IGCSE Physics Revision Notes & Formulas
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khushank23810IGCSE Physics Revision Notes & Formulas
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Powered by AITransverse waves have vibrations that are perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation, such as light waves. Longitudinal waves, like sound, have vibrations parallel to the wave direction. These differences affect how waves transmit energy: transverse waves can only propagate through solids, while longitudinal waves can travel through solids, liquids, and gases. The wave mode determines interaction with the medium's molecular structure and impacts phenomena like polarization .
The speed of sound varies in different media due to differences in density and elasticity. In general, sound travels faster in solids than in liquids, and faster in liquids than in gases, because particles in solids are more closely packed and can transmit vibrations more rapidly. The speed of sound in air is approximately 330 m/s, but it can be significantly higher in water and metals .
Wave diffraction is the spreading of waves when they encounter obstacles, such as slits or edges. The fundamental principle is that waves bend around the edges of an obstacle, and the amount of diffraction increases with longer wavelengths or narrower apertures. This principle explains phenomena such as sound waves bending around corners and water waves spreading after passing through narrow slits .
Newton's third law of motion states that for every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. This means when two objects collide, the force exerted by the first object on the second is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the force exerted by the second object on the first. These forces are equal, though they act on different objects, resulting in changes in their respective accelerations or velocities depending on their masses .
Impulse is the change in momentum, calculated as the product of force and the time duration over which it acts. The relationship, given by the equation Impulse = Force × Time = Change in Momentum, indicates how an applied force over time alters an object's momentum. In car crashes, for example, increasing the time over which the deceleration occurs (e.g., with airbags) reduces the force experienced by passengers, thus lowering injury risk .
The efficiency of an energy conversion system is calculated using the formula Efficiency = (Useful Energy Output / Total Energy Input) × 100%. For example, if a machine transforms kinetic energy into mechanical work with some energy lost as heat, the efficiency would be the ratio of the work done to the initial kinetic energy. This highlights how energy losses, such as friction, impact overall system performance .
Terminal velocity is achieved when the gravitational force acting on a falling object is balanced by the air resistance opposing its motion. At this point, the net force on the object is zero, resulting in no further acceleration and causing it to fall at a constant speed. This illustrates the balance between opposing forces: weight downward and air resistance upward .
The principle of energy conservation dictates that energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transformed. During free fall, gravitational potential energy (GPE) is converted into kinetic energy (KE) as an object descends. As the object's height decreases, its GPE decreases while its velocity and KE increase, maintaining the total mechanical energy if air resistance is neglected .
Conduction is the process of heat transfer through solids where particles vibrate and pass energy to neighboring particles without the substance as a whole moving. Convection, on the other hand, occurs in fluids (liquids and gases) where heated particles move from one place to another, carrying energy with them. While conduction relies on direct contact between particles in solids, convection involves bulk movement of fluid particles that circulate due to changes in density .
Boyle’s Law states that the pressure and volume of a gas are inversely proportional when temperature is held constant. This means if the volume of a gas decreases, its pressure increases, provided the temperature remains the same. A real-world application is in breathing: as the diaphragm contracts, the volume of the thoracic cavity increases, reducing pressure and allowing air to enter the lungs .