.8. Three phase stator voltage of DFIG 49

Fig 5.9. Three phase rotor voltage of DFIG 49

Fig 5.10. Irradiation signal of the PV array 50

Fig 5.11. Output voltage of PV array 50

Fig 5.12. Output current of PV array 51

Fig 5.13. Output power of PV array 51

Fig 5.14. Generated PWM signal for the boost converter 51

Fig 5.15. Output voltage across DC load 52

Fig 5.16. State of charge of battery 52

Fig 5.17. Voltage of battery 52

Fig 5.18. Current of battery 53

Fig 5.19. Output voltage across AC load 53

Fig 5.20. Output current across AC load 53

Fig 5.21. AC side voltage of the main converter 54

Fig 5.22. AC side current of the main converter 54

Fig 5.23. Output power of DFIG 55

Fig 5.24. Three phase supply voltage of utility grid 55

Fig 5.25. Three phase PWM inverter voltage 55

xiii
 LIST OF TABLES

2.1 Parameters for photovoltaic panel 16

3.1 Parameters for DFIG System 32

4.1 Component parameters for hybrid grid 35

xiv
 ACRONYMS
Ipv Terminal voltage of PV module

Vpv Output current of PV module

IPH Light generated current or photocurrent

IS Module reverse saturated current

ISC Cell's short-circuit current

IRS Cell's reverse saturation current at reference temperature

VOC Open circuit voltage

q Electron charge

k Boltzmann’s constant

A Ideal factor

KI cell’s short-circuit current temperature coefficient

EG Energy of the band gap of the silicon

TC Cell's working Temperature

TRef Cell's reference Temperature

λ Solar irradiation

RS Series resistance of PV cell

RSH Parallel resistance of PV cell

NP Number of cells in parallel

Ns Number of cells in series

Pmax Maximum power

Vmax Terminal voltage of PV cell at MPP

xv
Imax Output current of PV cell at MPP

γ Cell fill factor of PV cell

Vb Terminal voltage of battery

V0 Open circuit voltage of battery

Rb Internal resistance of battery

ib Battery charging current

K Polarization voltage

Q Battery capacity

A Exponential voltage

B Exponential capacity

SOC State of charge of battery

Pair Power contained in wind

ρ The air density

A The swept area

V∞ The wind velocity without rotor interference

Cp Power coefficient

λ Tip speed ratio

ω Rotational speed of rotor

R The radius of the swept area

vds ds-axis stator voltage

vs
q qs-axis stator voltage

vds dr-axis rotor voltage

xvi
vs
q qr-axis rotor voltage

vds d-axis stator voltage

vqs q-axis stator voltage

vdr d-axis rotor voltage

vqr q-axis rotor voltage

ids ds-axis stator current

is
q qs-axis stator current

ids dr-axis rotor current

is
q qr-axis rotor current

ids d-axis stator current

iqs q-axis stator current

idr d-axis rotor current

iqr q-axis rotor current

λds ds-axis stator flux linkage

q
λs qs-axis stator flux linkage

λds dr-axis rotor flux linkage

q
λs qr-axis rotor flux linkage

λds d-axis stator flux linkage

λqs q-axis stator flux linkage

λdr d-axis rotor flux linkage

λqr q-axis rotor flux linkage

θe Angle of synchronously rotating frame

xvi
i
θ Angle of stationary reference frame

Rs Stator resistance

Rr Rotor resistance with respect to stator

ωe Synchronous speed

ωr Rotor electrical speed

ωm Rotor mechanical speed

ωb Angular frequency

f Supply frequency

L1s Stator leakage inductance

L1r Rotor leakage inductance

Ls Stator inductance

Lr Rotor inductance

Lm Magnetizing inductance

P Number of poles

Te Electromagnetic torque

TL Load torque

J Rotor inertia

B Damping constant

Ps Active power in the grid

Qs Reactive power in the grid

vd d-axis grid voltage

vq q-axis grid voltage

xvi
ii
id d-axis grid current

iq q-axis grid current

R Line resistance

L Line inductance

C DC-link capacitance

vdc DC-link voltage

m1 Modulation index of supply side converter

m2 Modulation index of machine side converter

Pcur Rotor copper loss

Pcus Stator copper loss

X1s Stator leakage reactance

X1r Rotor leakage reactance

Xs Stator reactance

Xr Rotor reactance

Xm Magnetizing reactance

Cpv Capacitor across the solar panel

L1 Inductor for the boost converter

Cd Capacitor across the DC-link

L2 Filtering inductor for the inverter

R2 Equivalent resistance of the inverter

C2 Filtering capacitor for the inverter

L3 Inductor for the battery converter

xix
R3 Resistance of L3

f Frequency of the AC grid

fs Switching frequency for the power converter

Vd Rated DC bus voltage

xx
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION TO MICROGRID

1.1. Introduction

1.1.1. General information regarding microgrid

As electric distribution technology steps into the next century, many trends are becoming
noticeable that will change the requirements of energy delivery. These modifications are
being driven from both the demand side where higher energy availability and efficiency are
desired and from the supply side where the integration of distributed generation and peak-
shaving technologies must be accommodated [1].

Fig 1.1. Microgrid power system

1
 Power systems currently undergo considerable change in operating requirements mainly
as a result of deregulation and due to an increasing amount of distributed energy resources
(DER). In many cases DERs include different technologies that allow generation in small
scale (micro-sources) and some of them take advantage of renewable energy resources (RES)
such as solar, wind or hydro energy. Having micro-sources close to the load has the
advantage of reducing transmission losses as well as preventing network congestions.
Moreover, the possibility of having a power supply interruption of end-customers connected
to a low voltage (LV) distribution grid (in Europe 230 V and in the USA 110 V) is
diminished since adjacent micro-sources, controllable loads and energy storage systems can
operate in the islanded mode in case of severe system disturbances. This is identified
nowadays as a microgrid. Figure 1.1 depicts a typical microgrid. The distinctive microgrid
has the similar size as a low voltage distribution feeder and will rare exceed a capacity of 1
MVA and a geographic span of 1 km. Generally, more than 90% of low voltage domestic
customers are supplied by underground cable when the rest is supplied by overhead lines. The
microgrid often supplies both electricity and heat to the customers by means of combined
heat and power plants (CHP), gas turbines, fuel cells, photovoltaic (PV) systems, wind
turbines, etc. The energy storage systems usually include batteries and flywheels [2]. The
storing device in the microgrid is equivalent to the rotating reserve of large generators in the
conventional grid which ensures the balance between energy generation and consumption
especially during rapid changes in load or generation [3].

From the customer point of view, microgrids deliver both thermal and electricity
requirements and in addition improve local reliability, reduce emissions, improve power
excellence by supportive voltage and reducing voltage dips and potentially lower costs of
energy supply. From the utility viewpoint, application of distributed energy sources can
potentially reduce the demand for distribution and transmission facilities. Clearly, distributed
generation located close to loads will reduce flows in transmission and distribution circuits
with two important effects: loss reduction and ability to potentially substitute for network
assets. In addition, the presence of generation close to demand could increase service quality
seen by end customers. Microgrids can offer network support during the time of stress by
relieving congestions and aiding restoration after faults. The development of microgrids can
contribute to the reduction of emissions and the mitigation of climate changes. This is due to
the availability and developing technologies for distributed generation units are based on
renewable sources and micro sources that are characterized by very low emissions [4].

2
 There are various advantages offered by microgrids to end-consumers, utilities and
society, such as: improved energy efficiency, minimized overall energy consumption,
reduced greenhouse gases and pollutant emissions, improved service quality and reliability,
cost efficient electricity infrastructure replacement [2].

Technical challenges linked with the operation and controls of microgrids are immense.
Ensuring stable operation during network disturbances, maintaining stability and power
quality in the islanding mode of operation necessitates the improvement of sophisticated
control strategies for microgrid’s inverters in order to provide stable frequency and voltage in
the presence of arbitrarily varying loads [4]. In light of these, the microgrid concept has
stimulated many researchers and attracted the attention of governmental organizations in
Europe, USA and Japan. Nevertheless, there are various technical issues associated with the
integration and operation of microgrids.

1.1.2. Technical challenges in microgrid

Protection system is one of the major challenges for microgrid which must react to both
main grid and microgrid faults. The protection system should cut off the microgrid from the
main grid as rapidly as necessary to protect the microgrid loads for the first case and for the
second case the protection system should isolate the smallest part of the microgrid when
clears the fault [30]. A segmentation of microgrid, i.e.a design of multiple islands or sub-
microgrids must be supported by micro-source and load controllers. In these conditions
problems related to selectivity (false, unnecessary tripping) and sensitivity (undetected faults
or delayed tripping) of protection system may arise. Mainly, there are two main issues
concerning the protection of microgrids, first is related to a number of installed DER units in
the microgrid and second is related to an availability of a sufficient level of short-circuit
current in the islanded operating mode of microgrid since this level may substantially drop
down after a disconnection from a stiff main grid. In [30] the authors have made short-circuit
current calculations for radial feeders with DER and studied that short-circuit currents which
are used in over-current (OC) protection relays depend on a connection point of and a feed-in
power from DER. The directions and amplitudes of short circuit currents will vary because of
these conditions. In reality the operating conditions of microgrid are persistently varying
because of the intermittent micro-sources (wind and solar) and periodic load variation.
Also, the network topology can be changed frequently which aims to minimize loss or to
achieve other economic or operational targets. In addition, controllable islands of different
size and content can be formed as a result of faults in the main grid or inside microgrid.

3
In such situations a loss of relay coordination may happen and generic OC protection with a
single setting group may become insufficient, i.e. it will not guarantee a selective operation
for all possible faults. Hence, it is vital to ensure that settings chosen for OC protection relays
take into account a grid topology and changes in location, type and amount of generation.
Otherwise, unwanted operation or failure may occur during necessary condition. To deal with
bi-directional power flows and low short-circuit current levels in microgrids dominated by
micro-sources with power electronic interfaces a new protection philosophy is essential,
where setting parameters of relays must be checked/updated periodically to make sure that
they are still appropriate.

1.2. Literature review

The popularity of distributed generation systems is growing faster from last few years
because of their higher operating efficiency and low emission levels. Distributed generators
make use of several micro-sources for their operation like photovoltaic cells, batteries, micro
turbines and fuel cells. During peak load hours DGs provide peak generation when the energy
cost is high and stand by generation during system outages. Microgrid is built up by
combining cluster of loads and parallel distributed generation systems in a certain local area.
Microgrids have large power capacity and more control flexibility which accomplishes the
reliability of the system as well as the requirement of power quality. Operation of microgrid
needs implementation of high-performance power control and voltage regulation algorithm
[1]-[5].

To realize the emerging potential of distributed generation, a system approach

[Link] is proposed which considers generation and associated loads as a subsystem.
This approach involves local control of distributed generation and hence reduces the need for
central dispatch. During disturbances by islanding generation and loads, local reliability can
be higher in microgrid than the whole power system. This application makes the system
efficiency double. The current implementation of microgrid incorporates sources with loads,
permits for intentional islanding and use available waste heat of power generation systems
[6].

Microgrid operates as a single controllable system which offers both power and heat to its
local area. This concept offers a new prototype for the operation of distributed generation. To
the utility microgrid can be regarded as a controllable cell of power system. In case of faults
in microgrid, the main utility should be isolated from the distribution section as fast as

4
necessary to protect loads. The isolation depends on customer’s load on the microgrid. Sag
compensation can be used in some cases with isolation from the distribution system to protect
the critical loads [2].

The microgrid concept lowers the cost and improves the reliability of small-scale
distributed generators. The main purpose of this concept is to accelerate the recognition of the
advantage offered by small scale distributed generators like ability to supply waste heat
during the time of need. From a grid point of view, microgrid is an attractive option as it
recognizes that the nation’s distribution system is extensive, old and will change very slowly.
This concept permits high penetration of distribution generation without requiring redesign of
the distribution system itself [7].

The microgrid concept acts as solution to the problem of integrating large amount of
micro generation without interrupting the utility network’s operation. The microgrid or
distribution network subsystem will create less trouble to the utility network than the
conventional micro generation if there is proper and intelligent coordination of micro
generation and loads. In case of disturbances on the main network, microgrid could
potentially disconnect and continue to operate individually, which helps in improving power
quality to the consumer [8].

With advancement in DGs and microgrids there is development of various essential

power conditioning interfaces and their associated control for tying multiple micro-sources to
the microgrid, and then tying the microgrids to the traditional power systems. Microgrid
operation becomes highly flexible, with such interconnection and can be operated freely in
the grid connected or islanded mode of operation. Each micro-source can be operated like a
current source with maximum power transferred to the grid for the former case. The islanded
mode of operation with more balancing requirements of supply-demand would be triggered
when the main grid is not comparatively larger or is simply disconnected due to the
occurrence of a fault. Without a strong grid and a firm system voltage, each micro-
source must now regulate its own terminal voltage within an allowed range, determined by its
internally generated reference. The micro-source thus appears as a controlled voltage source,
whose output should rightfully share the load demand with the other sources. The sharing
should preferably be in proportion to their power ratings, so as not to overstress any
individual entity [9].

5
 The installation of distributed generators involves technical studies of two major fields.
First one is the dealing with the influences induced by distributed generators without making
large modifications to the control strategy of conventional distribution system and the other
one is generating a new concept for utilization of distributed generators. The concept of the
microgrid follows the later approach. This includes several advantages with the installation of
microgrid. Efficiently microgrid can integrate distributed energy resources with loads.
Microgrid considered as a ‘grid friendly entity” and does not give undesirable influence to the
connecting distribution network i.e, operation policy of distribution grid does not have to be
modified. It can also operate independently in the occurrence of any fault. In case of large
disturbances there is possibility of imbalance of supply and demand as microgrid does not
have large central generator. Also, microgrid involves different DERs. Even if energy balance
is being maintained there continues undesirable oscillation [10].

For each component of the microgrid, a peer-to-peer and plug-and-play model is used to
improve the reliability of the system. The concept of peer-to-peer guarantees that with loss of
any component or generator, microgrid can continue its operation. Plug-and-play feature
implies that without re-engineering the controls a unit can be placed at any point on the
electrical system thereby helps to reduce the possibilities of engineering errors [11].

The economy of a country mainly depends upon its electric energy supply which should
be secure and with high quality. The necessity of customer’s power quality and energy supply
is fulfilled by distributed energy supply. The distribution system mainly includes renewable
energy resources, storage systems small size power generating systems and these are
normally installed close to the customer’s premises. The benefits of the DERs include power
quality with better supply, higher reliability and high efficiency of energy by utilization of
waste heat. It is an attractive option from the environmental considerations as there is
generation of little pollution. Also, it helps the electric utility by reducing congestion on the
grid, reducing need for new generation and transmission and services like voltage support
and demand response. Microgrid is an integrated system. The integration of the DERs
connected to microgrid is critical. Also, there is additional problem regarding the control and
grouping and control of DERs in an efficient and reliable manner [12].

Integration of wind turbines and photovoltaic systems with grid leads to grid instability.
One of the solutions to this problem can be achieved by the implementation of microgrid.
Even though there are several advantages associated with microgrid operation, there are high
transmission line losses. In a microgrid there are several units which can be utilized in a

6
house or country. In a house renewable energy resources and storage devices are connected to
DC bus with different converter topology from which DC loads can get power supply.
Inverters are implemented for power transfer between AC and DC buses. Common and
sensitive loads are connected to AC bus having different coupling points. During fault in the
utility grid microgrid operates in islanded mode. If in any case renewable source can’t supply
enough power and state of charge of storage devices are low microgrid disconnects common
loads and supply power to the sensitive loads [13].

Renewable energy resources are integrated with microgrid to reduce the emission of CO 2
and consumption of fuel. The renewable resources are very fluctuant in nature, and also the
production and consumption of these sources are very difficult. Therefore, new renewable
energy generators should be designed having more flexibility and controllability [14].

In conventional AC power systems AC voltage source is converted into DC power using

an AC/DC inverter to supply DC loads. AC/DC/AC converters are also used in industrial
drives to control motor speed. Because of the environmental issues associated with
conventional power plant renewable resources are connected as distributed generators or ac
microgrids. Also, more and more DC loads like light emitting diode lights and electric
vehicles are connected to AC power systems to save energy and reduce carbon dioxide
(CO2) emission. Long distance high voltage transmission is no longer necessary when power
can be supplied by local renewable power sources. AC sources in a DC grid have to be
converted into DC and AC loads connected into DC grid using DC/AC inverters [15].

DC systems use power electronic based converters to convert AC sources to DC and

distribute the power using DC lines. DC distribution becomes attractive for an industrial park
with heavy motor-controlled loads and sensitive electronic loads. The fast response capability
of these power electronic converters help in providing highly reliable power supply and also
facilitate effective filtering against disturbances. The employment of power electronic based
converters help to suppress two main challenges associated with DC systems as reliable
conversion from AC/DC/AC and interruption of DC current under normal as well as fault
condition [16]. Over a conventional AC grid system, DC grid has the advantage that power
supply connected with the DC grid can be operated cooperatively because DC load voltage
are controlled. The DC grid system operates in stand-alone mode in the case of the abnormal
or fault situations of AC utility line, in which the generated power is supplied to the loads
connected with the DC grid. Changes in the generated power and the load consumed power

7
can be compensated as a lump of power in the DC gird. The system cost and loss reduce
because of the requirement of only one AC grid connected inverter [17].

Therefore, the efficiency is reduced due to multistage conversions in an AC or a DC grid.

So, to reduce the process of multiple DC/AC/DC or AC/DC/AC conversions in an individual
AC or DC grid, hybrid AC/DC microgrid is proposed, which also helps in reducing the
energy loss due to reverse conversion [15].

Mostly renewable power plants are implemented in rural areas which are far away from
the main grid network and there is possibility of weak transmission line connection. The
microgrid (MG) concept provides an effective solution for such weak systems. The operation
can be smoothened by the hybrid generation technologies while minimizing the disturbances
due to intermittent nature of energy from PV and wind generation. Also, there is possibility of
power exchange with the main grid when excess/shortage occurs in the microgrid [18].

Distributed generation is gaining more popularity because of their advantages like

environmental friendliness, expandability and availability without making any alternation to
the existing transmission and distribution grid. Modern sources depend upon environmental
and climatic conditions hence make them uncontrollable. Because of this problem microgrid
concept comes into feature which cluster multiple distributed energy resources having
different operating principles. In grid tied mode distributed green sources operates like
controlled current source with surplus energy channeled by the mains to other distant loads.
There is need of continuous tuning of source outputs which can be achieved with or without
external communication links. In case of any malfunctions grid tied mode is proved less
reliable as this leads to instability [19].

1.3. Motivation of project work

The microgrid concept acts as a solution to the conundrum of integrating large amounts of
micro generation without disrupting the operation of the utility network. With intelligent
coordination of loads and micro-generation, the distribution network subsystem (or
'microgrid') would be less troublesome to the utility network, than conventional
microgeneration. The net microgrid could even provide ancillary services such as local
voltage control. In case of disturbances on the main network, microgrids could
potentially disconnect and continue to operate separately. This operation improves power
quality to the customer. From the grid’s perception, the benefit of a microgrid is that
it can be considered as a controlled entity within the power system that can be

8
functioned as a single aggregated load. Customers can get benefits from a microgrid
because it is designed and operated to meet their local needs for heat and power as
well as provide uninterruptible power, enhance local reliability, reduce feeder losses,
and support local voltages/correct voltage sag. In addition to generating technologies,
microgrid also includes storage, load control and heat recovery equipment. The ability of
the microgrid to operate when connected to the grid as well as smooth transition to and
from the island mode is another important function.

1.4. Objective of the thesis

The main objective of this thesis is the development of a hybrid microgrid which will
reduce the process of multiple reverse conversions associated with individual AC and DC
grid by the combination of

 AC and DC sub-grid
 Photovoltaic (PV) system and
 Wind turbine generator

In order to analyze the operation of microgrid system both the modeling and controlling
of the system are important issues. Hence the control and modeling (to be discussed detail
in Chapter 4) are also the part of this thesis work. As a part of the thesis work the
overall system is simulated using MATLAB environment. In simulation work the system
is modeled using different state equations.

1.5. Thesis organization

The thesis has been organized into six chapters. Following the chapter on introduction,
the rest of the thesis is outlined as follows.

Chapter 2 explains detailed modeling of PV array with the implantation of maximum

power point tracking. Also, the battery model is studied.

Chapter 3 represents explains the modeling of the overall DFIG system in detail. In this
chapter the detail explanation is made using block diagrams and different algebraic
equations.

In chapter 4 the overall configuration of the hybrid microgrid system was implemented.
Along with the operation of the grid and modeling and control of the used converters are
described.

9
 Chapter 5 presents all the simulation results which are found using MATLAB/
SIMULINK environment.

Chapter 6 provides comprehensive summary and conclusions of the work undertaken in

this thesis and also acknowledge about the future work. The references taken for the
purpose of research work are also the part of this chapter.

10
 CHAPTER 2
PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM AND BATTERY

2.1. Photovoltaic system

The photoelectric effect was first noted by French physicist Edmund Becquerel in 1839.
He proposed that certain materials have property of producing small amounts of electric
current when exposed to sunlight. In 1905, Albert Einstein explained the nature of light and
the photoelectric effect which has become the basic principle for photovoltaic technology. In
1954 the first photovoltaic module was built by Bell Laboratories.

A photovoltaic system makes use of one or more solar panels to convert solar energy into
a
electricity. It consists of various components which include the photovoltaic modules,
mechanical and electrical connections and mountings and means of regulating and/or
modifying the electrical
outputs

2.1.1 Photovoltaic Arrangements

[Link]. Photovoltaic cell

Fig 2.1. Basic structure of

PV cell

11
 The basic ingredients of PV cells are semiconductor materials, such as silicon. For solar
cells, a thin semiconductor wafer creates an electric field, on one side positive and
negative on the other. When light energy hits the solar cell, electrons are knocked loose from
the atoms in the semiconductor material. When electrical conductors are connected to the
positive and negative sides an electrical circuit is formed and electrons are captured in the
form of an electric current that is, electricity. This electricity is used to power a load. A
PV cell can either be circular or square in construction.

[Link]. Photovoltaic module

Because of the low voltage generation in a PV cell (around 0.5V), several PV cells are
connected in series (for high voltage) and in parallel (for high current) to form a PV module
for desired output. In case of partial or total shading, and at night there may be requirement of
separate diodes to avoid reverse currents The p-n junctions of mono-crystalline silicon cells
may have adequate reverse current characteristics and these are not necessary. There is
wastage of power because of reverse currents which directs to overheating of shaded cells. At
higher temperatures solar cells provide less efficiency and installers aim to offer good
ventilation behind solar panel. Usually there are of 36 or 72 cells in general PV modules. The
modules consist of transparent front side, encapsulated PV cell and back side. The front side
is usually made up of low-iron and tempered glass material. The efficiency of a PV module is
less than a PV cell. This is because of some radiation is reflected by the glass cover and
frame shadowing etc.

[Link]. Photovoltaic array

A photovoltaic array (PV system) is an interconnection of modules which in turn is made

up of many PV cells in series or parallel. The power produced by single module is not enough
to meet the requirements of commercial applications, so modules are connected to form array
to supply the load. In an array the connection of the modules is same as that of cells in a
module. The modules in a PV array are usually first connected in series to obtain the desired
voltages; the individual modules are then connected in parallel to allow the system to produce
more current. In urban uses, generally the arrays are mounted on a rooftop. PV array output
can directly feed to a DC motor in agricultural applications.

12
 Fig 2.2. Photovoltaic system

2.1.2. Working of PV cell

The basic principle behind the operation of a PV cell is photoelectric effect. In this effect
electron gets ejected from the conduction band as a result of the absorption of sunlight of a
certain wavelength by the matter (metallic or non-metallic solids, liquids or gases). So, in a
photovoltaic cell, when sunlight hits its surface, some portion of the solar energy is absorbed
in the semiconductor material.

Fig 2.3. Working of PV cell

The electron from valence band jumps to the conduction band when absorbed energy is
greater than the band gap energy of the semiconductor. By these hole-electrons pairs are
created in the illuminated region of the semiconductor. The electrons created in the
conduction band are now free to move. These free electrons are enforced to move in a
particular direction by the action of electric field present in the PV cells. These electrons

13
flowing comprise current and can be drawn for external use by connecting a metal plate on
top and bottom of PV cell. This current and the voltage produces required power.

2.1.3. Modeling of PV panel

The photovoltaic system can generate direct current electricity without environmental
impact when is exposed to sunlight. The basic building block of PV arrays is the solar cell,
which is basically a p-n junction that directly converts light energy into electricity. The
output characteristic of PV module depends on the cell temperature, solar irradiation, and
output voltage of the module. The figure shows the equivalent circuit of a PV array with a
load [20].

Rs I pv

I ph Vpv
Rp

Fig 2.4. Equivalent circuit of a solar cell

Usually, the equivalent circuit of a general PV model consists of a photocurrent, a diode,

a parallel resistor which expresses a leakage current, and a series resistor which describes an
internal resistance to the current flow. The voltage current characteristic equation of a solar
cell is given as

Ipv = IPH − IS[exp (q(Vpv + IpvRS)/kTCA) − 1] − (Vpv + IpvRS)/RP (2.1)

The photocurrent mainly depends on the cell’s working temperature and solar irradiation,
which is explained as

IPH = [ISC + KI(TC − TRef)]λ/1000 (2.2)

The saturation current of the cell varies with the cell temperature, which is represented as

IS = IRS(TC/TRef)3exp [qEG(1/TRef − 1/TC)/kA] (2.3)

The shunt resistance RP of the cell is inversely related with shunt leakage current to the
ground. Usually, efficiency of PV array is insensitive to variation in RP and the shunt-leakage
resistance can be assumed to approach infinity without leakage current to ground.

14
Alternatively, a small variation in series resistance RS will significantly affect output power
of the PV cell. The appropriate model of PV solar cell with suitable complexity is shown in
Fig.2.4. Equation (2.1) can be modified to be

Ipv = IPH − IS[exp (q(Vpv + IpvRS)/kTCA) − 1] (2.4)

There is no series loss and no leakage to ground for an ideal PV cell, i.e., RS = 0 and RP =
∞. So equation (2.1) can be rewritten as

Ipv = IPH − IS[exp (qVpv/kTCA) − 1] (2.5)

A PV array is a group of several PV modules which are electrically connected in series

and parallel circuits to generate the required current and voltage. So the current and voltage
equation of the array with NP parallel and NS series cells can be represented as

Ipv = NPIPH − NPIS[exp (q(Vpv/NS + IRS/NP)/kTCA) − 1] − (NPVpv/NS +

IRS)/RP (2.6)

The efficiency of a PV cell is sensitive to small change in series resistance but insensitive
to variation in shunt resistance. The role of series resistance is very important for a PV
module and the shunt resistance is approached to be infinity which can also be assumed as
open. The mathematical equation of the model can be described by considering series and
parallel resistance as

Ipv = NPIPH − NPIS[exp (q(Vpv/NS + IpvRS/NP)/kTCA) − 1] (2.7)

The equation (2.7) can be simplified as

Ipv = NPIPH − NPIS[exp (qVpv/NSkTCA) − 1] (2.8)

The open-circuit voltage VOC and short-circuit current ISC are the two most important
parameters used which describes the cell electrical performance. The above-mentioned
equations are implicit and nonlinear; hence, it is not easy to arrive at an analytical solution for
the specific temperature and irradiance. Normally IPH ≫ IS, so by neglecting the small diode
and ground-leakage currents under zero-terminal voltage, the short-circuit current is
approximately equal to the photocurrent, i.e.

IPH = ISC (2.9)

The open-circuit voltage parameter is obtained by assuming the zero-output current. With
the given open-circuit voltage at reference temperature and ignoring the shunt-leakage
current, the reverse saturation current can be acquired as

15
IRS = ISC/[exp (qVOC/NSkATC) − 1] (2.10)

Additionally, the maximum power can be stated as

Pmax = VmaxImax = γVOCISC (2.11)

The parameters used for the modeling of photovoltaic panel are shown in the table 2.1 [16].

Symbol Value

VOC 403 V

q 1.602 ×
10−19C
k 1.38 × 10−23 K

A 1.50

ISC 3.27 A

KI 1.7 × 10−3

TRef 301.18 K

IRS 2.0793 × 10−6

A
TC 350 K

λ 0-1500 W/m2

NP 40

Ns 900

EG 1.1 eV

Table 2.1. Parameters for photovoltaic panel

16
2.2. Maximum power point tracking

As an electronic system maximum power point tracker (MPPT) functions the

photovoltaic (PV) modules in a way that allows the PV modules to produce all the power
they are capable of. It is not a mechanical tracking system which moves physically the
modules to make them point more directly at the sun. Since MPPT is a fully electronic
system, it varies the module’s operating point so that the modules will be able to deliver
maximum available power. As the outputs of PV system are dependent on the temperature,
irradiation, and the load characteristic MPPT cannot deliver the output voltage perfectly. For
this reason, MPPT is required to be implementing in the PV system to maximize the PV array
output voltage.

2.2.1. Necessity of maximum power point tracking

Fig 2.5. MPP characteristic

In the power versus voltage curve of a PV module there exists a single maxima of power ,
i.e. there exists a peak power corresponding to a particular voltage and current. The
efficiency of the solar PV module is low about 13%. Since the module efficiency is low it is
desirable to operate the module at the peak power point so that the maximum power can
be delivered to the load under varying temperature and irradiation conditions. This
maximized power helps to improve the use of the solar PV module. A maximum power
point tracker (MPPT) extracts maximum power from the PV module and transfers that
power to the load. As an interfacing device DC/DC converter transfers this maximum

17
power from the solar PV module to the load. By changing the duty cycle, the load impedance
is varied and matched at the point of the peak power with the source so as to
transfer the maximum power.

2.2.2. Algorithms for tracking of maximum power point

There are different algorithms which help to track the peak power point of the solar PV
module automatically. The algorithms can be written as

a. Perturb and observe

b. Incremental conductance

c. Parasitic capacitance

d. Voltage based peak power tracking

e. Current Based peak power tracking

[Link]. Perturb and observe

In this algorithm a slight perturbation is introduced in the system. The power of the
module changes due to this perturbation. If the power increases due to the perturbation then
the perturbation is continued in that direction. When power attains its peak point, the next
instant power decreases and so also the perturbation reverses. During the steady state
condition the algorithm oscillates around the peak point. The perturbation size is kept very
small to keep the power variation small. It is examined that there is some power loss
because of this perturbation and also it fails to track the power under fast varying
atmospheric conditions. But still this algorithm is very popular and simple [22], [23].

200

150
Power (W)

100

50

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Voltage(V)

Fig 2.6. Perturb and observe algorithm

18
 In the present work this algorithm is chosen. Figure 2.7 represents the flow chart of the
algorithm. The algorithm observes output power of the array and perturbs the power based on
increment of the array voltage. The algorithm continuously increments or decrements the
reference voltage based on the value of the previous power sample.

P  P(k)  P(k 1)

V  V(k)  V(k 1)

P 
0

V  0 V  0

Vref  Vref  Vref  Vref  V Vref  Vref  V Vref  Vref  V

V

k  k 1

Fig 2.7. Flowchart Perturb and observe algorithm

Here a reference voltage Vref is set corresponding to the peak power point of the module.
The value of current and voltage can be obtained from the solar PV module. From the
measured voltage and current power is calculated. The value of voltage and power at kth
instant are stored. Then values at (k + 1)th instant are measured again and power is
calculated from the measured values. The power and voltage at (k + 1)th instant are
subtracted with the values from kth instant. If we observe the power voltage curve of
the solar PV module we see that in the right hand side curve where the voltage is almost
constant

19
the slope of power voltage is negative (dP/dV < 0) where as in the left hand side the slope

is positive (dP/dV > 0). Depending on the sign of dP[P(k + 1) − P(k)] and

dV[V(k + 1) −
V(k)] after subtraction the algorithm decides whether to increase or to reduce the reference
voltage.

The P&O method is claimed to have slow dynamic response and high steady state error.
In fact, the dynamic response is low when a small increment value and a low sampling rate
are employed. To decrease the steady state error low increments are essential because the
P&O always makes the operating point oscillate near the MPP, but never at the MPP exactly.
When the increment is lower, the system will be closer to the array MPP. In case of greater
increment, the algorithm will work faster, but the steady state error will be increased. The
small increments tend to make the algorithm more stable and accurate when the operating
conditions of the PV array change. In case of large increments, the algorithm becomes
confused since the response of the converter to large voltage or current variations will cause
oscillations, overshoot and the settling time of the converter itself confuse the algorithm [24].

[Link]. Incremental conductance

The incremental conductance method can overwhelm the problems of tracking peak
power under fast varying atmospheric condition [22], [23].

200
𝑑𝐼/
𝑑𝑉 =
𝑑𝐼/
𝑑𝑉 <
𝐼/
150

𝑉
𝑑𝐼/
Power (W)

𝑑𝑉 >
𝐼/
100

𝑉
50

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Voltage(V)

Fig 2.8. Incremental conductance algorithm

The algorithm uses the equation

P=V∗I (2.12)

(Where P=power of the module, V= voltage of the module, I= current of the module);

20
Differentiating with respect to

dV dP/dV = I + dI/dV (2.13)

The algorithm works depending on this equation.

At peak power point

dP/
dV = 0 (2.14)

dI/ = −I/
dV V (2.15)
If the operating point is to the right of the power curve, then we
have

dP/
dV < 0 (2.16)

dI/ I
dV < /V (2.17)
If operating point is to the left of the power curve, then we
have

dP/
dV > 0 (2.18)

dI/ I
dV > /V (2.19)
The algorithm works using equations (2.15), (2.17), & (2.18).

21
 When the incremental conductance decides that the MPPT has reached the MPP, it stops
perturbing the operating point. If this condition is not achieved, MPPT operating point

direction can be computed using dI/dV and −I/V relation. This relationship is derived

from the fact that when the MPPT is to the right of the MPP dP/dV is negative and

positive when
it is to the left of the MPP. This algorithm has benefits over perturb and observe in that it can
determine when the MPPT has reached the MPP, where perturb and observe oscillates around
the MPP. Also, this algorithm can track rapidly increasing and decreasing irradiance
conditions with higher accuracy than perturb and observe. The drawback of this algorithm is
that there is increased complexity when compared to perturb and observe.

[Link]. Parasitic capacitances

The improvement of the incremental conductance leads to the method of parasitic

capacitance which considers the parasitic capacitances of the solar cells. This method makes
use of the switching ripple of the MPPT which helps to perturb the array. The average ripple
in the PV array voltage and power, generated by the switching frequency are measured
using a series of filters and multipliers and then used to calculate the array
conductance. Then the algorithm decides the direction of movement of MPPT operating
point. There is one disadvantage in this algorithm that the parasitic capacitance in each
module is very small, and can perform well in large PV arrays where several PV modules are
connected in parallel. There is sizable input capacitor in the DC-DC converter which filters
out small ripple in the array power. This capacitor may cover the overall effects of the
parasitic capacitance of the PV array [23].

[Link]. Voltage control maximum power point tracker

The maximum power point (MPP) of a PV module is assumed to lie about 0.75 times the
open circuit voltage of the module. Hence a reference voltage can be generated by calculating
the open circuit voltage and then the feed forward voltage control scheme can be
implemented to bring the solar PV module voltage to the point of maximum power. The
difficulty associated with this technique is that there is variation of open circuit voltage with
the temperature. As there is increase in temperature because of the change in open circuit
voltage of the module, module’s open circuit is needed to be calculated frequently. In this
process the load must be disconnected from the module to measure open circuit voltage. So
the power during that instant cannot be utilized [25].

22
[Link]. Current control maximum power point tracker

The module’s peak power lies at the point which is about 0.9 times the short circuit
current of the module. The module has to be short-circuited to measure this point. After that
module current is adjusted to the value by using the current mode control which is
approximately 0.9 times the short circuit current. In this case a high- power resistor is
required which can sustain the short-circuit current. This is the problem with this algorithm.
The module has to be short circuited to measure the short circuit current as it goes on varying
with the changes in irradiation level [25].

2.3. Battery

In our modern society the role of batteries is important as energy carriers, because of its
presence in devices for everyday use. At the end of the 20 th century the demand for batteries
rapidly increased due to the large interest in wireless devices. Today, the battery industry
comes under the category of large-scale industry which produces several million batteries per
month. Improving the energy capacity is one major development issue, however, for
consumer products, safety is probably considered equally important today. With the
introduction of hybrid electric vehicles into the market there is technological development in
the battery field which leads to reduction of fuel consumption and gas emissions. Battery
development is a major task for both industry and academic research.

2.3.1. Modeling of battery

The battery is modeled as a nonlinear voltage source whose output voltage depends not
only on the current but also on the battery state of charge (SOC), which is a nonlinear
function of the current and time [26]. Fig 2.9 represents a basic model of battery.

Two parameters to represent state of a battery i.e. terminal voltage and state of charge can
be written as:

V =V +R i −K
b 0 b
Q
+ A ∗ exp (B ∫ ib dt)
Q−∫ ibdt
(2.20)

23
SOC = 100(1 + ∫ ibdt
) (2.21)

Ibatt

Vb
Vbatt

Q t
V V  k .it  [Link]([Link]) 
b 0 Qi it
b 0

dt

Fig 2.9. Model of battery

The original Shepherd model has a non-linear term equal to K Q

Q−∫ ibdt
. This term

represents a non-linear voltage that changes with the amplitude of the current and the actual
charge of the battery. So, when there is complete discharge of battery and no flow of current,
the voltage of the battery will be nearly zero. As soon as a current circulates again, the
voltage falls abruptly. This model yields accurate results and also represents the behaviour of
the battery.

2.4. Summary

This chapter summarizes the modeling of solar panel with the implementation of
maximum power point tracking algorithm. Various MPPT algorithms are introduced for the
study of PV array to track maximum power under various solar irradiation and temperature
conditions. Also, the model of battery is explained in detail for the modeling of microgrid.

24
25
 CHAPTER 3
MODELING OF DOOP CONTROL

ABSTRACT : —The sources, interfaced with the microgrid using

power electronic converters have inherently low physical inertia.
With step variation in load demand, voltage and frequency
difference are created among the sources during transient and the
low frequency oscillations appear in the power supplied through the
interconnecting lines. This may even lead to false triggering of fault
protection system. To suppress these transient in powers and to
improve dynamic response of microgrid in islanded mode, a
modified droop controller which uses dynamic variation in droop
gains of active power frequency (P − ω) characteristics is proposed.
The variation of droop gains is based on the rate of change of active
power supplied by the corresponding source. Key advantages
offered by the modified droop controller are improved dynamic
response with reduced peaks in power supplied by the sources
during step change in load power demand. The effectiveness of the
proposed technique is demonstrated using linearized model derived
for microgrid taking into account the dynamics of proposed
controller, loads and distribution network. The root loci plots are
used to study the behavior of the ac microgrid with respect to
variation in parameters of proposed controller. The effectiveness of
the controller is validated using simulation study in
Simulink/Matlab for a microgrid test model.
26
INTRODUCTION : Microgridincludes various sources, loads and
storage elements connected through Power Electronics Converters
(PECs). It is desirable that power supplied by the sources and
storage elements must be shared in proportion to their scheduled
values as determined by Distribution System Operator (DSO) [1].
To ensure proportional power sharing without using
communication among PECs, droop controllers are widely used [2].
Fig. 1 shows a generalized radial configuration of an ac microgrid
with various sources and loads.

Droop Control :
Droop control is realized by simulating the droop characteristic of
generators in a traditional grid and controlling the output voltage and
frequency of the voltage source inverter (VSI) according to variation of
the output power. The control strategy is based on inverter parallel-
connection technology. As all DGs are integrated to the microgrid via
inverters, the microgrid in islanded operation is equivalent to multiple
inverters being connected in parallel, and the active and reactive output
of individual inverters are, respectively

Operating Freque ncy f =f∗−m¿

f∗¿ 50 Hz
p=15800
P∗¿ 5000
0.25
m=
15800
f =49.82

27
 Operating VoltageV =V ∗−n ¿

Q=2×7900=15800
Q∗¿ 15800× 2
n=(400 ×2 %)/15800
V =440+{(440× 2 %)/15800 }×15800
¿ 440+ 8.8=448.8 V

Reverse droop control is to control the active and reactive outputs by

measuring grid voltage amplitude and frequency to trace the predefined
droop characteristic. This is a total reversion of the control mode where
the output voltage is regulated by measuring the output power and
therefore called reverse droop control. As the name implies, the reactive
output and active output of the inverter are regulated by regulating the
output voltage amplitude and output frequency, respectively.

To make the microgrid operational, inverters may adopt P/Q control,

28
droop control or reverse droop control, and with these control modes,
the output power of DG can be controlled by simply measuring local
data.
Droop control for a sample microgrid is considered in direct-
quadrature-zero reference frame which facilitates control
process by transforming time variant quantities of voltage
and current in three phases reference frame to direct current
(dc) quantities. Illustrates the alternative current (ac) three
phases (abc) and direct-quadrature-zero (dq0) coordinate
frames.

Three phases and direct-quadrature-zero coordinate frames.

Reference voltage for pulse width modulation (PWM) signals

of inverters is generated by three back to back power,
voltage and current controllers. The fig shows a DG unit
connected to the microgrid by inverter. Output filter (LfCf)
and coupling inductance (Lc) are connected before the
terminal bus. It is assumed that the input source of inverter is

29
an ideal dc link. Inner controllers are further discussed
Inverter.

Conclusion
Droop control based autonomous microgrid was analyzed in
this paper in presence of different types of loads.
Simulation results were shown for different case studies.
Dependency of active and reactive powers generated by
DGs was considered as an important challenge in isolated
microgrids. Increasing reactive power droop gain was
proposed as a solution and its effects on power quality
factors were shown.
In second study, induction motor characteristics in fault
condition were shown. It was concluded that the fault
intensity and duration determine how the microgrid
attains to fast frequency convergence and fast response
of protection system can increase the system stability.
Finally nonlinear load as an important conventional
industrial consumer was verified in the microgrid.
Simulation results showed that the main cause of high
30
THD, system imbalance and low voltage regulation is due
to non-zero frequency components of control parameters
of inner PI controllers in dq0 reference frame.

31
32
 CHAPTER 4

AC/DC MICROGRID

The concept of microgrid is considered as a collection of loads and micro-sources which

functions as a single controllable system that provides both power and heat to its local area.
This idea offers a new paradigm for the definition of the distributed generation operation. To
the utility the microgrid can be thought of as a controlled cell of the power system. For
example, this cell could be measured as a single dispatch able load, which can reply in
seconds to meet the requirements of the transmission system. To the customer the microgrid
can be planned to meet their special requirements; such as, enhancement of local reliability,
reduction of feeder losses, local voltages support, increased efficiency through use waste
heat, voltage sag correction [3]. The main purpose of this concept is to accelerate the
recognition of the advantage offered by small scale distributed generators like ability to
supply waste heat during the time of need [4]. The microgrid or distribution network
subsystem will create less trouble to the utility network than the conventional
microgeneration if there is proper and intelligent coordination of micro generation and loads
[5]. Microgrid considered as a ‘grid friendly entity” and does not give undesirable influences
to the connecting distribution network i.e operation policy of distribution grid does not have
to be modified [7].

3.1Configuration of the hybrid microgrid

Fig 4.1. A hybrid AC/DC microgrid system

33
 The configuration of the hybrid system is shown in Figure 1 where various AC and DC
sources and loads are connected to the corresponding AC and DC networks. The AC and DC
links are linked together through two transformers and two-four quadrant operating three-
phase converters. The AC bus of the hybrid grid is tied to the utility grid.
Figure 4.2 describes the hybrid system configuration which consists of AC and DC grid.
The AC and DC grids have their corresponding sources, loads and energy storage elements,
and are interconnected by a three-phase converter. The AC bus is connected to the utility grid
through a transformer and circuit breaker.

Fig 4.2. Representation of hybrid microgrid

In the proposed system, PV arrays are connected to the DC bus through boost converter to
simulate DC sources. A DFIG wind generation system is connected to AC bus to simulate
AC sources. A battery with bidirectional DC/DC converter is connected to DC bus as energy
storage. A variable DC and AC load are connected to their DC and AC buses to simulate
various loads.
PV modules are connected in series and parallel. As solar radiation level and ambient
temperature changes the output power of the solar panel alters. A capacitor Cpv is added to
the PV terminal in order to suppress high frequency ripples of the PV output voltage. The
bidirectional DC/DC converter is designed to maintain the stable DC bus voltage through
charging or discharging the battery when the system operates in the autonomous operation
mode. The three converters (boost converter, main converter, and bidirectional converter)
share a common DC bus. A wind generation system consists of doubly fed induction

34
generator (DFIG) with back-to-back AC/DC/AC PWM converter connected between the
rotor through slip rings and AC bus. The AC and DC buses are coupled through a three-phase
transformer and a main bidirectional power flow converter to exchange power between DC
and AC sides. The transformer helps to step up the AC voltage of the main converter to utility
voltage level and to isolate AC and DC grids.

Symbol Value

Cpv 110 μF

L1 2.5 mH

Cd 4700 μF

L2 0.43 mH

R2 0.3 ohm

C2 60 μF

L3 3 mH

R3 0.1 ohm

f 50 Hz

fs 10 kHz

Vd 400 V

VAC_r 400 V
ms

Table 4.1. Component parameters for the hybrid grid

The parameters used for the modeling of hybrid grid are show in the table 4.1 [16].

35
 3.1. Operation of grid

The hybrid grid performs its operation in two modes.

3.1.1 Grid tied mode

In this mode the main converter is to provide stable DC bus voltage, and required reactive
power to exchange power between AC and DC buses. Maximum power can be obtained by
controlling the boost converter and wind turbine generators. When output power of DC
sources is greater than DC loads the converter acts as inverter and in this situation, power
flows from DC to AC side. When generation of total power is less than the total load at DC
side, the converter injects power from AC to DC side. The converter helps to inject power to
the utility grid in case the total power generation is greater than the total load in the hybrid
grid, otherwise hybrid receives power from the utility grid. The role of battery converter is
not important in system operation as power is balanced by utility grid.

3.1.2 Autonomous mode

The battery plays very important role for both power balance and voltage stability. DC
bus voltage is maintained stable by battery converter or boost converter. The main converter
is controlled to provide stable and high-quality AC bus voltage.

4.1. Modeling and control of converters

In the present work five types of converters are used for the proper coordination with
utility grid which will be helpful for uninterrupted and high-quality power to AC and DC
loads under variable solar radiation and wind speed when grid operates in grid tied mode. The
control algorithms are described in the following section.
4.1.1. Modeling and control of boost converter
The main objective of the boost converter is to track the maximum power point of the PV
array by regulating the solar panel terminal voltage using the power voltage characteristic
curve.
For the boost converter the input output equations can be written as

Vpv − VT = Ld1 di1

+ R1i1 (4.1)

Ip
− =
dVp
v
i1 Cpv
v
(4.2)
dt
VT = Vd(1 − d1) (4.3)

36
 Ipv

Vpv*

Vpv
i1* i1
1/(sL3  R3) 1/(sCpv )

Vd'

Fig 4.3. Control block diagram of boost converter

With the implementation of P&O algorithm a reference value i.e. Vp∗ is calculated which
mainly depends upon solar irradiation and temperature of PV array [32]. Here for the boost
converter dual loop control is proposed [33]. Here the control objective is to provide a high-
quality DC voltage with good dynamic response. The outer voltage loop helps in tracking of
reference voltage with zero steady state error and inner current loop help in improvisation of
dynamic response.

4.1.2. Modeling and control of main converter

The role of the main converter is to exchange power between AC and DC bus. The key
purpose of main converter is to maintain a stable DC-link voltage in grid tied mode. When
the converter operates in grid tied mode, it has to supply a given active and reactive power.
Here PQ control scheme is used for the control of main converter. The PQ control is achieved
using a current controlled voltage source. Two PI controllers are used for real and reactive
power control. When resource conditions or load capacities change, the DC bus voltage is
settled to constant through PI regulation. The PI controller is set as the instantaneous active
current idm reference and the instantaneous reactive current iqm reference is determined by
reactive power compensation command.

37
38
Where (iA, iB, iC) and (vCA, vCB, vCC) are three phase current and voltages of the main
converter. Three phase voltage of AC bus voltage are represented by the notations as
(vSA, vSB, vSC). The variables (idm, iqm), (vcd, vcq), (vsd, vsq) are d-q coordinates of three
phase currents, voltages of main converter and voltage of AC bus respectively.

usd

vcd
Vd* i*dm
PI PI
Vd idm

L2

L2
iqm
vcq
i*qm
PI

Fig 4.4. Control block diagram of main converter

In case of sudden DC load drop, there is power surplus at DC side and the main converter
is controlled to transfer power from DC to AC side. The active power absorbed by the
capacitor Cd leads to rising of DC-link voltage Vd. The negative error caused by the increase
of Vd produces a higher active current reference di∗ through PI control. A higher positive
reference id∗ will force active current reference idm to increase through the inner current
control loop. Therefore, the power surplus of the DC grid can be transferred to the AC side.

Also, a sudden increase of DC load causes the power shortage and Vd drop at the DC
grid. The main converter is controlled to supply power from the AC to DC side. The positive
voltage error caused by Vd drop makes the magnitude of di∗ increase through the PI control.
Since idm and id∗ are both negative, the magnitude of idm is increased through the inner
current control loop. Hence power is transferred from AC grid to the DC side.

4.1.3. Modeling and control of DFIG

The section 3.2.1 explains the detailed modeling of DFIG. The state space equations are
considered for induction machine modeling. The parameters and specifications of the DFIG
are given in table 3.1. Flux linkages are used as the state variables in the model. Here two
back-to-back converters are used in the rotor circuit. The main purpose of the machine-side

39
converter is to control the active and reactive power by controlling the d-q components of
rotor current, while the grid-side converter controls the dc-link voltage and ensures the
operation at unity power factor by making the reactive power drawn by the system from the
utility grid to zero.

Two back-to-back converters are connected to the rotor circuit is shown in Fig 4.5. The
firing pulses are given to the devices (IGBTs) using PWM techniques. Two converters are
linked to each other by means of dc-link capacitor.

Fig. 4.5. Overall DFIG system

Basically converter 1 controls the grid parameters whereas the converter 2 serves for
machine. The converters use six IGBTs (for three phase bridge type) as the controlled device.
The PWM technique uses the controlled voltage v a*, vb*, vc*.The triangular career waves are
being compared with sinusoidal reference waves to ensure pulses for the devices. The
modulation indices are different for the both converters which are determined by the equation
(4.6) & (4.7).

40
[Link]. Modeling and control of grid side converter

When the voltages in the grid changes due to different unbalance conditions, it makes an
effect on the dc link voltage. The relation between stator voltage and the DC link voltage is
represented by the equation (4.6) & (4.7).

Fig 4.6. Schematic diagram of grid side converter

Since the machine is grid connected the grid voltage as well as the stator voltage is same,
there exists a relation between the grid voltage and DC link voltage. The main objective of
the grid side converter is to maintain DC link voltage constant for the necessary action. The
voltage-oriented vector control method is approached to solve this problem.

The detail mathematical modeling of grid side converter is given below. The control
strategies are made following the mathematical modeling and it is shown in Fig. 4.7. The
PWM converter is current regulated with the direct axis current is used to regulate the DC
link voltage whereas the quadrature axis current component is used to regulate the reactive
power. The reactive power demand is set to zero to ensure the unit power factor operation
[35]. Fig. 4.6 shows the schematic diagram of the grid side converter.

The voltage balance across the line is given by Eq. (4.8), where R and L are the line
resistance and reactance respectively. With the use of d-q theory the three phase quantities
are transferred to the two-phase quantities.

For the grid side converter the mathematical modeling can be represented as

41
Where vd1 and vq1 are the two phase voltages found from va , vb𝘍 , vc𝘍 using d-q theory.
Since the DC link voltage needs to be constant and the power factor of the overall system
sets to be unity, the reference values are to be set consequently.

The d and q reference voltages are found from the Eq. (4.11) and (4.12).

Vdc
*
Vdc i*d v'd v*d

vd1

i*q
'
vq v*q
vq1
id
Iabc
iq e

i*qL e e
vd
Vabc
i*dR
vq

i*R
q

i*dL e

Fig 4.7. Control block diagram of grid side converter

42
The control scheme utilizes current control loops for id and iq with the id demand being
derived from the dc-link voltage error through a standard PI controller. The iq demand
determines the displacement factor on the grid side of the choke. The iq demand is set to zero
to guarantee unit power factor. There are two loops for the control design, i.e. inner current
loop and outer voltage loop to provide necessary control action. Line resistance and reactance
decide the plant for the current loop, whereas DC link capacitor is taken as the plant for
the voltage loop. The plants for the current loop and the voltage loop are given in Eq. (4.13)

[Link] Modeling and control of machine side converter

The control strategy made for the machine side converter is shown in Fig.4.8. The main
purpose of the machine side converter is to maintain the rotor speed constant irrespective of
the wind speed and also the control strategy has been implemented to control the
active power and reactive power flow of the machine using the rotor current
components. The active power flow is controlled through idr and the reactive power flow is
controlled through iqr. To ensure unit power factor operation like grid side converter the
reactive power demand is also set to zero here. The mathematical modeling of the machine
side converter is given in the following equations [35].

Since the stator is connected to the utility grid and the influence of stator resistance is
small, the stator magnetizing current im can be considered as constant. Under voltage
orientation the relationship between the torque and the d-q axis voltages, currents and fluxes
can be written as follows. Neglecting leakage inductance the stator flux Equations can be
written as

λds = 0 (4.18)

λqs = Lsiqs + Lmiqr

= (L1s + Lm)iqs + Lmiqr

= L1siqs + (iqs + iqr)Lm ≈ Lmim (4.19)

43
 Q* (e  r)[Lmids  Lridr ] (e  r )

Q i*qr v'qr
v*qr
iqr iqrRr
r
idrRr
i*dr v'dr v*dr
r*
idr

(e  r )[Lmiqs  Lriqr ]

Ls i dr iabcr
s Lm iqr
Te* (e r )

(e r )

r

Vabcs
e

ids
iabcs
iqs

Fig 4.8. Control block diagram of machine side converter

The rotor voltage equations can be written from the equations (4.20) and (4.21).

vqr = Rriqr + ( Lm im + σL i ) + (ω − ω
)σL ir qr
d d 2
e r r
L
s

= Rriqr + d
(0 + σLriqr) + (ωe − ωr)σLridr = Rr
d

= Rriqr + σL
d
r
d
iqr + (ωe − ωr)σLridr (4.22)
di L2
vdr = Rridr + σLr dr
− (ωe − ωr) ( m
im + σLriqr) (4.23)
dt Ls

The reference value V∗ and V∗ are given in Eq. (4.24) and (4.25) which are being found
dr qr

from Eq. (4.22) and (4.23).

v∗ = v′ + idrRr − (ω − ωr)[iqrLr + Lmiqs]
dr dr
(4.24)

v* = v’ + i R - (ω - ωr)[i L + L i ]
qr qr qr r dr r m qs (4.25)
44
Where v′ and v′ are found from the current errors processing through standard
Dr qr

controllers. The reference current id∗ can be found either from the reference torque
given by Eq. (4.27) or form the speed errors (for the purpose of speed control) through
standard PI controllers. Similarly, i* is found from the reactive power errors. The speed and
reactive power is controlled using the current control loop

The electromagnetic torque can be represented as

Te = 2 (λdsiqs − λqsids)
3P

= −2 (λdsiqs)
3P

= − λqs (− idr)
3P Lm

22 Ls

= 3 P Lm
λqsidr
22 s
(4.26)

The value of id∗ is found using Eq. (4.26)

Ploss = mechanical losses + electrical losses (PCus + PCur)

Mechanical losses include friction and windage losses whereas electrical losses
include stator copper loss and rotor copper losses. The maximum mechanical power can be
extracted from the wind is proportional to the cube of the rotor speed. The plant for the
current loop is decided by the line resistance and reactance, whereas dc link capacitor is taken
as the plant for the voltage loop. The plants for the current loop and the voltage loop are
given in Eq. (4.28) and (4.29) respectively.

45
46
4.1.4. Modeling and control of battery

The battery converter is a bidirectional DC/DC converter and the main purpose of the
battery converter is to give assurance of stable DC link voltage.

Vb Iin
VD
Vd* ib* ib 1/(sCd)
1/(sL3  R3)
Vd

Vd

Fig 4.9. Control block diagram of battery

The boost converter injects current i1(1 − d1) to the DC link. The inverter and the DC
loads draw current iac and idc from the DC link respectively.

The battery converter can be modeled as

VD − Vb = Ld3 dib
+ R3ib (4.30)

VD = Vd ∙ d3 (4.31)

i1(1 − d1) − iac − idc − ibd3 =

Cd dVd d
(4.32)

4.2. Summary

This chapter explains the configuration of the hybrid microgrid. Two modes of operation
for the function of microgrid are also discussed. Also the modeling and control schemes for
the used converters are analyzed in the above section.

47
 CHAPTER 5

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

A hybrid microgrid whose parameters are given in table 4.1 is simulated using
MATLAB/SIMULINK environment. The operation is carried out for the grid connected
mode. Along with the hybrid microgrid, the performance of the doubly fed induction
generator, photovoltaic system is analyzed. The solar irradiation, cell temperature and wind
speed are also taken into consideration for the study of hybrid microgrid. The performance
analysis is done using simulated results which are found using MATLAB.

Inverter Filter Design:

fc<1/10 fsw
fc≤ 405 Hz
L<(0.03 uinv)/2 πf I Lmax
Uinx=220∗√ (2)=311 v
I Lmax=10 A
f =50 Hz ..
L ≤2.97 mH
fc=400 Hz
L=2.97 mH
C=5.33 e−5

48
 2
C=1/( 2 π fc) L
5.3. Simulation results of hybrid grid

Overall Current of the System

Overall Voltage of the System

Voltage from Droop Control

49
Frequency from Droop Control

50
CHAPTER 6 INVERTER

Abstract: Inverters are the key actuator in the control of AC

microgrids, since they manage the power flows of both the
generators and energy storage devices. In general, there are three
types of inverters depending on the control strategy: grid feeding
inverters, grid forming inverters and grid supporting inverters.
ose inverters can be implemented with different hardware
topologies, each one of them with advantages and disadvantages.
is paper presents a synthesis of the inverter topologies widely
used in AC microgrids. Moreover, this paper also describes the
inverters architectures and main control strategies.

1. INTRODUCTION : The use of renewable energy sources to

supply the world energy demand has continuously increased in
the last years. Nowadays, more than 19% of the global energy
consumption and more than 27% of the global electricity
consumption is supplied by renewable energy generators [1]. In the
electricity production the main zero emissions generators,
excluding hydroelectric, are wind turbines (WT) and
photovoltaic (PV) systems, which produce a 3.7% and 1.2% of
the global electricity consumption, respectively, and have shown
a continuous growth trend in the last years [1]. e use of
renewable generators has been promoted by the development of
technological platforms that not only facilitates the use of renewable
generators like WT and PV arrays, but also provide a new set of
economic, environmental, and technical benefits to the user.
One of such integration platforms are the microgrids (MG),
which are low voltage distribution networks that integrate
energetic resources (i.e. distributed generators, energy storage
devices (ESD) and flexible loads) and a control system to
operate connected to the grid or islanded.

51
Sinusoidal Pulse Modulation: Sinusoidal PWM is a typical PWM
technique. In this PWM technique, the sinusoidal AC voltage
reference vref is compared with the high-frequency triangular carrier
wave vc in real time to determine switching states for each pole in
the inverter. After comparing, the switching states for each pole can
be determined based on the following rule:
Voltage reference vref>Triangular carrier vc: upper switch is turned on
(pole voltage=Vdc/2)

Voltage reference vref<Triangular carrier vc: lower switch is turned on

(pole voltage=−Vdc/2)
Here, the peak-to-peak value of the triangular carrier wave is given as
the DC-link voltage Vdc. In this PWM technique, the necessary
condition for linear modulation is that the amplitude of the voltage
reference vref must remain below the peak of the triangular carrier vc,
i.e., vref≤Vdc/2. Since this PWM technique utilizes a high-frequency
carrier wave for voltage modulation, this kind of PWM technique is
called a carrier-based PWM technique. Especially, this carrier-based
technique is called SPWM since the reference is given as the shape
of a sine wave. This is also called the triangle-comparison PWM
technique since this uses the carrier of a triangular wave depicts the
sinusoidal PWM technique for one phase.

Modulating Wave and Carrier Wave

In the carrier-based PWM techniques, the desired voltage reference
waveform is referred to as modulating wave. In addition, a wave which
is modulated with the modulating wave is referred to as carrier
wave or carrier. The carrier wave usually has a much higher
frequency than the modulating wave. The triangular waveform is the
most commonly used carrier in the PWM technique for modulating AC
52
voltage. On the other hand, different forms of modulating wave can be
used according to the PWM technique. Typical SPWM technique uses
the sinusoidal modulating waveform.

An inverter output determined by comparing a voltage reference with

the triangular carrier wave is the pole voltage. Thus the voltage
reference that is compared with the triangular carrier wave is
considered as the pole voltage reference. Typical SPWM technique
uses a phase voltage reference as the pole voltage reference. On the
other hand, different pole voltage reference can be used according to
the PWM techniques.
In this PWM based on comparison with the triangular wave, if the ratio
of carrier frequency to fundamental frequency is large enough (greater
than 21), then the fundamental component of the output voltage varies
linearly with the reference voltage vref for a constant DC-link voltage
as
vo1=vrefsinωt
In addition, the fundamental frequency of the output voltage is identical to that of the
reference voltage.
The output voltage of Eq. can be rewritten in terms of the modulation
index MI as
v01=Vdc2MIsinωt
Here, since vref≤Vdc/2, so 0≤MI≤1.
The range of 0≤MI≤1 is called the linear modulation range because, in
this range, the inverter can generate an output voltage linearly
proportional to the reference voltage as shown in Fig. 7.30. In this
case, the PWM inverter is considered to be simply a voltage amplifier
with a unit gain.

53
However, when the reference exceeds the peak of the triangular carrier (i.e., MI>1), the
inverter cannot produce an output voltage linearly proportional to the voltage reference.
The range of MI>1 is called overmodulation region, where the linearity of the
modulation is lost. We will discuss the overmodulation techniques in Section 7.5.
The maximum linear output voltage, Vdc/2, attainable by the SPWM technique
corresponds to 78.5% of the maximum output voltage, 2Vdc/π, by the six-step inverter.
Therefore, when using the PWM technique, the attainable maximum limit of the linear
modulation range is inevitably less than the maximum output voltage of an inverter.
shows the SPWM technique for a three-phase inverter.

54
Types Of Inverter:
 Grid following inverters : These converters are
associated with the non-dispatchable
microgenerators (i.e. PV arrays and wind
turbines) and their main function is to inject the
power generated by the sources into the grid
with a unitary power factor (i.e. Q = 0 VAR) [5].
Grid following inverters receive DC power from
a DC/DC converter, which performs the MPPT
by modifying the operating point current or
voltage of the micro-generator.
 Grid forming inverters : This is type of converters
is associated to the ESD and have two main
objectives, one for grid connected and another
for islanded operation. During grid connected
operation, grid forming inverters regulate the
active and reactive power injected to the AC bus
to maintain the state of charge of the ESD and,
in some cases, to improve the power quality. In
islanded operation it is necessary to form or
generate the sinusoidal voltage in the bus; such a
task is performed by grid forming inverters,
which can be represented as a controlled voltage
source with a low impedance in series.
 Grid supporting inverters Depending on the MG
characteristics a grid forming inverter may not be
able to maintain the f and V of the AC bus
within the desired limits due to the limited
amount of energy that can be absorbed or
delivered by the ESD. Hence, dispatchable
generators and/or additional ESD are used to
55
 help, or support, grid forming converters in
islanding operation. e inverters connected to
those generators or additional ESDs are named
grid supporting inverters, and those are equipped
with droop controllers to provide the P and Q
with the aim of maintaining the power quality in
the AC bus.

Conclusion : Inverters are the key actuator element in

the control of AC microgrids, since they define the
active and reactive power flows from the energy
resources. Therefore, an overview of the types of
inverters and widely used topologies for microgrid
applications has been presented in this paper. ere are
three types of MG inverters: grid forming, grid
following and grid supporting. Grid following
inverters inject the power produced by renewable
energy sources to the grid by “following” the
sinusoidal voltage in the AC bus. During islanded
operation, the grid forming inverter “forms” the
sinusoidal voltage in the AC bus and it regulates the
desired voltage frequency and magnitude by injecting
or absorbing power from

56
 CHAPTER 7
USING OF FILTERS

Introduction: Power quality determines the fitness of electrical

power to consumer devices. Without proper power, an
electrical device (or load) may malfunction, fail prematurely
or not operate at all. The unbalance in the system produces
positive, negative and zero sequence components. The flow of
negative sequence currents in electric machines generates high
temperature and thus damage teir [Link], it is necessary
to extract the negative sequence component [1-5]. In this
paper, filters like low pass, band pass, cascaded and an
improved negative sequence filters, are employed in the
microgrid to extract the negative sequence component and
detect the unbalance in the system. This can be negative fed
back to the input to produce a balanced output and thus
help in eliminating the disturbance in the system. The stability
of the filters are studied and simulations are carried out in
MATLAB Simulink.

Microgrid Structure : In the proposed microgrid as shown in

Fig 1, the power is delivered from a PV panel (of 21V) which is
stepped up to 100V using a boost converter and a standalone
battery (of 100V). The 200V is fed to the load through a PWM
inverter and filter. The modulation technique used in the PWM
inverter, 3 phase cascaded 5 level H-bridge inverter is phase

shifted PWM technique.

A solar PV panel of 21V output is modelled mathematically using
57
following equations [6]: The module photo current pv I ph =
[ I scr + K i ( T − 298 )] * λ / 1000 I depends upon the solar radiation
Low Pass Filter: The low pass filter transfer function is given as .
G1pf (s)=1/1+(s/wc) ,where wc = 1/RC

The method of extracting negative sequence component is shown in

Fig 2(a).The PWM output is transformed from αβ0 to dq0 frame.
The low pass filter extracts the negative sequence component in dq0
frame. The output has to undergo transformations from dq0 to abc
to get the negative sequence component in each phase. From the
bode plot for low pass filter shown in Fig 2(b), it is observed that the
low pass extracts the negative sequence ie -50Hz component. Since
the roots of characteristic equation of the system, s+ωc =0, lie on the
left half of the s-plane, the system is said to be stable.

Band Pass Filter : By making linear transformation in low pass filter

transfer function we get the transfer function of band pass filter as
shown below
Gbpfs = 1/ 1+(s+jw50/wc)

58
The characteristics of the filter is given by bode plot (Fig 3(b)). The
band pass filter used for extracting negative sequence is realized in
stationary reference frame itself as shown in Fig 3(a). The roots of
characteristic equation, s + jω50 + ωc = 0, lies on the left half of s-
plane, which determines the system is steable.

Cascaded Filter : A cascaded filter formed using a band pass filter

for a negative sequence 50Hz Gbpf(s) and a band stop filter for
positive sequence 50Hz Gbsf(s)is used for extracting the negative
sequence component as shown in Fig.
The transfer function of cascaded filter is given as
Gbpf+ bsf(s)=Gbpf(s)+ Gbsf(s)

The frequency characteristic for cascaded filter is shown in Fig 4(b).

The characteristics of the complex transfer function Gcbpf +cbsf(s)
demonstrate that addition of the complex band stop filter in series with
band pass filter completely eliminates the positive sequence 50 Hz
components at the cost of a negative sequence component that is
distorted by about -450 in phase as well as by a small magnitude in
amplitude. The roots of characteristic equation, (s + ωc)2 + (ω50)2 = 0,
lies on the left half of s-plane. So system is stable.

59
Negative Sequence Filter : The negative sequence filter, in Fig 5, is
designed to maintain unity gain for the negative sequence component
while providing a transmission zero for the positive sequence

component in V(t)[9]. Compared to conventional filtering methods, this

improved filter completely extracts negative sequence component at its
output without including positive sequence components.

The stability of the filter is studied using Nyquist plot shown in Fig
6(b). The diagram shows that the encirclement does not encircles the
point -1 + j0, ie, N=0. While the number of poles of GNSF in the right
half of the s-plane is P=[Link], Z=N+P=0. So system is stable. The bode
plot for the filter is shown in Fig 6(a).

Simulation and Discussion : A microgrid with unbalanced load is

simulated in MATLAB Simulink. The load unbalance is created
using different R loads in each phase. A total of 36 solar cells
connected in parallel form the PV panel. PV panel along with the
battery powers the three phase five level cascaded inverter. The
unbalanced load is connected to the microgrid via filters across the
PWM inverter.
60
Using low pass filter, the abc quantities are converted to αβ
quantities and this to dq frame. It is then passed through LPF
which is designed to extract the negative sequence component. The
output across the filter is in dq frame. It is transformed to abc
quantities. The negative sequence component of 170V peak to peak
value extracted using low pass filter is shown in Fig 7.

The negative sequence component extraced from the

microgrid connected to unbalanced load using band
pass filter is shown in Fig 8. As seen a peak to
peak value of 196V is obtained. The advantage of
using band pass filter is that it does not has to
perform any transformations.
61
62
A cascaded filter, which is a combination of band pass and band stop filter can be used directly
across the inverter to extract the negative sequence component. A peak to peak amplitude of
142V is obtained as negative sequence as shown in Fig 9. The redution in peak to peak value is
because it does not extract negative sequence component completely.

The improved filter NSF is connected across MLI output terminals. The abc input quantities are
converted to αβ quantities before feeding it to the filter. The output of filter is obtained as αβ
quantities, which is transformed back to abc quantities. The negative sequence extracted of 160V
peak to peak value, is shown in Fig 10. The filter is designed so as to extract negative
sequence component without compromising position sequence component.

63
 CHAPTER 8

CONCLUSION AND SCOPE OF FUTURE WORK

Conclusion
The modeling of hybrid microgrid for power system configuration is done in
MATLAB/SIMULINK environment. The present work mainly includes the grid tied mode of
operation of hybrid grid. The models are developed for all the converters to maintain stable
system under various loads and resource conditions and also the control mechanism are
studied. MPPT algorithm is used to harness maximum power from DC sources and to
coordinate the power exchange between DC and AC grid. Although the hybrid grid can
diminish the processes of DC/AC and AC/DC conversions in an individual AC or DC grid,
there are many practical problems for the implementation of the hybrid grid based on the
current AC dominated infrastructure. The efficiency of the total system depends on the
diminution of conversion losses and the increase for an extra DC link. The hybrid grid can
provide a reliable, high quality and more efficient power to consumer. The hybrid grid may
be feasible for small isolated industrial plants with both PV systems and wind turbine
generator as the major power supply.
Scope of future work
a. The modeling and control can be done for the islanded mode of operation.
b. The control mechanism can be developed for a microgrid containing unbalanced and
nonlinear loads.

64
References
[1] S. Bose, Y. Liu, K. Bahei-Eldin, [Link] Bedout, and M. Adamiak, “Tie line Controls in
Microgrid Applications,” in iREP Symposium Bulk Power System Dynamics and Control
VII, Revitalizing Operational Reliability, pp. 1-9, Aug. 2007.
[2] R. H. Lasseter, “MicroGrids,” in Proc. IEEE-PES’02, pp. 305-308, 2002.
[3] Michael Angelo Pedrasa and Ted Spooner, “A Survey of Techniques Used to Control
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