UNIT 1

GEOINFORMATICS:
AN INTRODUCTION
Structure____________________________________________________
1.1 Introduction Spatial and Non-spatial Data

Expected Learning Outcomes Big Data

1.2 What is Geoinformatics? Spatial Analytics

Definition 1.5 Geoinformatics Products

Related Terms 1.6 Open Source Geospatial Consortium

1.3 Components of Geoinformatics Advantages

Computer Science Limitations

Geodesy 1.7 Scope and Application

Cartography 1.8 Activity

Photogrammetry 1.9 Summary

Remote Sensing (RS) 1.10 Terminal Questions

Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) 1.11 References

Geographic Information System (GIS) 1.12 Further/Suggested Readings

1.4 Some related Terminologies 1.13 Answers

1.1 INTRODUCTION
You know that the increasing population is exerting unprecedented pressure on the existing
natural resources. Therefore, in order to meet the ever-increasing demand for infrastructure
development, urban planning, healthy neighbourhoods, safe transportation of human populace
and material, management of natural resources, disaster readiness of the community,
conservation of biodiversity and elevating the status of endangered animals to a safe level,
etc., requires a comprehensive approach with a careful understanding of the Earth. Here
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comes the power of ‘Geoinformatics’, which uses modern scientific and

technological advancements in better utilisation of space for sustainable human
growth. We can define geoinformatics as the science and technology that
deals with geoinformation, its acquisition, creation, storage, processing,
presentation, and dissemination. And, by geoinformation (or geospatial
information) we mean any information that can be linked to a location on the
Earth.

While some of us may not be aware but geoinformation has become an

Earth science deals important aspect of our routine. As you are formally introduced to the discipline
with the study of of geoinformatics, we would like to give you some real-time examples of how
different aspects of
the Earth.
geoinformatics technology is utilised to manage day-to-day affairs and increase
Informatics is efficiency. For example, many of us order food through a food delivery
understood as the application or book a taxi for transportation through cab-hailing service providers.
study of information
All these kinds of service providers use geoinformation. Likewise, all major
processing.
Geographic refers to telecom companies use geoinformatics technologies to lay their cables, find
the Earth’s surface suitable locations for placing mobile towers, etc. The power sector across the
and near surface globe has identified geoinformatics technologies as the decision support tool in
whereas spatial is a
broad term that refers locating electrical assets in towns to reduce transmission loss and reduce
to any space and not electrical theft through consumer mapping. You may also recall Arogya Setu, a
only the space of mobile application developed by the Government of India as another such
Earth’s surface.
Spatial may refer to example. We know that it played a crucial role in our fight against the COVID-19
space of other pandemic. It uses contact tracing to record details of all the people you may
planets, cosmos and have come in contact with, while you go about carrying out your normal
even the space of
human body captured
activities. If any one of them, at a later point in time, tests positive for COVID-19
on medical images. infection, you are immediately informed and proactive medical intervention is
arranged. The application connects the various essential health services with
the people of India.

In this unit, you will learn about geoinformatics, its components, some relevant
basic terminologies, and products along with its application potential.

Expected Learning Outcomes_______________________

After studying this unit, you should be able to:
 define geoinformatics;
 explain various components of geoinformatics;
 discuss relevant basic terminologies;
 list types of geoinformatics products;
 write about Open Source Geospatial Consortium; and
 discuss the scope and applications of geoinformatics.

1.2 WHAT IS GEOINFORMATICS?

Geoinformatics today has become an important technology to decision-makers
across a wide range of disciplines, industries and organisations as it enables
them to acquire, process, analyse, visualise spatial information and produce
outputs. Now, before we delve deeper into Geoinformatics technology, let us
first understand the meaning of the term Geoinformatics.
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1.2.1 Definition
The term geoinformatics comprises two words, geo (meaning Earth) and
informatics (a broad field related to computer and information science). Hence,
geoinformatics can be understood as the union of Earth science and
informatics. We can say that Geoinformatics broadly deals with the use of
computers and information technology for the collection, analysis, storage,
retrieval, representation and dissemination of information about the Earth.

The term ‘geoinformatics’ is believed to have come into existence just a few
decades back because of the integration of three disciplines, namely,
photogrammetry, remote sensing and geographic information systems.

Wikipedia defines geoinformatics as “… the science and the technology which

develops and uses information science infrastructure to address the problems
of geography, geosciences and related branches of science and engineering.”

According to Jachimski (2001), ‘geoinformatics’ is “... the science of the

gathering, processing and dissemination of information which is spatially
defined within the Earth’s system”.

Oledzki (2004) believes that the term Geoinformatics is more easily understood,
and is much better at conveying the essence of spatial research focusing on
informatics. He describes Geoinformatics as “the science and the technology Geospatial is a
dealing with the structure and character of spatial information, its capture, its subset of spatial
and refers
classification, its storage, processing, portrayal and dissemination, including the specifically to
infrastructure necessary to secure optimal use of this information” or “the art, Earth’s surface.
science and technology dealing with the acquisition, storage, processing,
production, presentation and dissemination of geoinformation”. A simplified
version of his concept of geoinformatics is graphically presented in Fig. 1.1.

Fig. 1.1: Generalised conceptualisation of Geoinformatics. (Source: simplified from

Oledzki, 2004)

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There is another term, i.e., ‘geomatics’, which was first used in Canada at
Laval University in the early 1980s to describe the above-mentioned disciplines,
realising the concept that increasing potential of computing which was
revolutionising surveys and representation sciences. Though the term
geomatics was first proposed in 1968, it found common use in the late 1980s
to refer to the field incorporating surveying and geodesy.
Geomatics Industry Association of Canada (GIAC) defines geomatics “as a
technology and service sector focusing on the acquisition, storage, analysis,
dissemination and management of geographically referenced information for
improved decision-making”.
The equivalent French word Ge´omatique was coined by Dubuisson, the
French photogrammetrist. According to the Department of Geomatics
Engineering, University of Calgary, Geomatics Engineering is a modern
discipline, which integrates acquisition, modelling, analysis, and management
of spatially referenced data, i.e., data identified according to their locations. The
term Geomatics is more commonly used in North America (Dubuisson 1975;
Gagnon and Coleman, 1990), whereas Geoinformatics appears to be more
popular in Europe, such as in the Netherlands with a renowned Geoinformatics
Department at the ITC (International Institute for Aerospace Survey and Earth
Sciences).
Awange and Kiema (2019) argue that there is no globally accepted definition of
geoinformatics. Michalak (2000) considers the term ‘geomatics’ to be
interchangeable with ‘geoinformatics’ ([Link] however,
some people are of the opinion that though both geomatics and
geoinformatics include and rely heavily upon the theory and practical
implications of geodesy, there is a difference in the meanings that the terms
geomatics and geoinformatics convey. Geomatics is synonymous with
geoinformatics but a slight difference is in its engineering orientation.
Geomatics is considered a science concerned with using mathematical
methods on data about the earth's surface. Between the two terms, Ehlers
(2008) chose to use the term geoinformatics because it emphasises a formal
scientific approach to handle geoinformation. Recently, use of the terminologies
has been discussed by Krawczyk, (2022).
Let us get familiar with some more related terms.
Geospatial technology is relatively a newer term referring to geospatial
(Geo/Earth + Spatial), which emphasises on use of technology and computer-
based techniques.
Spatial science is a rebranding of the discipline of geography by a new
generation of geographers. Spatial science is a field that deals with identifying
features, and understanding and analysing the patterns and trends in numerical
spatial data.
Spatial information Science or geospatial Information Science (GIScience)
deals with the study of relationships between phenomena in space and time. It
is defined as a field that involves using technology to collect, store, manage and
analyse geographical data ([Link]

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Geographic/ Geographical Information Science (GIScience) is defined as a

scientific discipline that studies data structures and computational techniques to
capture, represent, process, and analyse geographic information. Emphasis is
on improving the capabilities of computer systems to solve geographic
problems whereas Geographic Information System (GIS) is the software tool.
Spatial Informatics is considered a field of study integrating knowledge drawn
from geographic information science, information science, cognitive science,
computer science and engineering ([Link]
Let us now discuss various components of geoinformatics.

1.3 COMPONENTS OF GEOINFORMATICS

From the previous section, we understand that geoinformatics is an integrated
spatial research tool. It encompasses a broad range of disciplines including
surveying and mapping, remote sensing, Geographic Information System (GIS),
Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS), Geodesy and computer science.
Various components of geoinformatics are the followings:

 Computer Science
 Geodesy
 Cartography
 Photogrammetry
 Remote Sensing (RS)
 Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS)
 Geographic Information System (GIS)
Though you would be introduced to these components in the relevant courses
at length, you will get a brief idea about the various disciplines that constitute
geoinformatics.

1.3.1 Computer Science

Informatics, as a discipline, comprises both computer technologies, i.e., Computer science
hardware and software. The important role of information derives from man’s is composed of
necessity to manage more and many and complex data in every field. The many broad
disciplines,
knowledge of computer science is a prerequisite to representing and including artificial
processing applicable information through the development of hardware and intelligence and
software. Computer science culture is now more prevalent, contributing to the software
engineering.
improvement of our activities and research. The application and usage of
computer science to geoinformatics go hand-in-hand. You will come across
various aspects of the application of computer science to geoinformatics, while
studying about geoinformatics data acquisition, processing, product generation,
data visualisation, dissemination, etc.

1.3.2 Geodesy
Geodesy also known as geodetics, is the discipline that deals with the
measurement and representation of the Earth. We define geodesy as the

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science concerned with the study of the shape and area of the Earth. Geodesy
defines the shape and dimensions of the Earth through its two branches:
gravimetry and positioning astronomy. Gravimetry deals with the
determination of Earth’s gravity and its anomalies and gravity determine the
shape of the Earth. Positioning astronomy determines the position of the
points on the globe through the observation of stars and artificial satellites.

The study of geodesy began with mere curiosity and the never-ending human
inquisitiveness to explain the Earth’s unknowns through logic. It has been a
significant challenge for researchers to accurately represent the 3-dimensional
Earth in 2-dimensional map forms. The underlying concept of Geodesy helps in
representing the Earth in a 2-dimension. You shall read more about geodesy
while discussing datums, map projections and coordinate systems in Unit 10 of
this course.

1.3.3 Cartography
We generally consider cartography to be the science and art of designing,
constructing, and producing maps. It includes almost every operation, from
We will study in original fieldwork to the final printing and marketing of maps. It is also treated as
detail about map a science of human communication.
reading and their
understanding in International Cartographic Association (INCA) defines cartography as the
Units 11 and 12
of Block 2 of this discipline dealing with the conception, production, dissemination and study of
course MGY-101. maps. Map is a drawing of the whole or part of the surface of the Earth on a
plane surface on a particular scale; it is a manually or mechanically drawn
picture of the Earth showing the location and distribution of various natural and
cultural phenomena. A sample map is shown in the Fig. 1.2.

Cartographic representation is the key in deciding the content and depth of any
map generated out of various geoinformatics analyses. Cartographic
visualisation, which is the graphical presentation of geographic information
such as data, processes, relations or concepts, limits the extent of map details
which could be incorporated for the study area as depicted in the Fig. 1.2.

Now, let us understand how a map differs from a photograph. Map gives a
picture of one or several of the elements of the Earth’s surface (Fig. 1.3) but
such a picture is not the same as a photograph. Photograph shows all the
visible details (pertaining to shapes and sizes) of the area photographed
irrespective of their relevance to the purpose for which they have been taken
(Fig. 1.4).

A photograph shows only those objects which are physically present. A map,
being the mental and manual creation of man, gives only those details in their
true or visible shape and size using symbols in which we are interested. They
may or may not have similarities with the shape and size of the objects
represented in the photograph, as shown in the Fig. 1.3.

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Fig. 1.2: Cartographic visualisation of Land use and Land cover of Adayar
watershed. (Courtesy: Dr. O.M. Murali)

Fig. 1.3: Zone wise population density in Chennai civic zones during the period
from 1971 to 2011. (Courtesy: Dr. O. M. Murali)

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1.3.4 Photogrammetry

Photogrammetry is the first remote sensing technology developed for

determining the geometric properties of objects from their photographic images.
Photogrammetry is concerned with making measurements of the position and
shapes of objects with the help of photographs. The American Society for
Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing (ASPRS) has defined photogrammetry
as “… the art, science, and technology of obtaining reliable information about
physical objects and the environment through processes of recording,
measuring and interpreting photographic images and patterns of recorded
radiant electromagnetic energy and other phenomena.”

Although both maps and aerial photographs present a ‘bird's-eye-view’ of the

Earth, aerial photographs are not maps (Fig. 1.4). Maps are orthogonal
representations of the Earth’s surface, meaning that they are directionally and
geometrically accurate (at least within the limitations imposed by projecting a 3-
dimensional object into 2-dimensions). Aerial photographs display a high
degree of radial distortion. The topography is distorted, and until corrections are
made for the distortion, measurements made from a photograph are not
accurate. Aerial photographs are a powerful tool for studying the Earth’s
environment.

Fig. 1.4: An aerial photograph of the Jolly Buoy Island at the Mahatma Gandhi
Marine National Park at Wandoor about 30 km from Port Blair in
Andaman.

In the late 1800s, man positioned cameras above the Earth’s surface in
balloons or kites and airplanes to take oblique aerial photographs of the
landscape. During World War I, aerial photography played an important role in
gathering information about the position and movements of enemy troops. After
the war, civilian use of aerial photography from airplanes began with the
systematic vertical imaging of extensive areas of Canada, the United States,
and Europe. Many of these images were used to construct topographic and
other types of reference maps of the natural and human-made features found
on the Earth’s surface.
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Photogrammetry is useful in various fields, including topographic mapping,

architecture, engineering, manufacturing, quality control, police investigation,
and geology. Archeologists use photogrammetry to produce plans of large or
complex sites. Meteorologists use it to determine the actual wind speed of a
tornado in places where objective weather data cannot be obtained. In movie
production, photogrammetry is used to combine live action with computer-
generated imagery.

SAQ I
a) What are the different components of geoinformatics?
b) What do you understand by the term Photogrammetry?
c) What is cartography?

1.3.5 Remote Sensing (RS)

Remote sensing is the collection of data about an object from a distance. The data
collected by the
Scientists use the technique of remote sensing to monitor or measure
remote sensing
phenomena found in the Earth’s lithosphere, biosphere, hydrosphere, and and photo-
atmosphere. Humans and many other types of animals accomplish this task grammetry is also
with aid of eyes or the sense of smell or hearing. Remote sensing is usually known as
geoimagery. It
done with the help of mechanical devices known as remote sensors. These includes satellite
devices have an improved ability to receive and record information about an images and aerial
object having no physical contact with them. Often, these sensors are photographs.
positioned away from the object of interest by using helicopters, planes, and
satellites. Most remote sensing devices record information about an object by We will study
about
measuring an object’s transmission of electromagnetic energy from reflecting electromagnetic
and radiating surfaces. radiation and its
interaction with
The simplest form of remote sensing uses photographic cameras to record atmosphere and
Earth surface in
information from visible or near-infrared wavelengths of the electromagnetic Block -1,
spectrum (EMS). The concept of remote sensing is diagrammatically shown in Introduction to
Fig. 1.5 wherein you can see that Sun is the principal source of energy. When Remote Sensing
of the course
the energy (as electromagnetic radiation) reaches the Earth’s atmosphere, it MGY-102,
undergoes the process of reflection, absorption and transmission. Earth’s (Remote Sensing
surface comprises different natural and man-made features which reflect, and Image
Interpretation).
absorb, store and emit Earth’s radiation at different wavelengths in different
percentages, depending upon their physical and chemical properties. Remote
sensors record the different amount of radiation that is reflected or emitted from We will study in
detail about the
different Earth surface features and reproduce it in form of an image. Remote types of optical
sensing provides a synoptic view of the Earth’s surface by virtue of recording and microwave
interactions of Earth’s surface features with electromagnetic radiation. These remote sensing
in Unit 3 on the
interactions are recorded in remote sensing images in the form of some
trends of
numerical information. When the remote sensing data is generated employing geoinformatics.
Sun’s energy, it is known as passive remote sensing. In the other type, i.e.,
active remote sensing, remote sensors, such as radar, send radiation
themselves and collect the signal returned back to them from Earth’s surface
features. Based on the factors such as a portion of the electromagnetic
spectrum used and the number of bands, remote sensing (RS) is categorised

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into optical and microwave remote sensing. Optical remote sensing operates
in the region between 0.3 and 15 µm of the electromagnetic spectrum.

Fig. 1.5: Concept of Remote Sensing.

The microwave remote sensing operates in the microwave region of the

EMS. Optical remote sensing is further classified as panchromatic RS,
multispectral RS, superspectral RS, hyperspectral RS and thermal RS. We will
discuss them in Unit 3 of this course.

Remote sensing imagery has many applications in mapping land use and
cover, agriculture, soil mapping, forestry, city planning, archaeological
investigations, military observation, and geomorphological surveying, mineral
exploration, among other uses. One common example of the use of remote
sensing is the weather maps which you see on the news channels providing a
forecast of the weather.

Two human-made features, i.e., Lotus Temple in New Delhi and the Taj Mahal
in Agra, India are shown in Fig. 1.6.

(a)

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(b)
Fig. 1.6: (a) A multispectral remote sensing image showing Lotus Temple located
in New Delhi, India. The central dome-like object in a bright colour is
surrounded by small symmetrical pools of water appearing in cyan blue
colour; and (b) Image of Taj Mahal appearing as bright object. Dark-
coloured object on the extreme left is a river and the plants are
appearing in green and reddish colours. (Source: [Link])

More recently, laser scanning systems have come up which can produce
complete information with high precision and automation.
Remote sensing has the following advantages over other forms of data
collection methods:
 Synoptic coverage and wide area coverage - regional, national and global
levels.
 Repeatability - satellites can revisit the same area at regular intervals and
record data, enabling monitoring events and phenomena, and change
detection analysis.
 All weather capability - active remote sensing, like RADAR, could be used
despite cloud cover and during the night.
 It can provide data on inaccessible areas.

1.3.6 Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS)

Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) is a constellation of satellites
which are orbiting the Earth every 12 hours at a height of ~20,200 km, as
shown in Fig. 1.7. These satellites broadcast signals, which are used to derive
precise timing, location, and velocity information. We can then club the derived
information with other systems, such as communication devices, computers,
and software, to perform a variety of functions. With equipment ranging from
hand-held receivers to rack-mounted electronics, the signals of global
positioning systems can be used by anyone, anytime, anywhere in the world.

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The GNSS technology comprising space, control and user segments enables
people to precisely know where they are on the surface of the Earth. Prior to
GPS, positions were being established by a complex procedure of relative and
absolute measurements of directions and distances.

Fig. 1.7: Global Navigation Satellite System.

Real-world applications of GNSS fall into the following five broad categories:
 Location: determining a basic position;
 Navigation: getting from one location to another;
 Tracking: monitoring the movement of people, animal and material;
 Mapping: creating maps of the world; and
 Timing: bringing precise timing to the world.
The application of GPS gaining momentum is the Location Based Services
(LBS). The LBS are information services that can provide location-aware
We will study in information based on the user’s current position. We primarily use LBS in
detail about GNSS
in Block 1 Global emergency services. However, it is also used to provide information on nearby
Navigation Satellite public resources (such as fuel stations, bus stops, ATMs, etc.), for map and
System of teh navigation services (such as in vehicles), and even for locating friends.
course MGY-103,
(Global Navigation In India, ISRO has established a regional navigation satellite system called
Satellite System Navigation with Indian Constellation (NavIC), which was earlier known as Indian
and Geographic
Information Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS). It serves the requirements of the
System). country regarding positioning, navigation and timing, The NavIC system,
designed with a constellation of 7 satellites and a network of ground stations
operating 24 x 7 offers two services: i.e. Standard Position Service (SPS) for
civilian users and Restricted Service (RS) for strategic users. Its coverage area
includes India and a region up to 1500 km beyond Indian boundary. NavIC
signals are designed to provide user position accuracy better than 20m and
timing accuracy better than 50ns. NavIC SPS signals are interoperable with the
other GNSS signals namely, GPS, GlONASS, Galileo and BeiDou.
([Link]/[Link]).
The GAGAN (GPS Aided Geo Augmented Navigation or GPS and Geo
Augmented Navigation system) is a planned implementation of a
regional Satellite Based Augmentation System (SBAS) by the Indian
government. The project is being implemented by the Airports Authority of
India with the help of the Indian Space Research Organisation’s (ISRO)

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technology and space support. Its aim is to provide a navigation system for all
phases of flight over the Indian airspace and in the adjoining area. You will read
about GAGAN, in Unit 1 Introduction to GNSS of the course MGY-103.

1.3.7 Geographic Information System (GIS)

Geographic Information System (GIS) integrates hardware, software, people
and data for capturing, managing, analysing, and displaying all forms of
geographically referenced information. We have defined a GIS based on its
different aspects, i.e., the tools, the organisation and the spatial database.
GIS allows us to view, understand, question, interpret, and visualise data that
reveal relationships, patterns, and trends as maps, globes, reports, and charts.
A GIS helps you answer questions and solve problems by looking at your data
in a way that is quickly understood and easily shared.
The components of GIS include the computer systems, the software, spatial
data, data management and analysis procedures, and the people to operate the
GIS (Fig. 1.8). Data forms the major component of GIS. With recent
developments in remote sensing and GPS technologies, a large volume of
high-resolution data is widely available at affordable cost. The remote sensing
data and GPS data are used as input in GIS. Computer hardware and software
components are required for data entry, data storage, data processing, and
analysis and also for producing outputs. The GIS is of no use if people and the
organizations in which they work are not properly oriented towards GIS. Finally,
the information generated in GIS is communicated through the network.
DATA

GEOGRAPHICAL
HARDWARE SOFTWARE
INFORMATION
SYSTEMS

METHOD PEOPLE

Fig. 1.8: Components of GIS.

We have traditionally used GIS as a tool for generating outputs, helping in the
decision-making process for urban planning, management of natural resources,
natural hazard assessment and management, environmental management and
many more. Recently, GIS has been used for emergency planning, logistics
and transportation related analysis (self-driving/autonomous cars), crime
analysis, business and service planning, government and public services,
analysis of genome sequences on DNA, etc. The Internet has also been
exploited to disseminate geographic information to the public resulting in a new
breed of specialised GIS, known as Web GIS. It can dynamically generate
digital map products from geospatial data and with it, the internet has now
become core to many aspects of GIS applications.
More recently, the capability of GIS has increased with its integration with GPS
and has introduced exciting new applications such as in-car navigation

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systems, precision farming, mobile mapping, LBS, etc. The application of GIS is
believed to become more imaginative with its wider public reach.
With time, GIS has developed from a data analysis tool to a spatial decision
support system (SDSS) to Virtual GIS (VGIS) and expert system (ES). We
can consider SDSS as a tool for coordinating between different professionals
and making decision processes interactive. It comprises processing tools that
can answer the question what is going to happen if…? The VGIS is
characterised by simplified user interfaces that allow the management of
analysis functions in a complex GIS even by non-qualified personnel.
Open GIS and interoperability are the recent keywords in the GIS world.
Open GIS stands for open-source coding. Interoperability aims to increase
interaction between different software packages for easy data transfer and
processing from one package to another, and vice versa.

SAQ II
a) What is GNSS?
b) What is GAGAN?
c) What are the components of GIS?

1.4 SOME RELATED TERMINOLOGIES

Let us now get familiar with some relevant terminologies, which we may be
used in forthcoming units and courses.
Two of the commonly used terms are spatial and non-spatial data. Spatial or
geographical data has real-world references or coordinates so that we can
directly link to the location and its neighbourhood. When the data is having a
real-world reference and has a set of spatial data linked to it, then it becomes
an essential part of the decision-making process, like how far is that place, what
is the shortest route between two locations, the number of houses affected or
damaged during a flood, etc. This decision-making is well aided with
descriptive information or non-spatial information attached to each spatial
data. For example, a river is spatial data, and the associated non-spatial
data/information, like the length of the river, the width of the river, depth of the
river, chemical composition or pollution at the point source, etc., would be
handy for the improved decision-making process. The power of GIS is in its
ability to integrate spatial and non-spatial details, which helps in decision-
making. Non-spatial data is also known as aspatial data or attribute data.
Big data analytics is in high demand, wherein the data analysis happens
through systematic extraction of data that are otherwise too complex to work by
traditional approach or software processing. Under normal circumstances,
tabular data with many fields provide greater statistical analytical power,
whereas data with higher complexity may infer a false outcome. The advantage
of big data analysis is that it covers capturing data, its storage, analysis, rapid
search including sharing functionality, data transfer, pictorial visualisation,
querying, data manipulation along with data privacy. We often associate big
data with data volume, variety, and velocity. Handling big data often includes

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data sizes that far exceed the capacity of traditional software to process within
an acceptable timeframe.
In recent times, big data is useful points to analytics on prediction, population
behavior, and other related methods that relay value from big data. Big data is
intelligent enough to analyse data sets to find a correlation to provide business
trends or opportunities, disease tracking and even to crime pattern analysis.
The outcome of big data can be geographically depicted through spatial
techniques as well.
Spatial analysis or geographical analysis uses in-built spatial analytics tools to
see a hidden pattern, bring to light anomalies, and test hypotheses based on
the spatial data collected for study. Essentially, spatial analysis uses techniques
to do data manipulation, and extraction, find the location and perform critical
analysis through spatial data. In simple terms, spatial analytics provide what
kinds of relationships exist between geographical features in a study and the
analysis can include size, spatial extent or distribution, pattern, neighbourhood
relationship and map scale.
Spatial analytics uses data from satellite imageries, field collected inputs,
GNSS, location sensors, social platforms and mobile devices to generate data
which visualise trends based on the complex relationships between population
and space. The data visualisation can include maps, graphs, statistics and
cartograms that show historical changes and current shifts. This can make
predictions easier and more accurate.
After getting familiar with these terms let us now understand geoinformatics
products and their different types.

1.5 GEOINFORMATICS PRODUCTS

Geoinformatics encompasses a broad range of applications, mapping agencies,
satellite images, service providers and all of which involve the use of some
combination of digital maps and geo-referenced data. We present the results of
geospatial analysis in different forms, which are known as geoinformatics
products. The products include tabular text data, thematic maps, animations,
information systems, spatial decision support systems, etc. Some of the
geoinformatics products are shown in the Fig. 1.9.
We can categorise the geoinformatics products into the following two broad
categories:
 Cartographic products
 Non-cartographic products
Cartographic outputs include both hard and soft copy maps which are
prepared to adhere to the cartographic conventions. We can take the hard copy
maps as printouts using a simple printing machine or a complex system, like a
plotter.
Non-cartographic outputs include map models, such as Digital Elevation
Models (DEM) and information systems, which are primarily used for
visualisation. The DEM allows versatile displays of topographic data showing
additional landscape attributes. An information system is a set of written,
electronic, or graphical method of communicating information.
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(a)

(b)

(c)
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(d)
Fig. 1.9: (a) Multi-Layered display of maps of different dates with the change map;
(b) A thematic output i.e. vegetation map with symbols; (c) A remote
sensing image of a part of Karnataka draped over a digital elevation
model (DEM) showing relief; and (d) Showing internet usage of GIS.
(Source: a & b - TN Forest Department, [Link]/[Link]; c -
Google Earth Pro; and d - TN Forest Department)

The basis of an information system is the sharing and processing of information

and ideas. Computers and telecommunication technologies have become
essential information system components. Non-cartographic outputs also
include texts, graphic outputs, digital data and hard-copy outputs. Tables may
be attribute tables of objects in GIS or it may contain the driving directions to
tourists or a list of hospitals in a city or a list of temples in a village.

Geoinformatics products also include Decision Support Systems (DSS), which

serve the management, operations, and planning levels of an organisation and
help to decide. A properly designed DSS is an interactive software based
system intended to help decision makers compile useful information from a
combination of raw data, documents, personal knowledge, or business models
to identify and solve problems and make decisions.

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Due to the huge cost factor involved with purchasing licenses of commercial
software and their yearly maintenance, many organisations and people are
utilising free and open source software. This has become like a movement and
more people are joining this.

Let us now study about Open Source Geospatial Consortium or the Open
Source Geospatial Foundation.

1.6 OPEN SOURCE GEOSPATIAL CONSORTIUM

Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC) ([Link] is a globally

connected community to progressively contribute to accessing geospatial or
geographical or locational information. The OGC connects with a range of
professionals and technologies to address global challenges facing humanity. It
represents over 500 businesses, government departments, research
organisations, universities and individual professionals who come together to
make geospatial information FAIR – Findable, Accessible, Interoperable and
Reusable.

1.6.1 Advantages

The OGC creates free and publicly accessible geospatial standards which can
enable new technological collaboration. It also manages the OGC Innovation
Program that foresees and solves the ground reality geospatial challenges
faced by the members.

The OGC provides a mutually agreeable process that communities use to find a
solution to problems related to the creation, communication, and use of spatial
information. A community may include those people who do active ocean
observation, or 3D modelling of urban dynamics, or communities responding to
location information during disasters. The OGC coordinates between these
domains with the outcome leading to test-beds, proof of concepts (POCs) and
interoperability analysis that deliver the right interface and encoding
specifications and best practices. After a thorough review, validation, public
participation and enhancement, they finally pass a vote to become adopted the
OGC standards packaged with associated compliance tests.

1.6.2 Limitations
Some of the limitations of OGC are:
 The OGC standards do not prescribe a standardised authentication.
 The OGC standards at present do not use HTTP error codes in compliance
with W3C standards.
 The OGC standards suffer from versioning. The implementation specification
is available but the issues are solved in a new version of the software
implementation.
 Software bugs are found in the software implementation of the standards.
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1.7 SCOPE AND APPLICATION

The scope of geoinformatics is so varied and dynamic that it practically benefits
every human being. For example, from monitoring the remotest places to the
densely populated urban agglomeration, application is numerous. For example,
comprehensive land use planning of major cities helps us understand the
growth pattern and stressed pockets which need sustainable growth. Further,
the parcel level mapping exercise delineates the encroachments on water
bodies based on which corrective measures can be taken. Similar work also
draws the attention of government agencies to catch property tax defaulters
and property deviation.

Law and Order departments extensively benefit from mapping various crimes at
the police beat the level to distinguish the modus operandi of different criminals
in the geography. Beyond regular mapping, police can forecast the trend and
season of certain crimes to enhance their patrolling and keep the
neighbourhood safe.

The business team hugely benefit through complex spatial analysis which
yields information to know the potential customer base, competitors for a
particular product, market penetration of one brand, the potential market for
new product launch, gap analysis to set up new franchisee to improve the
business performance.

Utility companies widely benefitted from using GIS techniques. They are used
to lay the new pipeline, measure the shortest distance between two points,
identify leak detection in a network, and used corridor mapping to identify
vulnerable populations or infrastructure next to transmission lines. Road and
surface transport immensely benefit like finding the shortest route between
places, road maintenance for patchwork, identifying the black spots across the
length of the road and developing positive measures to bring down road
accidents.

At the government level, natural resource management relies heavily on

geospatial databases and periodic data upgrades help to check illegal
encroachment, forest cutting, forest fire, etc. Similarly, coastal zone
management assumes importance as major cities of the world are in the
coastal regions. Disaster managers widely rely on timely data for real-time
monitoring of events like the oil spill, tsunamis, flood inundation and help the
vulnerable to move to safer zones.

The defence department needs the highest level of an accurate topographic

map of the borders to defend and monitor the border. In recent times, drones
have been extensively used to do real-time monitoring of enemy vehicles, and
suspected movement and alert the first officers to take strategic decisions.

Wildlife protection and tracking are paramount. Poaching, man-animal conflict,

habitat destruction and real-time tracking of wilderness are very well
accomplished in a combination of RS/GIS/GPS. Last but still important is the
health of the population. Disease surveillance, outbreak, pandemic and disease

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spread have geographic elements which vary across space. Geospatial

techniques are also widely used in medical geography.

1.8 ACTIVITY
1. Map your neighbourhood and identify the encroachments and accident prone
roads.
2. Locate the houses where old people are living in your neighbourhood using
descriptive data connected to individual house.

1.9 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have been introduced to the concept of geoinformatics, its
components and different application potential. Let us now summarise what we
have studied in the unit:
 Geoinformatics is the union of Earth sciences and Informatics.
 Components of geoinformatics include Computer science, Geodesy,
Cartography, Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing, Global Navigation Satellite
System and Geographic Information System.
 Geoinformatics data acquisition, processing, product generation, data
visualisation and dissemination depend on the application and usage of
computer science.
 Geodesy defines the shape and dimensions of the Earth through its two
branches: gravimetry and positioning astronomy.
 Cartography deals with the conception, production, dissemination and study
of maps.
 Photogrammetry is concerned with the making measurements about position
and shapes of objects with the help of photographs.
 Remote sensing is the collection of data about an object from a distance.
 Global Positioning System broadcasts signals, which enable people to know
precisely know, where they are on the surface of the Earth.
 GIS integrates hardware, software, and data for capturing, managing,
analysing, and displaying all forms of geographically referenced information.
 Understanding of Earth as a complex system and its various interrelated
processes and mechanisms have been made possible by the use of
geoinformatics. It is useful in mapping, monitoring and management of
natural resources and disasters.

1.10 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. Differentiate between Geoinformatics and Geomatics.
2. List out the advantages of geoinformatics.
3. What are the different geoinformatics products?
4. Briefly discuss the application potential of geoinformatics?

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1.11 REFERENCES
 Awange, J. and Kiema, J. (2019) Geodata and Geoinformatics. In
Environmental Geoinformatics: Extreme Hydro-Climatic and Food Security
Challenges: Exploiting the Big Data; Springer International Publishing:
Cham, Switzerland, pp. 17–27. [Link]

 Ehlers, M. (2008) Geoinformatics and digital earth initiatives: A German

perspective. Int. J. Digit. Earth, 1, pp.17–30.
[Link]

 Jachimski, J. (2001) Dyskusja panelowa poswiecona zagadnieniom

terminologicznym geoinformatyki [Panel discussion devoted to matters of
terminology in geoinformatics; in Polish], Geoinformatyka Polonica, No. 3,
pp.57-79, Kraków.

 Krawczyk, A. (2022) Proposal of Redefinition of the Terms Geomatics and

Geoinformatics on the Basis of Terminological Postulates. ISPRS
International Journal of Geo-Information, 11(11):557.
[Link]

 Michalak, J. (2000) Geomatyka (geoinformatyka) – czy nowa dyscyplina?

[Geomatics (geoinformatics) - Is it a new line of science? in Polish], Przegląd
Geologiczny, 48, 673–678. NetGIS, [Link]

 Oledzki, J. R. (2004) An integrated spatial research tool geoinformatics,

Miscellania Geographica, vol.11, pp.323-331. English translation by J. M.
Kwiatowska.

 [Link]

 [Link]

 [Link]

 [Link]

 [Link]/[Link]

1.12 FURTHER/SUGGESTED READINGS

 Awange, J. and Kiema, J. (2019) Geodata and Geoinformatics. In
Environmental Geoinformatics: Extreme Hydro-Climatic and Food Security
Challenges: Exploiting the Big Data; Springer International Publishing:
Cham, Switzerland, pp. 17–27. [Link]
 Garg, P. K. (2019) Principles and Theory of Geoinformatics, Khanna
Publishing Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. 296p.
 Gomarasca, M. A. (2009) Basics of Geomatics, Springer-Verlag, New York
Inc. 1123p.
 Krawczyk, A. (2022) Proposal of Redefinition of the Terms Geomatics and
Geoinformatics on the Basis of Terminological Postulates. ISPRS
International Journal of Geo-Information, 11(11):557.
[Link]

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1.13 ANSWERS
SAQ I
a) Computer Science, Geodesy, Cartography, Photogrammetry, Remote
Sensing (RS), Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS), Geographic
Information System (GIS).
b) Photogrammetry is concerned with making measurements of the position
and shapes of objects with the help of photographs.
c) International Cartographic Association (INCA) defines cartography as the
discipline dealing with the conception, production, dissemination and study
of maps.

SAQ II
a) GNSS is a constellation of satellites which are orbiting the Earth every 12
hours at a height of ~20,200 km and these satellites broadcast signals,
which are used to derive precise timing, location, and velocity information.

b) The GAGAN (GPS Aided Geo Augmented Navigation or GPS and Geo
Augmented Navigation system) is a planned implementation of a
regional Satellite Based Augmentation System by the Indian government.

c) The components of GIS include the computer systems, the software, spatial
data, data management and analysis procedures, and the people to operate
the GIS.

Terminal Questions

1. Please refer to section 1.2.

2. Please refer to section 1.3.
3. Please refer to section 1.5.
4. Please refer to section. 1.7.

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