ELECTROSTATICS

1. The electric potential is constant through a given region of space. Is the electric field zero or
non-zero in this region? Explain.
Ans: Electric field is zero when electric potential is constant through a given region of space.
Explanation: As we know
∆V
E=-
∆r

⇒
When electric potential is constant.
i.e. V = constant ΔV = 0 means no change in electric potential.
∆V 0
Then E=- = =0
∆ r ∆r

2. If a point charge q of mass m is released in a non – uniform electric field with field lines pointing
in the same direction, will it make a rectilinear motion?
Ans: Yes, it will make rectilinear motion.
An electric force gained by a point charge q in an electric field E is given by

⇒ ⇒
qE
F = qE ma = qE a=
m
Since E is non – uniform, therefore F will not be constant. So this force produces non – uniform acceleration.
Thus charge q will make rectilinear motion with variable linear acceleration.

3. What is the relationship b/w potential difference and electric P.E?

Ans: Relation b/w P.D & Electric Potential Energy:
As the change in electric P.E per unit charge qo is equal to
∆U
ΔV =
qo
⇒ ΔV ΔU (if qo=constant)
i.e. P.D is directly proportional to the change in electric P.E. It means greater the potential difference b/w plates
of capacitor, greater will be the energy stored in it.

4. How are units of volt and electron volt related? How do they differ?
Ans: As we know ΔU = qΔV …………….(i)
By definition of electron volt
ΔU = Δ(K.E) = 1 eV

⇒
When q = e = 1.6 x 10-19 C and ΔV = 1V
-19
Then (i) 1 eV = 1.6 x 10 C x 1V

⇒
1 eV
1V= −19
6 ×10 C
Which is the relation b/w volt and electron volt.
Difference b/w volt and electron volt:
Volt is the unit of P.D & emf while electron volt is a small unit of electrical energy.

5. How can electric potential be high when the electric P.E is relatively low?
Ans: When a negative charges is placed in electric field, it moves opposite to the direction of the field. It
moves from a point of lower potential to a point of higher potential. Its kinetic energy increases while its
potential energy decreases.
This is the reason that electric potential be high when the electric P.E is low.

6. Can the potential of a non-uniformly charged sphere be the same as that of a point charge?
Ans: Yes, if the sphere has spherically symmetric charges distribution and we are referring to the potential
outside the sphere. Only with this condition, the whole charge on the sphere is considered to be concentrated
as a point charge at the sphere center.

7: Will the energy stored in three capacitors be greater when they are connected in series or in
parallel?
 2
Q
Ans: Energy stored in capacitors in series, E = ½
C
And Energy stored in capacitors in parallel, E = ½ CV2
From above equations, it is clear that energy stored in capacitors is directly related to capacitance of
combination. Since capacitance of parallel combination is more, so energy stored in three capacitors is greater.

8. Can different equipotential lines cross each other?

Ans: No, different equipotential lines cannot intersect each other.
As at equipotential line all the points are equidistant from charge i.e. potential at every point on it will be same.
Thus equipotential lines are in the form of concentric circles and can never cross each other as shown.

9. Water has large dielectric constant but it is rarely used in capacitors. Why?
Ans: Water has large dielectric constant (80.1 at 20oC) but it is rarely used in capacitor due to following
reasons;
(i) Water molecules can be easily polarized under given electric field which decreases the electric field
b/w the plates.
(ii) Water can conduct electricity due to H+ and OH- ions.
(iii) Due to mobility of ions, water may leak charges b/w the plates which may cause discharging of
capacitor.
(iv) Dielectric constant of water varies with impurities and temperature.

10. How can you increase the capacitance of a capacitor?

Ans: The ability of a capacitor to store the charges is called capacitance.
Capacitance of a capacitor is directly related to number of charges (Q = CV).
Capacitance of a capacitor increase with insertion of dielectric material b/w its plates.
i.e. Cmed = K Cvac
Capacitance of parallel plate capacitor increases with area of plates.

ELECTRODYNAMICS

1. A heavy duty battery of a truck maintains a current of 3A for 24 hours. How much charge flows
from the battery during this time?
Ans: Given data
Current = I = 3A
Time = t = 24 hour = 24 x 3600s = 86400s
Amount of charge = Q = ?

⇒
Q
As we know I= Q = It

⇒
t
Q = 3 x 86400 = 259200 C

2. While analyzing a circuit, the internal resistance of emf sources is ignored. Why?
Ans: When analyzing a circuit, generally the internal resistance of emf sources is ignored.
Example: For a good 12V battery, the internal resistance is 0.01Ω. If the battery is connected across a 4Ω
resistor then current flowing through the circuit will be,
ε 12 ε
I= = = = 3 A ……………. (i)
R +r 4+ 0.01 4.01
And the terminal voltage is
VT = ε – Ir = 12 – 3 x 0.01 = 12 – 0.03 = 11.97 V ……………. (ii)
It is clear form (ii) that terminal voltage is nearly equal to emf.
This is the reason that internal resistance of emf sources is generally ignored.

3. If aluminum and copper wires of the same length have same resistance, which has the larger
diameter. Why?
Ans: As given that Laluminum = Lcopper and Raluminum = Rcopper
L
Using equation R = , we conclude that for same length and same resistance of copper and aluminum wires,
A
resistivity of copper wire lower than aluminum. For lower resistivity, diameter of copper wire must be larger.
Because copper is superconductor.

4. Under what circumstances can the terminal P.D of a battery exceed its emf?
Ans: The terminal P.D of a battery exceeds its emf when the battery is being recharged. Under such
condition, the current is driven backward through the battery in at its positive terminal and out at its negative
terminal which is called reverse current.
Thus the terminal voltage of the battery is higher than its emf by an amount of Ir
i.e. V = ε + Ir

5. What is the difference b/w e.m.f and potential difference (P.D)?

E.M.F P.D

The energy supplied per unit positive charge by The energy lost per unit positive charge when
the source to move it from –ve to +ve terminal moving from +ve to –ve terminal of the source is
inside the source (e.g. batter) is called emf. called P.D (voltage).
It is related with the source of current. It is related with any two points of a closed
It is a cause of the P.D between any 2 points in circuit.
the circuit. It is an effect of emf.
Exists even when the circuit is open. Exist only when the circuit is closed.
emf is caused by converting the other form of P.D is the conversion of electrical energy into
energy into electrical energy. other forms of energy.
It is independent of the external resistance and It depends upon the resistance b/w the 2 given
the current drawn from the source. points in a circuit and the current flowing
It transmits current throughout the circuit. through these two points.
It remains constant. It transmits current b/w any two points.
It represents energy gain. It does not remain constant.
It represents energy loss.

6. How the loop rule and junction rule are based on the conservation principle?
Ans: As in K.V.L (loop rule), the sum of all the e.m.f’s (energy gain) in a circuit is equal to the sum of all
voltage drops (energy loss) in that circuit i.e. energy supplied by the voltage source is equal to the energy
consumed by the passive components in the circuit. Thus loop rule is based on conservation of energy
principle.
Similarly in K.C.L (junction rule), the total currents entering the junction is equal to total currents leaving the
junction i.e. charges flowing towards the junction is equal to the charges flowing away the junction. This fact
gives that junction rule is based on the conservation of charges principle.

7. Why rise in temperature of a conductor is accomplished by a rise in the resistance?

Ans: Resistance of a conductor is directly proportional to the change in temperature.
Explanation: At higher temperature the amplitude of vibrations of ions increases due to which the rate of
collision of electrons with ions increases. As a result, the mean free path decreases due to which drift velocity
of electrons reduces and hence resistance increases. This increase in resistance decreases current.

8. Does the direction of emf provided by a battery depend on the direction of current flowing
through the conductor?
Ans: No. The direction of emf does not depend on the direction of current.
In fact, direction of current in a circuit depends upon the direction of emf.
Example: When a battery of emf ‘ε’ is connected in a circuit, then electronic current in the circuit flows
from -ve to +ve terminal of the battery. While inside the battery, ionic current flows due to positive ions from –
ve to +ve terminal.
Since conventionally the direction of current is taken from +ve to –ve terminal in a circuit. That is why the
direction of emf provided by a battery does not depend on the direction of current flowing through the
conductor.

9. Voltages are always measured b/w two points. Why?

Ans: The change in potential energy per unit charge b/w two points is called voltage (P.D) i.e. ΔV = VB –
ΔU
VA =
q
Voltage is always with respect to a reference, so you need two points i.e. one the reference and other the point
being measured.
That is why voltages are always measured b/w two points.

10. Is every emf a P.D? Is every P.D an emf?

Ans: emf is the work done per unit charge which is the potential difference between the electrodes of the
battery measured in volts. So every emf is P.D.
But not all voltages are emf. A voltage is only an emf if it is a source of energy.
If the voltage is produced by a non-electrical source (such as battery) we call such a voltage as emf but if the
source is purely electrical (such as capacitor) we call the voltage as voltage itself and not as emf.

11. How much charges flow in pocket calculator each minute when the current is 0.0001 A?
Ans: It is a numerical problem. We solve it as,
Time = t = 1 min = 60 s
Current = I = 0.0001 A
Charges = Q = ?

⇒
Q
As we know that I= Q = It

⇒
t
Q = 0.0001 x 60 = 0.006 C

12. When Wheatstone Bridge is balanced, then no current flows through the galvanometer. Why?
R 1 R3
Ans: The balancing condition for Wheatstone Bridge is given by, =
R2 R4
This condition is independent of emf of cell. Hence if battery in increased, the bridge will remain balanced. It
means no current will flow through the galvanometer.
When the bridge is in balance condition, no current will flow through the galvanometer because potential
difference between the two ends of galvanometer becomes same.

ELECTROMAGNETISM

1. A compass needle is deflected when a charged plastic rod is held near it. What is the region of
the force that produces the deflection?

Ans: A compass needle is deflected only in the presence of magnetic materials.

Since charged plastic rod has magnetic field, so compass needle is deflected.
As plastic rod is charged by electrostatic induction, so the region of force that produces deflection in the
compass needle is electrostatic induction.

2. What is the difference b/w permeability and permittivity?

Permittivity Permeability

It is the property of every material which Permeability is the measure of the ability of the
measures the opposition offered against the material to allow the formation of magnetic
formation of an electric field. lines of force or magnetic field within.
It tells the number of charges required to It speaks on the ability of magnetization that a
 generate one unit of electric flux in the given material possesses for the applied magnetic
medium. field.
It is represented by the Greek alphabet ε. It is denoted by the Greek alphabet μ.
D B
Mathematically ε= Mathematically μ =
E H
Unit = farad/meter Unit = henry/meter (Wb A-1 m-1)

2nd Answer:
Differences between the permittivity and permeability are:

1. Permittivity measures the obstruction produces by the material in the formation of the electric field,
whereas permeability is the ability of the material to allow magnetic lines to conduct through it.
2. Permittivity is represented by ε whereas μ represents permeability.
3. The S.I unit of permittivity is henry/meter and that of permeability it is faraday/meter.
4. The free space of permittivity is 8.85 F/m, whereas that of permeability it is 1.26 H/m.
5. Permittivity develops the electric field, whereas permeability develops the magnetic field.
6. The high permittivity develops in capacitor whereas the high permeability develops in the inductor and
the cores of the transformer.
Permittivity and permeability both are the concepts of the electromagnetic theory. Permittivity is related to the
formation of an electric field (polarization) and the permeability is because of the magnetic field (magnetization).

3. Can the object in rotational motion create a magnetic field? Provide an example.

Ans: No, an object in rotational motion cannot create magnetic field.

Spin motion is responsible for the creation of magnetic field.
For example, we know earth acts like a big magnet. Earth contributes two types of motion i.e. rotation and spin.
Earth magnetic field is only the result of spinning not rotation.

4. Electron and proton are projected with the same velocity normal to the magnetic field. Which
one will suffer greater deflection? Why?

Ans: As we know Fm = qvB

It is clear from above equation that for same speed and same field B, a particle with greater charge encounter
greater force (deflection).
The deflection of a charged particle by a magnetic field is proportional to its electric charge and to its velocity
while inversely proportional to its mass.
So given a proton and an electron going at the same velocity in a magnetic field and having equal (but opposite)
electric charge, the electron will deflect much more since the ratio of the masses is 1836.

5. A charged particle moves in a straight line through a particular region of space. Could there be a
non-zero magnetic field in this region?

Ans: There are two possible cases;

 If the charged particle moves along or opposite to the direction of magnetic field, no force acts on it.
 The particle could be moving at an angle to the magnetic field, but still remain un-deflected because the
net Lorentz force on it is zero.
Hence when charged particle moves without suffering any deflection, it cannot be inferred definitely that no
magnetic field is present there.

6: If a current is passed through an un-stretched spring, will the spring contract or expand?

Ans: As we know when current is passed through a spring then the current flows parallel in the adjacent
turns. And when two wires are placed parallel to each other then the current which flows in the same direction,
the wires attract each other. Similarly, in the given question the various turns attract each other and the spring
will compress.

7. How can neutrons be accelerated in a cyclotron?

Ans: Cyclotron works on the principle of Lorentz Force.

Neutrons cannot be accelerated in a cyclotron because they are neutral particles i.e. have no charge due to
which they do not experience any electric or magnetic force. Since cyclotron accelerates only charged particles,
therefore neutrons (uncharged particles) cannot be accelerated in a cyclotron.

8. A current carrying loop free to turn, is placed in a uniform magnetic field B. What will be its
orientation relative to B in the equilibrium state?

Ans: When a current carrying loop is placed in a uniform magnetic field B by making certain θ with field
then it will experience a torque which is given by,
τ = BIACosθ
Now if loop is free to rotate, then it will rotate under the action of above torque. The loop will orient in such a
way that its plane become perpendicular to B then torque acting on it will be zero and hence it will be in
equilibrium.

9. How does a current carrying coil behave like a bar magnet?

Ans: When current passes through a coil, magnetic field is produced inside the coil. This magnetic field runs
in the same direction all around the loop.
Now apply Right Hand Rule around the loop which shows that magnetic field lines are looking to be enter at
one side and exit at other side i.e. one side acts like North Pole and another acts like South Pole as shown
below. By this way a current carrying coil behaves like a bar magnet.

ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

1. What factors limit the size of the back emf?

Ans: The magnitude of the back emf induced in a coil is directly proportional to the rate of change of flux.
The rate of change of flux depends upon the speed of the motor. Therefore by increasing the speed of the motor
will increase the back emf and vice versa.
When load is connected to the motor, its speed decreases. Consequently, the back emf also decreases.
Back emf also depends upon the strength of the magnetic field. So by changing the strength of the magnetic
field, the back emf can be controlled.
The speed of coil also depends upon the amount of current flow. So by controlling the current, back emf can be
controlled.

2. Why does back emf tend to decrease as the rate of doing work increases?

Ans: When the load increases, it reduces the angular speed of motor. As a result, the induced current due to
back emf also decreases. Thus the flux now changes at a slower rate than before. It means the motor is doing
more work and hence back emf tends to decrease.
Note that the decrease in the back emf allows the motor to draw more current.

3. In Faraday’s experiment, what would be the advantage of using coils with many turns?

Ans: The advantage of using many turns ‘N’ in Faraday's experiments is that the emf and induced current are
proportional to N, which makes it easier experimentally to measure those quantities.
Many turns in the primary coil will make a larger magnetic flux and many turns in the output coil will produce
a larger output voltage and current.
 ∆Φ
4. Show that the relation emf = - is dimensionally correct
Δt

Ans: The unit of emf is volt which is equal to J/C.

J kg m2 s−2
= = kg m2 s-3 A-1 = [M L2 T-3 A-1] …………… (i)
C As
By taking R.H.S, we have
∆ Φ Wb T m 2 kg s−2 A −1
= = = = kg m2 s-3 A-1 = [M L2 T-3 A-1] ………. (ii)
Δt s s s
From (i) & (ii) it is clear that ℰ =
∆Φ
is dimensionally correct.
Δt

5. Give the formula for the flux linkage in terms of angular orientation.

Ans: Consider a rectangular coil of N turns each of area A is rotating about its axis in a uniform magnetic
field of flux density B. If the normal to the coil makes an angle with B at time t, then flux linkage each coil is
Ф = B.A = BA cosθ …………….. (i)
We know that the coil will rotate when a current is passed through it. The angle of rotation of the coil at any
time instant t is

⇒
θ = ωt
(i) Ф = BA cos ωt
As Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction states that if the magnetic flux linking a circuit is changed, an
emf is induced in the circuit given by
ℰ=-N
∆Φ
Put the value of Ф
Δt
∆ ∆
=-N (BA cosωt) = - NBA (cosωt) = - NBA (-ω sinωt)
⇒
Δt Δt
Ф = NBAω sinωt

6. How electromagnetic brake works?

Ans: An electromagnetic brake uses an electric actuation but transmits torque mechanically. When the brake
receives voltage or current, the coil is energized creating a magnetic field. This field turns the coil into an
electromagnet that creates magnetic lines of flux. The magnetic flux attracts the armature. The armature and
hub usually are mounted on the rotating shaft. The coil's attraction to the armature and hub brings the shaft to
a stop in a short amount of time. This helps in stopping the vehicle.

7. How eddy currents can be minimized in transformer?

Ans: The eddy current produced due to the resistive nature of the core and hence the eddy current loss is
proportional to the square of the current in the winding.
To minimize the loss resulting from eddy currents, transformer cores are laminated. Since the thin insulated
laminations do not provide an easy path for current, so eddy-current losses are greatly reduced.
2nd Answer:
We can minimize the eddy current by the following methods:
i. The resistance of the core should be increased.
ii. In transformers, the thin sheets of steel in the core should be insulated from each other by a thin layer
of varnish.
iii. As the laminations are thin, they will have relatively high resistance.
iv. The planes of these sheets are placed perpendicular to the direction of the current that would be set up
by the induced emf. The planes of these sheets are arranged parallel to the magnetic fields so that they
can cut across the eddy current paths.
v. Large resistances between the sheets confines the eddy currents to the thin sheets. Each lamination
sheet will have an eddy current circulates within it. Tiny eddy currents still exist, but only within each
thin sheet, so are greatly reduced.
vi. The sum of individual eddy currents of all the laminations are very less compared to that of using a
single solid iron core.

8. How electromagnetic induction is used in cook tops and electric ranges?

Ans: Induction cooktops use electromagnetic induction to produce heat. Beneath the cooktop is an induction
coil consisting of a solenoid placed horizontally. When alternating current is passed through the coil, a
magnetic field is formed that is aimed straight up through the cooking surface.
However, AC is fed into the induction coil and this causes the magnetic field formed to constantly change. This
means that when a pot is placed above the induction coil, it experiences changing flux. This causes eddy
currents to be formed in the pan which results in the pan heating up due to electrical resistance. An induction
cooktop is much more efficient at converting electrical energy to heat because the pan is heated directly.

9. What is meant by the term back emf in any electric motor operation?

Ans: When the armature of a DC motor rotates under the influence of the driving torque, the armature
conductors move through the magnetic field and hence emf is induced in it. The induced emf acts in opposite
direction to the applied voltage V (Lenz’s law) and is known as Back emf or Counter emf.
When the speed varies, the winding characteristics may fluctuate resulting in variation of back emf.
At high speeds the traction motor armatures are rotating rapidly and have a high back emf.

10. Why it is an advantage for the armature to rotate in a radial magnetic field than a uniform one?
Ans: The horseshoe magnet has cylindrically concave pole-pieces. Due to this shape, the magnet produces a radial
magnetic field so that when coil rotates in any position its plane is always parallel to the direction of the magnetic field.
When current flows through the coil, it gets deflected.
Thus the advantage for armature to rotate in a radial magnet field is that it increases the accuracy of the instrument
(galvanometer).

11. (a) Which material would you prefer while making transformer core; iron, solid soft iron,
laminated soft iron, aluminum?
What is the reason for using this material?

Ans: (a) Soft iron are ferromagnetic materials made of iron which can be magnetized and demagnetized easily.
This is an advantage in transformers because in transformers we are constantly varying magnetism of the core. This is
important because without the change of magnetism of the core, there will not be any voltage induced in the second
circuit (the output).
Hence using a soft iron would allow the magnetism of the core to be changed easily, decreasing the amount of energy lost
and increasing the efficiency of transformer.

ALTERNATING CURRENT (A.C)

1. Sketch a graph of emf induced in an inductive coil against rate of change of current. What is the
significance of gradient?

Ans: When an alternating current flowing through an inductor changes, an emf is induced in the inductor. It
is found that the emf and change in the current are directly proportional to one another.
If ΔI is the change in the current in time Δt, rate of change of current is ΔI/Δt. Let ϵ is the emf produced in the
coil, then
∆I
ε∝
∆t
Therefore, the graph of the rate of change of current and
the induced emf is a straight line.
The gradient (slop) of graph is inductance

⇒ ⇒
ε
∆I ∆I
i.e. ε∝ ε =L L = ∆I
∆t ∆t
∆t
The significance (importance) of the gradient of the graph b/w emf and rate of
change of current is that it shows the inductance of the inductor.
2. Current and voltage provided by an AC generator are sometimes negative and sometimes
positive. Why for an AC generator connected to a resistor, power can never be negative?

Ans: When a resistor is connected across an A.C generator, the instantaneous sinusoidal voltage and
instantaneous sinusoidal current is given by
V = Vm sinωt & I = Im sinωt
This means that both instantaneous voltage and instantaneous current are in phase. When the voltage is
positive, current is also positive and when voltage is negative, current is negative.
Now the power delivered to the circuit is P = IV
This equation shows that power will always be positive. It is because when V is negative, I will also be negative.
Therefore their product is positive and power is positive. If both I and V are positive, their product (power) is
also positive.

3. What determines the gradient of a graph of inductive reactance against frequency?

Ans: Inductive reactance XL of an inductor is directly proportional to the frequency of the current flowing in
it. Therefore, the graph between inductive reactance and frequency of the current is a straight line. Its slope
determines the value of the inductance.
XL = ωL ⇒
XL
As we know L=
ω
Therefore, the gradient in this case determines the inductance of the inductor.

4. How does doubling the frequency affect the reactance of

(a) an inductor (b) a capacitor?

Ans: (a) As we know the reactance of an inductor is given as,

⇒
XL = ωL = 2f L
XL ∝ f
Thus doubling the frequency of current also doubles the reactance of inductor.
(b) As we know the reactance of a capacitor is given as,
1 1
XC = =
ωC 2 πfC
⇒
1
XC ∝
f
Thus doubling the frequency of current causes half the reactance of capacitor.

5. If the peak value of a sine wave is 1000 volts, what is effective value?

Ans: This is a numerical problem for which we use the following formula,
Vm
Vrms = = 0.707 Vm
√2
⇒ Vm = √ 2 Vrms
= 1.4 (1000) = 1400 volt

6: Show that reactance is measured in ohms for both inductors and capacitors.

Ans: The opposition offered by an inductor to the flow of alternating current is called inductive reactance,
denoted by XL.
V
In terms of Ohm’s law XL is given by, XL =
I
The instantaneous values of V and I are given by,

V = Vm sinωt & I = Im sinωt

V m sinωt V m
Put these values in above equation, XL = =
I m sinωt Im
Vm volt
In terms of units, XL = = = ohm …………. (i)
I m ampere
Similarly
The opposition offered by the capacitor to the flow of current is called capacitive reactance, denoted by XC.
 V V m sinωt V m
In terms of Ohm’s law XC is given by, XC = = =
I I m sinωt Im
Vm volt
In terms of units, XL = = = ohm …………… (ii)
I m ampere
From (i) & (ii) it is clear that both XL & XC are measured in ohms (Ω).

7. What is the principle of ECG?

Ans: The basic principle of the ECG is that stimulation of a muscle alters the electrical potential of the muscle
fibers.
The electrocardiogram (ECG) is a graphical record of electric potentials generated by the working heart muscle
fibers during each cardiac cycle. These low amplitude potentials are detected on the surface of the body using
electrodes attached to the extremities and chest wall, and are then amplified by the electrocardiograph
machine and displayed on special graph paper or on display monitors.

PHYSICS OF SOLIDS

1. Coercive force of steel is greater than iron, why?

Ans: The amount of reverse magnetic field which must be applied to a magnetic material to make the
magnetic flux zero (demagnetized) is called coercive force.
Soft iron is easily magnetized and demagnetized as compared to steel. The coercivity of soft iron is less than
that of the coercivity of the steel. Energy loss in soft iron is less than energy loss in steel because of the small
area of soft iron (B - H) curve.

2. Evaluate the importance of strength and stiffness in a design context.

Ans: A material can have high strength and low stiffness. If a metal cracks easily, it has low strength but if it
has low stiffness, it can deflect a high load.
Car manufacturers are considering the less stiff aluminum as a lighter weight alternative to steel. In the event
of a crash, strength is obviously a critical safety consideration in car components but so is stiffness depending
on the function of the car body part. If a steel part on a car is replaced with an identical (shape, thickness)
aluminum part, it may deflect more due to its lower stiffness. This could be an issue if a part sags and rubs
against another part.
However, adjusting the design (shape, thickness) of the aluminum part, it is possible to obtain the strength and
stiffness needed while lowering the mass of the part.

Note: Strength is the measure of stress which can be applied to a material before it permanently deforms or
breaks. Stiffness relates to how a component bends under load while still returning to its original shape once
the load is removed.

3. Discuss the superconductivity of a conductor with the help of a curve.

Ans: The ability of certain material to conduct electric current with practically zero resistance is called
superconductivity of that material.
Superconductors are those materials which are usually bad conductors at room temperature but when the
temperature is decreased to very low (i.e. critical temperature), the resistance becomes zero. This is the reason
that good conductors can't be transformed into superconductors.
4. Distinguish among crystalline, amorphous and polymer solids.
Ans: Differences among these solids are;
Crystalline solids consist of particles that are arranged in a three-dimensional
manner. They are true solids.
Crystalline The intermolecular forces b/w them are equal.
They are firm, rigid, incompressible, hold a definite and fixed shape.
They are anisotropic and have long range order.
Examples: Diamonds, metals, salts, etc.
Amorphous refers to being shapeless. Amorphous solids have an irregular
arrangement of solid particles. They are also called supercooled liquids.
Amorphous The intermolecular forces b/w them are not equal.
They are weak, soft, compressible and don’t have definite shape.
They are isotropic and have short range order.
Example: Glass, gels, plastics, various polymers, wax and thin films.
The term polymer in Greek means ‘many parts’. A polymer is a large molecule or a
Polymer macromolecule which essentially is a combination of many subunits.
Most of the polymers around us are made up of a hydrocarbon backbone.
The intermolecular forces b/w them vary.
Examples: Rubber, polythene, proteins, etc.

5. What is the difference b/w elastic deformation and plastic deformation?

Ans: Differences b/w them are following;
Elastic Deformation Plastic Deformation
If the stress is applied within the elastic limit, If the stress is applied beyond the elastic limit,
then the substance will undergo elastic then the substance will undergo plastic
deformation. deformation.
Elastic deformation is the deformation that Plastic deformation is the permanent
disappears upon the removal of external forces, deformation or change in the shape of a solid
causing the alteration and the stress associated body without fracture under the action of a
with it. sustained force.
Elastic deformation is hence reversible and non- Plastic deformation is irreversible and is
permanent. permanent.
Elastic deformation depends mainly on the Plastic deformation occurs due to the
chemical bonding of the substance. If the breakage of a limited number of chemical
chemical bonds are able to withstand a high bonds b/w atoms that make up the substance.
stress by deforming without breakage, that During plastic deformation, atoms may slip
substance can undergo elastic deformation. pass on each other. This causes dislocations of
Best examples for elastic deformation come atoms. Thus, the material stays still after
from elastomers such as vulcanized rubber. removing the applied stress.

6. Differentiate among paramagnetic, diamagnetic and ferromagnetic materials with suitable

examples.
Ans: Differences among these materials are following;
Those substances that are weakly attracted (magnetized) by strong magnet
are called paramagnetic material.
Paramagnetic In the presence of external magnetic field B, these substances tend to move
from a region of a weak to a strong magnetic field i.e. along B.
Magnetic permeability is more than 1.
Examples: Lead, NaCl, Bismuth, etc.
Those substances that are weakly repelled (i.e. feebly magnetized) by strong
magnet are called diamagnetic materials.
Diamagnetic Diamagnetic substances have a tendency to move from stronger part to the
weaker part of the external magnetic field B i.e. opposite B.
Magnetic permeability is always less than 1.
Examples: Silver, copper, and carbon.
Those substances that are strongly attracted (magnetized) by strong magnet
are called ferromagnetic materials.
Ferromagnetic In the presence of external magnetic field B, these substances tend to move
from a region of a weak to a strong magnetic field i.e. along B.
Magnetic permeability is larger than 1.
 Examples: Iron, steel, cobalt and their alloys

7: Distinguish b/w soft and hard substances by drawing its curves.

Ans: Differences are following;
Soft Substances Hard Substances
Materials having narrow hysteresis loops, Materials having large hysteresis loops,
magnetized and de-magnetized easily are called magnetized and de-magnetized hardly are
soft magnetic materials. called hard magnetic materials.
They have low coercivity and high permeability. They have high coercivity and low
Eddy current loss and hysteresis loss is less. permeability.
Used in transformer cores, motors, generators, Eddy current loss is more for metallic types
electromagnets, etc. and low for ceramic types.
Used in making permanent magnets, magnetic
separators, magnetic detectors, speakers,
microphones, etc.

8. What is the difference b/w brittle and ductile materials?

Ans: Differences are following;
Brittle Materials Ductile Materials
Solid materials that exhibit negligible plastic Solid materials that can undergo substantial
deformation are called brittle materials. plastic deformation prior to fracture are called
 They have tendency to break/crack easily ductile materials.
and suddenly without any deformation.  It is the ability of material to be hammered
 These material show zero plastic thin or stretched into wire without
deformation after stress and instantly break. breaking.
 They show very less percentage elongation  Such material will undergo plastic
before fracture. deformation before fracture.
 Very small amount of energy is absorbed by
such materials before fracture.  Under tensile stress, percentage
 Brittle materials have high Young’s Modulus. elongation before fracture is higher in
Examples: Bone, cast iron, ceramic, glass and these materials.
concrete.  Under tensile load, they can absorb more
energy before fracture.
 Ductile materials have low Young’s
modulus.
Examples: Gold, silver, steel and copper.

9. How can the conductivity of a semiconductor be raised?

Ans: The conductivity of semiconductor can be increased by the following methods:
i. By Doping
The conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor is increased by doping it with elements like arsenic and phosphorous.
ii. By Increasing Temperature
The conductivity of intrinsic conductors can be increased by increasing the temperature as the increase in temperature
pushes a greater proportion of electrons from valence band to conduction band which increases the conductivity.
10. Is there any difference in the length of a 20 meter steel girder when standing vertically and
horizontally?
Ans: When the girder is placed on the ground, it is under the stress of its own weight.
F W
i.e. σ= =
A A
Now
 When the girder is kept in vertical position, the weight of the girder acts vertically downward. Therefore,
a force is exerted on the girder in the lengthwise direction. This force produces a compressive strain in
the girder which reduces the length of the girder.
 When the girder is placed in a horizontal position, it doesn’t experience any force in the lengthwise
direction. Hence, there is no strain and no decrease in the length of the girder.
Thus the length of the 20 m steel girder reduces when it is in vertical position.

11. Why would it be advantageous to use superconductor in MRI machine?

Ans: Superconducting wire can carry immense electrical currents with no heating which allows it to
generate large magnetic fields. They can generate magnetic fields that are up to ten times stronger than those
generated by ordinary ferromagnetic-core electromagnets. In an MRI scanner, this magnetic field starts the
nuclei to be precessing.
Advantages of superconducting MRI systems include better performance, the highest temporal and spatial
homogeneity of the magnetic field, high signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), the shortest scan time and the highest
patient throughput.

ELECTRONICS

1. Why in a transistor
(a) the base is thin lightly doped and (b) the collector is large in size.
(a) The base region in a transistor is made very thin so that there is a better conduction of majority carriers
from emitter to collector through it. Due to this, the base current is quite weak and the collector current is
nearly equal to the emitter current. As a result the transistor can give good power gain and voltage gain.
(b) Collector has less concentration of impurity as compared to emitter. Collector is comparatively large in
size than emitter, so that to receive large number of charges emitted by the emitter when the unit is in function.

2. Why the base current is weak as compared to collector current?

Ans: The base region in a transistor is doped lightly so that the number density of majority carriers
(electrons in n-p-n and holes in p-n-p transistor) is low.
When emitter-base junction is forward biased, the majority carriers move from emitter to collector through
base. Since base is thin and lightly doped, only a small (about 5%) electron-hole combination will take place
giving weak base current and remaining majority carriers will be collected by collector giving collector current
nearly equal to emitter current.

3. Why the emitter-base junction is forward biased and collector-base junction is reverse biased?
Ans: Actually this bias system is the condition of the transistor to be active.
If emitter-base is forward biased, the input resistance i.e. the resistance of EB junction becomes very low. As a
result, collector injects a large number of charges into base region.
Also if collector-base junction is reverse biased, the output resistance i.e. the resistance of the EC junction
becomes very high.
The circuit with low input resistance and high output resistance acts as the best amplifier.

4. How do NPN and PNP transistors work?

 Working of NPN Transistor
The voltage VEE provides a negative potential at the emitter which repels the electrons in N-type material.
These electrons cross the emitter-base junction to reach the base region. There a very low percent of electrons
recombine with free holes of P-region. This provides very low current which constitutes the base current IB.
The remaining holes cross the collector-base junction to constitute the collector current IC.
  Working of PNP Transistor
The voltage VEE provides a positive potential at the emitter which repels the holes in the P-type material.
These holes cross the emitter-base junction to reach the base region. There a very low percent of holes
recombine with free electrons of N-region. This provides very low current which constitutes the base
current IB. The remaining holes cross the collector-base junction to constitute collector current IC, which is the
hole current.

5. Distinguish b/w N-type semiconductor and P-type semiconductors.

Ans: Differences b/w them are following;
N – type semiconductors P – type semiconductors
In a N-type semiconductor, the majority charge In a P-type semiconductor, the majority
carriers are free electrons. charge carriers are holes.
In N-type semiconductor, the majority of charge In P-type semiconductor, the majority of
carriers (i.e. electrons) move from low potential charge carriers (i.e. holes) move from high
to high potential. potential to low potential.
Impurities such as Arsenic, Antimony, Impurities such as Aluminum, Gallium and
Phosphorous and Bismuth (elements having five Indium (elements having three valence
valence electrons) are added in N-type electrons) are added in P-type
semiconductors. semiconductors.
Impurities are added in N-type semiconductors Impurities are added in P-type
in order to increase the number of electrons semiconductors in order to increase the
(also known as Donor atom). number of holes (also known as Acceptor
atom).

6. A P-type semiconductor has a large number of holes but still it is electrically neutral. Why?
Ans: The p-type semiconductors are electrically neutral that is uncharged because when the trivalent
impurities (like Boron, Gallium, Indium, etc.) are doped into the tetravalent pure semiconductors like silicon
and germanium then the fourth electron of the germanium needs to be bonded. The electron in the outermost
shell of the silicon or germanium can jump into the vacancy and create hole on its own atom. So here the holes
created are the reason for conduction to take place but the semiconductor is electrically neutral because the
number of the electrons and holes are same in magnitude and opposite in sign.
Note: In semiconductor, no. of electrons = no. of holes

7: Why CE configuration is widely used in amplifier circuits?

Ans: The Common Emitter configuration is the best and most widely used configuration for amplifier because
it is the only configuration that gives both voltage and current gain greater than unity. Also the resistance of the
CE circuit is much less. The CE configuration has a low input impedance and it is an inverting amplifier. The
output impedance of this amplifier is high. This amplifier has the highest power gain when combined with
medium voltage and current gain
These above are the basic reasons due to which CE configuration is used in amplifiers.

8. Why transistor is called current amplification device?

Ans: A transistor acts as an amplifier by raising the strength of a weak signal. This process is called
amplification.
Transistor is basically a current amplifying device which converts a low alternating current signal to a high
current signal.
The circuit for a simple transistor amplifier is CE circuit where emitter is ground.
The applied input signal causes small changes in IB which causes large changes in IC.
By this way, CE circuit converts low AC signals to high AC signals.
IE IC
The amplification factor (α = and β = ) of a transistor also shows that transistor is a current amplification
IC IB
device.

9. A doped semiconductor has 1010 silicon atoms and 10 trivalent atoms. If the temperature is 25
o
C, how many free electrons and holes are there inside the semiconductor?
Ans: Given data
Absolute temperature = T = 25 oC = 298 K
Total no. of atoms = N = 1010
Boltzmann constant = K = 1.38 x 10-23 J/K
Total K.E supplied is given by,
3
K.E = NKT
2
−11
3 6.1686 ×10
= x 1010 x 1.38 x 10-23 x 298 = 6.1686 x 10-11 J = = 3.86 x 108 eV
2 1.6 × 10
−19

In case of silicon 1.09 eV is required to break a covalent bond of electron and hole.
8
3.86 ×10
So the number of free electrons = = 3.54 x 108
1.09
Number of holes = number of electrons = 3.54 x 108

 Extra Questions:
10. What is the applications of transistor as an amplifier?
Ans: Applications of Transistor as an Amplifier
The main application of transistor as an amplifier is in the field of electronics and communication. Following is
the list of these applications:
 Transistor as an amplifier is used in optical fiber communication.
 Since the intensity of the output signal is high, it finds application in long-distance communication.
 The amplification of radio signals is possible because of such amplifiers.
 Amplifiers are used in wireless communication.
 The audio amplification is possible because of the use of amplifiers.

11. What is the applications of transistor as a switch?

Ans: Applications of Transistor as a Switch
Following is the list of applications of transistor as a switch:
 The functioning of LED is the most common example of a transistor as a switch.
 The functioning of the DC motors is controlled by the application of different values to the speed of the
motor which is further used for turning ON and OFF of the motor.
 Light-dependent resistor uses transistors as a switch.

DAWN OF THE MODERN PHYSICS

1. Imagine a world in which speed of light is only 50 m/s. How would the everyday events appear
to us?
Ans: If speed of light c = 50 m/s, then the effect on everyday events appear to will become greater as
compared to the present time.
Explanation: According to Lorentz Transformation, the value of v must be less than c. There would be less
effect on the mass and length of an object moving with v. Moreover there must be more effect on time dilation
as the range b/w v and c has been decreased.
As when c = v, then m = ∞, L=0 and t=∞

It reason is that decreasing the speed of light will increase relativistic factor 1−
√ v2
c
2

2. Some stars are observed to be reddish and some are blue. Which surface has the higher surface
temperature? Explain.
Ans: Blue stars have higher surface temperature than red stars.
Proof: According to Wien’s displacement law, the wavelength of the radiations emitted is inversely
proportional to the absolute temperature of the radiator.
The wavelength of the maximum intensity is given by
1 constant
λmax = constant x =
T T

⇒
constant
T=
λ max
⇒
1
T∝ (OR T∝f)
λmax
This relation show that surface temperature is inversely related to wavelength of light.
As blue light has shorter wavelength than red light, therefore, blue stars have higher surface temperature than
red stars.

3. If the photoelectric effect is observed for one metal, can you conclude that the effect will also be
observed for another metal under the same condition?
Ans: No, photoelectric effect will not be observed for another metal.
Proof: When radiations of wavelength λ are incident on a metal surface of work function Φ,
photoelectric effect will take place only if energy of the incident photons is equal or greater than work function
i.e. hf = Φ
⇒
hf Φ
=
c c
⇒
h Φ
=
λ c
⇒
ch 1 1
λ= = (ch) = (constant)
Φ Φ Φ
⇒
1
λ∝
Φ
This relation shows that work function of a metal is inversely related to wavelength of incident light. That is
why photoelectric effect is different for different metals.

4. Does a light bulb at a temperature of 2500 K produce as white light as the sun at 6000 K?
Ans: No, a light bulb at temperature of 2500 K does not produce as white light as the sun at 6000 K. Its
reason is that the visibility of light depends upon the frequency of light. But brightness of light depends upon
the number of photons or intensity of light.
According to Boltzmann-Stefan’s law (E = δT4), as the temperature increases, the energy of the emitted light
also increases i.e. intensity increases. That is why the sun will have more bright light as compared to a light
bulb at 2500 K.

5. A beam of red light and beam of blue light have exactly the same energy. Which light contains
greater number of photons?
Ans: The beam of red light contains greater number of photons as compared to blue light.
Proof: According to Einstein’s Quantum theory, the energy of ‘n’ number of photons is,
E = nhf …………… (i)

⇒
c
Since c = fλ f= put in (i)
λ
nch
Therefore E=
λ
⇒
λE E
n= =λ( )
ch ch

⇒
As both lights have same energy i.e. E = constant

⇒
n = λ (constant)
n∝λ
This relation shows that number of photons is directly proportional to wavelength of light. As red light has greater
wavelength than blue light, that’s why red light contains greater number of photons.

6. Why must the rest mass of a photon be zero?

Ans: The rest mass of photon is zero i.e. it cannot be at rest means always moving.
Proof: According to Einstein‘s special theory of relativity, we know that
mo
m=
√ 1−
v2
c2
put v = c
 mo
mo mo
m=
√ c = = =∞
2
1− 2 √ 1−1 0
c
The energy possessed by photon also becomes infinite
i.e. E = mc2 = ∞ x c2 = ∞
Since a photon does not possess infinite mass and energy, therefore, it is concluded that the rest mass of
photon must be zero.

7: Why don’t we observe Compton’s Effect with visible light?

Ans: For Compton’s Effect, the incident photon must have high energy and frequency. Compton’s Effect is
observed with X-rays and Gamma rays. The photons of these rays have thousand times greater energy than
visible light.
Since photons of visible light has energy comparable to the binding energy of the electron. It loses all of its
energy in a single interaction with an electron in an atom and is disappeared that causes photoelectric effect.
That is why we don’t observe Compton’s Effect with visible light.

8. If an electron and a proton have the same de-Broglie wavelength, which particle has greater
speed?
Ans: As de-Broglie wavelength for a particle is given by
h
λ=
mv
From this equation it is clear that speed is inversely related to mass if wavelength is constant for both particles
(electron and proton).
1
i.e. v∝
m
Since mass of electron is 1840 times smaller than mass of proton, that is why speed of electron is greater than
proton

9. An electron and a proton are accelerated from rest through the same potential difference.
Which particle has the longer wavelength?
Ans: As de-Broglie wavelength for a particle is given by
h h
λ = =
mv √2 mqV
From this equation it is clear that wavelength is inversely related to mass if P.D is constant for both particles
(electron and proton).
1
i.e. λ∝
√m
Since mass of electron is 1840 times smaller than mass of proton, that is why wavelength of electron is longer
than proton.

10. Why ultraviolet radiation is harmful to skin while visible light is not?
Ans: Ultraviolet are short wavelength radiations having high frequency photons due to which they have
more energy (E = hf). On the other hand, visible light is long wavelength radiation having low frequency as well
as low energy photons.
Due to higher energy, ultraviolet radiations have high penetrating power which causes eye and skin disease including
skin cancer. While visible light has low energy photons which has low penetrating power and hence safe.

ATOMIC SPECTRA

1. Why does the spectrum of hydrogen consist of many lines even though a hydrogen atom has
only a single electron?
Ans: When energy is given to a hydrogen atom, it gets excited. The single electron of hydrogen jumps from
ground level to some higher energy level. Similarly when this atom is de-excited, the electron from higher
energy level returns to ground state by several jumps. Due to this process, spectral lines of different
wavelengths are emitted.
That is why the spectrum of hydrogen consists of many lines even though it has a single electron.

2. Why do solids give rise to continuous spectrum while hot gases give rise to line spectrum?
Ans: Solids give rise to continuous spectrum. Its reason is that solid atoms are packed so tightly even though
their orbits overlap. Therefore, in solids excitation takes place only on heating. After heating, the transition
takes place b/w positive energy states. When the emitted radiations are introduced to a spectrometer, a
regular pattern of wavelengths is shown. This continuum of wavelengths shows continuous spectrum.

3. Can the electron in ground state of hydrogen absorb a photon of energy (a) less than
13.6 eV (b) greater than 13.6 eV?
Ans: Yes, electron in the ground state of hydrogen can absorb photon of energy less or greater than 13.6 eV.
Absorption of photon by an electron is resonance phenomenon.
(a) When a photon of energy less than 13.6 eV but exactly equal to excitation energy is absorbed by
electron, the electron is raised to excited state but soon it returns to the ground state by emitting the photon of
the same energy.
(b) When a photon of energy greater than 13.6 eV is incident on electron, it is absorbed and ionization takes place.
Here 13.6 eV energy is used to eject electron from the atom and set free while extra energy of photon appears as K.E of
electron.

4. Why do the spectral lines in hydrogen atom become closer together farther away from the
nucleus?
Ans: Spectral lines are produced by transitions of electrons within atoms or ions. As the electrons move
closer to or farther from the nucleus of an atom, energy in the form of light is emitted or absorbed. The shorter
the wavelength of the light emitted, the greater its energy.
Hydrogen shows line spectrum. As the distance from the nucleus increases, the energy levels get closer
together and contain more-energetic electrons. As the energy levels get higher, the levels get closer together.
Due to this, spectral lines in hydrogen atom become closer farther away from the nucleus.

5. Why it was necessary to quantize angular momentum in Bohr’s model of the atom?
Ans: According to Bohr's Atomic Model, the angular momentum of electrons orbiting around the nucleus is
quantized. He further added that electrons move only in those orbits where the angular momentum of an electron
h
is an integral multiple of .
2π
Quantization of angular momentum means that the radius of the orbit and the energy will be quantized as well. Thus
angular momentum of electron cannot take place continuous values. It takes only discrete values in allowed energy level.
That is why it was necessary to quantize angular momentum in order to have specific, discrete values.

6. Why X-rays have different properties from light even though both originate from orbital
transition of electrons in excited state?
Ans: X-rays and visible light have similar nature i.e. both are electromagnetic waves. Therefore x-rays
possess similar properties specific to light waves. X-rays can be reflected, refracted, diffracted and polarized
like visible light. But due to short wavelength and high frequency, x-rays have some different properties.
 X-rays is diffracted by crystal while visible light is diffracted by diffraction grating or double slits
experiment.
 X-rays are high energetic waves while visible light is medium energy waves.
 X-rays can penetrate the human body but visible light is not capable of doing that.

7. If the potential difference in an X-rays tube is increased, how does this affect the wavelengths of
(a) bremsstrahlung x-rays (b) characteristic x- rays?
(a) Upon increasing the potential difference applied to X-ray tube,
the energy with which the radiation emitted is more and E = hc/λ increases.
As a result the wavelength (minimum) must decrease.
Therefore, the wavelength of bremsstrahlung x-rays decreases with increase in accelerating potential.
 (b) Upon increasing the potential difference applied to X-rays tube, the wavelength of characteristics x-rays does
not change.
Its reason is that accelerating potential in an X-ray tube can affect the cut-in voltage of the continuous spectrum
but not the characteristic spectrum.

8. Crystal lattice can be examined with x-rays but not UV. Why?
Ans: X-rays are relatively short wavelength electromagnetic radiation and can exhibit wave characteristics
such as interference when interacting with correspondingly small objects.
Wavelengths of ultraviolet are much larger than lattice spacing in crystals such that there is no diffraction. The
Bragg equation implies a value for sinθ greater than unity, which has no solution.
As the wavelength of X-rays are of same order as of interatomic spacing in crystals, it can be used to provide the imagery
of crystal structure.

NUCLEAR PHYSICS

1. Why do heavier nuclei have more neutrons than protons?

Ans: The reason is protons which repel each other. As a heavy nuclei has large number of protons, so there is
a larger repulsive force. The nuclear force is attractive and stronger than the electrostatic force but it has a
finite range.
So there must be extra neutrons to add extra attractive force. This heavy nuclei tends to decay via alpha decay
or spontaneous fission.
Thus heavier the nuclei, the number of proton increases which results in increasing the repulsive forces.
Therefore to keep the atom from falling apart, the number of neutron should be greater than that of proton so
that to have enough attractive force to overcome the repulsive forces.
 2nd Answer:
In terms of quantum mechanical, the proton potential well is not as deep as the neutron well due to the
electrostatic repulsion. [Due to the Pauli Exclusion Principle, you only get two particles per level (spin up and
spin down)].
If one well is filled higher than the other, you tend to get a beta decay to even them out. As the nuclei get larger,
the neutron well gets deeper as compared to the proton well and you get more neutrons than protons.

2. Radium has a half-life of about 1600 years. If the universe was formed five billion or more years
ago, why is there any radium left now?
Ans: The existence of radium in nature is due to these two reasons:
(i) Law of Radioactive Decay i.e. N = No e-λt
This equation shows that for a complete decay of a given radioactive sample, an infinite time is required. Since
the time of the formation of earth is not infinite, no matter how long it is. Therefore Radium still exists in
nature.
If the earth was formed 5 billion (5,000,000,000) or more years ago, there would be 3,125,000 half-lives of
Radium and according to the above equation, there would still be some Radium on the earth.
(ii) Radium is constantly being produced on the earth due to the decay of uranium and thorium and the
amount of Ra is constantly added with. So we can still find the existence of radium element in nature.

3. If we focus our attention on a specific nucleus in a radioactive sample, can we know exactly how
long that nucleus will live before it decays?
Ans: No, we cannot know it exactly.
Radioactive decay is random and measured half-lives are based on the most probable rate. We know that a
nucleus will decay at some point, we just cannot predict when. It could be anywhere b/w instantaneous and the
total age of the universe.
Radioactive decay is a random process. Even if a nucleus is unstable, there is no way to tell whether it will
decay in the next instant or in millions of years.
According to quantum theory, it is impossible to predict when a particular atom will decay, regardless of how
long the atom has existed.
4. Why are neutrons such good projectiles for producing nuclear reactions?
Ans: Neutrons are the best projectiles used in many transmutation processes.
Since neutrons are electrically neutral and are not strongly repelled by the target nuclei, thus high kinetic energy
neutrons are not necessary. These neutrons are sufficiently accelerated by heat and hence called thermal or slow
neutrons which have just enough energy to bind to the target nuclei. A thermal neutron is a free neutron with a
kinetic energy of about 0.025 eV. Most nuclear power plant reactors are thermal reactors which use thermal
neutrons.
Note: Thermal neutrons are produced by slowing down more energetic neutrons in a substance (moderator)
after they have been ejected from atomic nuclei during nuclear reactions (such as fission).

5. Why neutrons activated nuclides tends to decay by β- than β+ ?

Ans: Neutrons activated nuclides tends to decay by β- (electron).
Explanation: Inside a nucleus, nucleons (protons and neutrons) are inter-convertible.
The conversion of proton into neutron emits positron i.e. β+ decay
1 1 0
1 P → 0 N + +1e
And the conversion of neutron into proton emits electron i.e. β- decay.
1 1 0
0 N → 1 P + −1e
The conversion of neutron into proton increases proton number which increases charge number (Z) by 1 while
mass number (A) remains the same because mass of electron is very small.
It should be noted that during neutron activation, neutrons are added to the nuclei which increases neutron to
proton ratio and hence the nuclei tends to decay by β- – emission.
14 14 0
Example: 6 C → 7 N + −1e

6. Why are small and large nuclei unstable?

Ans: Element with A = 50 to 60 are stable where iron (Fe-56) is the most stable.
 Elements with A<56 are unstable because of surface effect.
EB
The decrease in packing fraction ( ) for small nuclei is due to nuclear distance. Surface particle are less
A
tightly bound than nucleons at interior. The smaller the nucleus, the larger the percentage of particles at the
nuclear surface e.g. Hydrogen & Oxygen.
 Elements with A>56 are unstable because of nuclear repulsion.
The decrease in packing fraction for large nuclei is due to large number of protons which causes greater
repulsive force. This repulsion b/w protons opposes the binding effect of nuclear force. This makes large nuclei
unstable e.g. Rn-222 & U-238.

7: Why is a conventional fission nuclear reactor not able to explode as a bomb?

Ans: No, the reactor cannot explode. A nuclear explosion cannot occur because the fuel is not compact
enough to allow an uncontrolled chain reaction. The reactor has a lot of moderators and control rods which
slow down the neutrons before they reach other fissile atoms. Even an uncontrolled reaction would happen too
slowly to cause an explosion.
A thermal explosion cannot occur because the reactor is designed to shut down automatically as temperature
increases (i.e. it has a negative temperature coefficient) and also the system is not under pressure.
Note: A fission nuclear reactor contains a controlled chain reaction while a nuclear bomb is the cause of
uncontrolled chain reaction.

8. Why does the fusion of light nuclei into heavier nuclei release energy?
Ans: Nuclear fusion is a process in which two light nuclei combine to produce a heavier and more stable
nucleus. During this process, matter is not conserved because some of the matter of the fusing nuclei is converted to
photons (energy). This results in release of energy.
The basis of the energy produced in the fusion of light elements is due to the interplay of two competing forces
i.e. the nuclear force that draws protons and neutrons together and the coulomb force that repels each other by
triggering protons.
9. What factors make a fusion reaction difficult to achieve?
Ans: Fusion is the energy of nature powering the stars and making it possible for life to exist on the Earth.
Fusion involves bringing together atoms of lighter elements like hydrogen. Since the nucleus of each atom is
positively charged, there is a natural force that repels the atoms and keeps them from getting close enough to
fuse. The fusion process, therefore, must use extreme temperature and pressure to overcome the forces that
naturally want to repel the atoms and instead push their nuclei together releasing energy.
Nuclear fusion occurs at a high temperature of 105−106 K. Thus, it is difficult to attain such a huge temperature
for making fusion reaction on the earth. It occurs in stars.