Evaluation of initial condition and final condition for RL, RC and

RLC circuit with AC and DC excitations

Chapter 1

Transient behavior and Initial Conditions

1.0.1 Introduction:
Most of the transmission lines, electrical circuits and communication networks are made up of network
elements like resistor R, inductor L, and Capacitor C. These networks are connected by voltage and current
sources. It is most useful to understand the behavior of the network when we switched on the network by
supplying voltage source. It is most important to determine the transient response of R-L, R-C, R-L-C
series circuits for d.c and a.c excitations.
Assuming that at reference time t = 0, the switch in the circuit is closed and also assuming that switch
act in zero time. To differentiate between the time immediately before and immediately after the operation
of a switch, is represented as t = 0− and t = 0+ signs are used. The condition existing just before the switch
is operated will be designated as i(0− ), v(0− ), q(0− ) and the conditions existing after closing of a switch is
designated as as i(0+ ),v(0+ ), q(0+ ). Also initial conditions of a network depend on the past history of the
network prior the closing of the network at t = 0− and the network structure at t = 0+ , after switching.
The evaluation of voltages and currents and their derivatives at t = 0+, are known as initial conditions
and evaluation of condition at t = ∞ are known as final conditions.

The following are the objectives of studying the behavior of the circuit for Initial-Conditions:

• The most important reason is that the initial and final conditions must be known to evaluate the
arbitrary constants that appear in the general solution of a differential equation.

• The initial conditions give knowledge of the behavior of the circuit elements at the instant of switching

• The final conditions give knowledge of the behavior of the circuit elements after the settling of circuit
at t = ∞

1
1.1. Initial Conditions Chapter 1. Transient behavior and Initial Conditions

———————————————————————————————————————-

1.1 Initial Conditions Capacitor

Resistor Consider a circuit which consists of capacitor C

connected as shown in Figure 1.4. The capacitor is
Consider a circuit which consists of resistor R connected by a voltage source V in series with switch
connected as shown in Figure 1.1. The circuit resistor K as shown in Figure 1.4. When the switch K is
R is connected by a voltage source V in series with closed at t=0 capacitor C acts as short circuit and
switch K as shown in Figure. current flows in a capacitor instantaneously.
K K K t 0

V iC C V iC SC
V iR R

Figure 1.4: Capacitor circuit at t = 0+

Figure 1.1: Series resonance circuit
If the capacitor is initially charged with charge
When the switch K is closed at t=0 the current I q0 coulombs at t=0-, then at t=0+ the capacitor is
is flowing in a circuit and is given by equivalent to voltage source v0 = qc0 which is as shown
in Figure 1.5
V
I= K K t  0
R
+
V iC C - q V iC +
v0  o - q
v0  o
Inductor
C C
Consider a circuit which consists of inductor L
connected as shown in Figure ?? (a). The inductor Figure 1.5: Capacitor circuit at t = 0+
L is connected by a voltage source V in series with The final condition of capacitor circuit is derived
switch K as shown in Figure. When the switch K from the following relationship. The voltage across
is closed at t=0 the current flowing in a inductor at capacitor is
t = 0+ is zero, the inductor acts as a open circuit at dv
+
v=C
t = 0 which is as shown in Figure ?? (b). dt
K K t  0 Under steady state condition, rate of change of
capacitor voltage is dvdt = 0. This means, v = 0 and
V iL L V iL O C hence C acts as open circuit at t = ∞. The equivalent
circuits of a capacitor at t = ∞ is as shown in Figure
(a) (b) 1.6
K K t 
Figure 1.2: Inductor circuit
V iC C V iC OC
The final-condition of an inductor circuit is
derived from the following relationship.

di Figure 1.6: Capacitor circuit at t = ∞

v=L If the capacitor is initially charged with voltage v0
dt
then the final condition at t = ∞ of a capacitor
Under steady state condition, rate of change of circuit is replaced with voltage source v0 with open
di
current flowing in inductor is dt = 0. This means, v = circuit which is as shown in Figure 1.7
0 and hence L acts as short at t = ∞. The equivalent
circuits of an inductor at t = ∞ is as shown in Figure dv
v=C
1.3 dt
K t 0 K t 
K K t  q
v0  o
+ C
iL iL + -
V LV SC V iC C iC
- q V
v0  o OC
C

Figure 1.3: Inductor circuit at t = 0+ Figure 1.7: Capacitor circuit at t = ∞

Dr. Manjunatha P Professor Dept of E&CE, JNN College of Engineering, Shivamogga 2

1.1. Initial Conditions Chapter 1. Transient behavior and Initial Conditions

Table 1.1: Initial and Final Conditions

at t=0- at t=0+ at t = ∞
R R R

O. C
L
S.C

L IO IO IO

S.C O. C
C

- C+
O. C
-+
-+
q
q0 V 0
q
V= 0
C C

Procedure for Evaluating Initial Conditions:

1. Before closing or opening the switch at t=0- find the history of the network, at t=0- find i(0-), v(0-),
i.e., current through inductor and voltage across the capacitor before switching

2. Draw the circuit after switching operation at t=0+.

3. Replace inductor with open circuit or by current source having source

q0
4. Replace capacitor with short circuit or with a voltage source vc = c if it has an initial charge q0 .

5. Find i(0+), and v(0+) at t=0+

di di
6. Obtain an expression for dt and find dt at t=0+
d2 i d2 i
7. Obtain an expression for dt2
and find dt2
at t=0+

8. Similarly determine voltages across circuit elements and its derivatives.

Dr. Manjunatha P Professor Dept of E&CE, JNN College of Engineering, Shivamogga 3

1.2. Solutions Chapter 1. Transient behavior and Initial Conditions

1.2 Solutions
di d i 2
Q 1) In the circuit shown in Figure 1.8 the switch K Find the values i, dt and dt +
2 at t = 0 , for element
is closed at t = 0, with capacitor uncharged. Find values as follows V=100 V R = 10 Ω and L = 1 H.
di d2 i +
the values i, dt and dt 2 at t = 0 , for element values K
R
as follows V=100 V R = 1000 Ω and C = 1 µF .
K V i L
R

V i C Figure 1.10: Example

Solution:
Figure 1.8: Example
di
Solution: =V
Ri + L (1.2)
dt
KVL for the given circuit is At t = 0+ the inductor acts as open circuit which is
Z as shown in Figure 1.11
1
Ri +
C
idt = V (1.1) i(0+ ) = 0

K
At t = 0+ the capacitor acts as short circuit which is R
as shown in Figure 1.9
V i (0+ )
Ri(0+ ) = V
V 100
i(0+ ) = = = 0.1A
R 1000 Figure 1.11: Example
From equation 1.2 and substituting initial conditions
R t 0 di
L = V − Ri
i SC
dt
V di +
L (0 ) = V − Ri(0+ ) = 100 − 0
dt
di + V 100
Figure 1.9: Example (0 ) = = = 100A/sec
dt L 1
Differentiating equation 1.1 d2 i + R di + 10
2
(0 ) = − (0 ) = − × 100
dt L dt 1
di i
R + =0 = −1000A/sec2
dt C
Substituting initial conditions Q 3- 2014-JAN) In the circuit shown in Figure 1.12
the switch K is closed at t = 0, with capacitor
di + i(0+ ) uncharged. Find the values of i(0+ ), dt di +
(0 ) and
R (0 ) + = 0 d2 i +
dt C (0 ) for element values as follows, V=10 V R =
dt2
di + i(0+ ) 10 Ω L = 1 H and C = 10 µF and vc (0) = 0.
(0 ) = −
dt RC K L
di + 0.1 R
(0 ) = −
dt 1000 × 1 × 10−6
= −100A/sec V i C
2
d i + 1 di +
(0 ) = − (0 )
dt2 RC dt Figure 1.12: Example
.1
= − (−100)
1000 × 1 × 10−6 Solution:
.1
= − (−100)
Z
di 1
1000 × 1 × 10−6 Ri + L + idt = 0 (1.3)
= 1 × 105 A/sec2 dt C
At t = 0+ the inductor acts as open circuit and
Q 2) In the circuit shown in Figure 1.10 the switch K capacitor acts as short circuit which is as shown in
is closed at t = 0, with zero current in the conductor. Figure 1.13

Dr. Manjunatha P Professor Dept of E&CE, JNN College of Engineering, Shivamogga 4

1.2. Solutions Chapter 1. Transient behavior and Initial Conditions

R Current through inductor cannot change instanta-

neously, i(0+ ) = i(0− ) = 0.1 A, and it is given that
i (0+ ) capacitor is initially uncharged vc (0− ) = 0 and also
V
vc (0+ ) = 0.
S
Figure 1.13: Example a 1000 

i
i(0− ) = i(0+ ) = 0 100 V

Z
di 1
Ri(0 ) + L (0+ ) +
+
i(0+)dt = V Figure 1.15: Example
dt C
di When switch is at position b, and at t = 0+ , the
R × 0 + L (0+) + 0 = V circuit is as shown in Figure 1.16.
dt
di 1000 Ω
L (0+) = V
dt
di V 10 i 1H
(0+) = =
dt L 1
0.1 μ F
= 10A/sec

Differentiating equation 1.3 Figure 1.16: Example

d2 i
Z
di i di 1
R +L 2 + =0 Ri + L + idt = 0 (1.4)
dt dt C dt C
Substituting initial conditions At t = 0+
Z
di + 1
di d2 i i(0+ ) Ri(0+ ) + L (0 ) + i(0+ )dt = 0
R (0+ ) + L 2 (0+ ) + =0 dt C
dt dt C
It is given that capacitor is initially uncharged
Z
1
d2 i + i(0+ ) i(0+ )dt = vc (0+ ) = 0
10 × 10 + L (0 ) + = 0 C
dt2 C
d2 i + −100 −100 di +
(0 ) = = Ri(0+ ) + L (0 ) = 0
dt2 L 1 dt
= −100A/sec2 di
1000 × (0.1) + L (0+ ) = 0
dt
di
L (0+ ) = −100
Q 4) In the circuit shown in Figure 1.14 switch S is dt
changed from position a to b at t = 0. Steady state di + −100
(0 ) =
conditions have been reached at t = 0− . Find the dt 1
di d2 i + with capacitor is = −100 A/sec
values of i, dt and dt2 at t = 0
initially uncharged. Differentiating equation 1.4
a S 1000 Ω
di d2 i i
b R +L 2 + =0
i 1H dt dt C
100 V
0.1 μ F Substituting initial conditions
di + d2 i i(0+ )
Figure 1.14: Example R (0 ) + L 2 (0+ ) + = 0
dt dt C
Solution: d2 i 0.1
1000 × (−100) + 1 2 (0+ ) + = 0
At t = 0− the inductor acts as a short circuit which dt 0.1 × 10−6
is as shown in Figure 1.15. d2 i +
(0 ) = −9 × 105 A/sec2
dt2
Ri(0− ) = V
V 100 Q 4-2 JAN-2014) In the circuit shown in Figure 1.17
i(0− ) = = = 0.1 A switch K is changed from position a to b at t=0,
R 1000

Dr. Manjunatha P Professor Dept of E&CE, JNN College of Engineering, Shivamogga 5

1.2. Solutions Chapter 1. Transient behavior and Initial Conditions

steady state condition having been reached before d2 i +

di d2 i (0 ) = 200 − 2 × 106
switching. Find the values of i, dt and dt2 b at dt2
t = 0+ . = −1.9998 × 106 A/sec2
a k 10 
b
i 1H
20 V
1 F
———-
Q 4-3) In the circuit shown in Figure ?? K is changed
from position a to b at t = 0, steady state condition
Figure 1.17: Example having been reached before switching. Find the
di d2 i +
values of i, dt and dt 2 b at t = 0 .

a k
Solution:
20 
b
When switch is at position a and reached steady
i 2H
40 V
state, which is as shown in Figure 1.18(a).
2 F
Ri(0− ) = V
V 20
i(0− ) = = =2A Figure 1.19: Example
R 10
When the switch is at position b, the circuit is as Solution:
shown in Figure 1.18 (b) Before connecting to position b 1.20(a)
a k 10  10  Ri(0− ) = V

20 V i 1H
V 40
20 V i i(0− ) = = 2 A = i(0+ )
1 F
=
R 20
When switch is at position b,and at t=0+ circuit
(a) (b) which is as shown in Figure 1.20 (b)

Figure 1.18: Example a k 20  20 

i 2H
40 V i
2 F
Z
di 1
Ri + L + idt = 0 (1.5)
dt C
At t = 0+
(a) (b)
Z
di 1
Ri(0+ ) + L (0+) + i(0+ )dt = 0 Figure 1.20: Example
dt C
It is given that capacitor is initially uncharged di 1
Z
Ri + L + idt = 0 (1.6)
dt C
Z
1
i(0+ )dt = vc (0+ )) = 0
C Z
di di 1
Ri(0+ ) + L (0+ ) = 0
+
Ri(0 ) + L (0+ ) + i(0+ )dt = 0
dt dt C
di It is given that capacitor is initially uncharged
10 × 2 + 1 (0+) = 0
dt Z
di + 1
(0 ) = −20 A/sec i(0+ )dt = vc (0+ ) = 0
dt C
Differentiating equation 1.5
di +
di d2 i i Ri(0+ ) + L (0 ) = 0
R +L 2 + =0 dt
dt dt C di
20 × 2 + 2 (0+ ) = 0
Substituting initial conditions dt
di + −40
di + d2 i i(0+ ) (0 ) = = −20 A/sec
R (0 ) + L 2 (0+ ) + = 0 dt 2
dt dt C
Differentiating equation 1.6
d2 i + 2
10 × (−20) + 1 2 (0 ) + = 0
dt 1 × 10−6 di d2 i i
R +L 2 + =0
dt dt C

Dr. Manjunatha P Professor Dept of E&CE, JNN College of Engineering, Shivamogga 6

1.2. Solutions Chapter 1. Transient behavior and Initial Conditions

Z
Substituting initial conditions di + 1
Ri(0+ ) + L (0 ) + i(0+ )dt = 0
dt C
di + d2 i i(0+ ) di
R (0 ) + L 2 (0+ ) + =0 20 × 0 + 1 (0+ ) + 40 = 0
dt dt C dt
di +
d2 i + 2 (0 ) = −40A/sec
20 × (−20) + 2 (0 ) + = 0 dt
dt2 2 × 10−6
d2 i + Differentiating equation 1.7
2 (0 ) = 400 − 1 × 106 = −0.9996 × 106 A/sec2
dt2 di d2 i i
d2 i + −0.9996 × 106 R +L 2 + =0
(0 ) = = −0.4998 × 106 A/sec2 dt dt C
dt2 2
Substituting initial conditions
Q 4-4-1- 2018-JULY) In the circuit shown in Figure
1.21 the switch S is changed from position a to b at di + d2 i i(0+ )
R (0 ) + L 2 (0+ ) + = 0
t = 0, steady state condition having been reached dt dt C
di d2 i d2 i 0
before switching. Find the values of i, dt and dt2 at
20 × (−40) + 1 2 (0+ ) + = 0
t = 0+ . dt C
a S 20 
d2 i +
(0 ) = 800A/sec2
dt2
b
40 V 1 F
1H Q 5) In the circuit shown in Figure 1.27 the switch
was in position a for sufficiently long time to have
Figure 1.21: Example achieved steady state. At t=0, the switch was
changed from a to b. Determine IL and vc their first
Solution:
and second derivatives at t=0+.
When the switch is at position a, and at t = 0− the S 1H
circuit is as shown in Figure 1.21. When the steady b
state is reached, capacitor is fully charged with a a
capacitor voltage vc (0− ) = 40V and current in the 10 V 5V i1 (t )
1 μ F i2 (t ) 1Ω
circuit ic (0− ) = 0.

a S 20  Figure 1.24: Example

Solution:
40 V vc (0- )  40V
When switch is at position a and at t=0- the circuit
is redrawn which is as shown in Figure 1.25
Figure 1.22: Example
At t = 0+
the circuit is redrawn and is as shown in 5V vc (0- ) i2 (t ) 1 
Figure 1.23 (a).
Z
1 Figure 1.25: Example
i(0+ )dt = vc (0+ ) = 40V
C

20  20  5
i1 (0− ) = = 5 A = i1 (0+ )
b b 1
 40V +- 1 F i2 (0− ) = 5 A = i2 (0+ )
i (0 ) i
1H vc (0− ) = 5 V vc (0+ ) = 5 V

(a) (b) When switch is at connected to b, and at t = 0 the

circuit is redrawn which is as shown in Figure 1.26
Figure 1.23: Example
1H
At t > 0+
the circuit is redrawn and is as shown in
Figure 1.23 (b).
Z 10 V i1 (t )
1 μ F i2 (t ) 1Ω
di 1
Ri + L + idt = 0 (1.7)
dt C

Dr. Manjunatha P Professor Dept of E&CE, JNN College of Engineering, Shivamogga 7

1.2. Solutions Chapter 1. Transient behavior and Initial Conditions

Figure 1.26: Example Figure 1.28: Example

di1
1 + vc (t) = 10 (1.8)
dt R2 i(0−) = V
di1 + V
(0 ) = 10 − vc (0+ ) = 10 − 5 = 5A/sec i(0−) =
dt R2

The voltage across capacitor is Also

Z vc (0−) = 0 V vc (0+) = 0 V
1
vc (t) = (i1 − i2 )dt (1.9) When switch is opened at t=0 circuit the voltage
C
across the switch K is
Differentiating above equation.
dvc (t) 1 1 1
Z
= (i1 − i2 ) = (5 − 5) = 0 (1.10) vk = R1 i(t) + idt
dt C C C
Differentiating equation 1.8 V R1
vk (0+) = R1 i(0+) + 0 = R1 =V
d2 i1 1 1 R2 R2
= (i1 − i2 ) = (5 − 5) = 0 (1.11) dvk (t) di i
dt C C = R1 +
dt dt C
Differentiating equation 1.10 dvk (t) 1 1
(0+) = R1 (−1) + = − R1 V /s
d2 vc (t) dt C C
 
1 di1 di2
= −
dt C dt dt Q 7) In the circuit shown in Figure 1.29 the
Substituting initial conditions steady state is reached with switch is open. At
t=0, the switch K is closed. Find the values of
d2 vc (t) +
 
1 di1 + di2 (0+) Va (0−) and Va (0+)
(0 ) = (0 ) −
dt C dt dt
10 Ω
1
= [5 − 0] = 5V /sec2
1 va
vb
10 Ω 20 Ω
Q 6) In the circuit shown in Figure 1.27 the switch 5V 2 μF
is opened at t=0, after the network has attained 10 Ω
the steady state with the switch closed. (a) Find
an expression for the voltage across the switch at
Figure 1.29: Example
t=0+, (b) If the parameters are adjusted such that
di
i(0+)=1A and dt (0+) = −1A/sec, what is the value Solution:
of the derivative of the voltage across the switch.
When switch is opened and when steady state is
K R2 reached capacitor acts as an open circuit there is no
current flows in a capacitor path, which is as shown
in Figure 1.30
V L
R1 C i(t ) 10 Ω

Figure 1.27: Example va

vb
10 Ω 20 Ω
Solution:
5V
When switch is closed attains steady state is in which 10 Ω
L acts as short circuit and capacitor acts as open
circuit which is as shown in Figure 1.28
Figure 1.30: Example
R2
va (0−) = 5 V vb (0−) = 5 V
V L vb is a Voltage across capacitor which is
R1 C i(t )
vb (0−) = 5 V vb (0+) = 5 V

Dr. Manjunatha P Professor Dept of E&CE, JNN College of Engineering, Shivamogga 8

1.2. Solutions Chapter 1. Transient behavior and Initial Conditions

When switch is closed at t=0 apply KCL to node R1 R1

i1 R2 R3 i1 R2 R3
a and by initial conditions V i2 V i2
+ 3.33 A +
L - -
va − 5 va va − vb 66.6 V 66.6 V
+ + = 0
10 10 20 (a) (b)
va (0+) − 5 va (0+) va (0+) − vb (0+)
+ + = 0
10 10 20 Figure 1.32: Example
va (0+) − 5 va (0+) va (0+) − 5
+ + = 0 When switch is closed at t=0 R1 is short circuited.
10 10 20
Inductor acts as current source with a value of 3.33
va (0+) va (0+) va (0+) −5 −5
+ + + + = 0 A and capacitor acts as voltage source with a value
10 10 20 10 20
of 66.67 V which is as shown in Figure 1.32(b).
5va (0+) −15
+ = 0
20 20 100 − 66.67
5va (0+) 15 i2 (0+ ) = = 1.67
= 20
20 20
15 For the inductor branch
va (0+) = = 3V olts
5
Q 8-2019-JAN) In the circuit shown in Figure 1.31 di1
R2 i1 (t) + L = V
the steady state is reached with switch is opened, dt
di (0+)
at t=0 the switch k is closed. Find voltage across 1
L = V − R2 i1 (0+ )
capacitor, initial values of i1 , i2 , didt1 , didt2 at t=0+ dt
di +
di1
and find dt (∞) where V=100V, R1 = 10Ω, R2 = 1 (0 )
1 = 100 − 20 × 3.33
20Ω, R3 = 20Ω, L = 1H, C = 1µF dt
di1 (0+ )
= 33.3A/sec
dt
K
R1 R2 R3 For the capacitor branch
i1
V i2
Z
C 1
L R3 i2 (t) + i2 (t)dt = V
C

Figure 1.31: Example Differentiating we get

Solution: di2 (t) 1

R3 + i2 (t) = 0
When switch is opened and when steady state is dt C
reached capacitor acts as open circuit and inductor di2 (0+ ) 1
R3 + i2 (0+ ) = 0
acts as short circuit which is as shown in Figure dt C
1.32(a). di2 (0+ ) 1
= − i2 (0+ )
dt R3 C
i2 (0− ) = 0A 1
= − 1.678
V 100 20 × 1 × 10−6
i1 (0− ) = = = 3.33A = 83500 A/sec
R1 + R2 30
Voltage across capacitor is same as the voltage across
resistor R2 .
di1 (∞) 100
vc (0− ) = i1 (0− ) × R2 = 3.33 × 20 = 66.67V = = 5A/sec
dt 20

Dr. Manjunatha P Professor Dept of E&CE, JNN College of Engineering, Shivamogga 9

 [Link]

UNIT IV TRANSIENT ANALYSIS

TRANSIENT RESPONSE FOR DC CIRCUITS

1. INTRODUCTION
2. TRANSIENT RESPONSE OF RL CIRCUITS
3. TRANSIENT RESPONSE OF RC CIRCUITS
4. TRANSIENT RESPONSE OF RLC CIRCUITS
5. CHARACTERIZATION OF TWO PORT NETWORKS IN TERMS OF
Z,Y AND H PARAMETERS.

1. INTRODUCTION

et
For higher order differential equation, the number of arbitrary constants

.n
equals the order of the equation. If these unknowns are to be evaluated for
particular solution, other conditions in network must be known. A set of
pz
simultaneous equations must be formed containing general solution and some
other equations to match number of unknown with equations.
ee

We assume that at reference time t=0, network condition is changed by switching

ad

action. Assume that switch operates in zero time. The network conditions at this
instant are called initial conditions in network.
.p

1. Resistor :
w
w
w

Equ 1 is linear and also time dependent. This indicates that current through
resistor changes if applied voltage changes instantaneously. Thus in resistor,
change in current is instantaneous as there is no storage of energy in it.

[Link]:

[Link]
 [Link]

If dc current flows through inductor, dil/dt becomes zero as dc current is constant

with respect to time. Hence voltage across inductor, VL becomes zero. Thus, as
for as dc quantities are considered, in steady stake, inductor acts as short circuit.

We can express inductor current in terms of voltage developed across it as

et
.n
pz
ee
ad
.p
w
w
w

I through inductor cannot change instantaneously.

[Link]

[Link]
 [Link]

If dc voltage is applied to capacitor, dVC / dt becomes zero as dc voltage is

constant with respect to time.

et
Hence the current through capacitor iC becomes zero, Thus as far as dc quantities
are considered capacitor acts as open circuit.

.n
pz
ee
ad
.p
w
w
w

Thus voltage across capacitor can not change instantaneously.

2. TRANSIENT RESPONSE OF RL CIRCUITS:

So far we have considered dc resistive network in which currents and

voltages were independent of time. More specifically, Voltage (cause input)
and current (effect output) responses displayed simultaneously except for a

[Link]
 [Link]

constant multiplicative factor (VR). Two basic passive elements namely,

inductor and capacitor are introduced in the dc network. Automatically, the
question will arise whether or not the methods developed in lesson-3 to lesson-
8 for resistive circuit analysis are still valid. The voltage/current relationship
for these two passive elements are defined by the derivative (voltage across
the inductor

et
.n
pz
ee
ad
.p
w
w
w

Our problem is to study the growth of current in the circuit through two stages,
namely; (i) dc transient response (ii) steady state response of the system

D.C Transients: The behavior of the current and the voltage in the circuit
switch is closed until it reaches its final value is called dc transient response of
the concerned circuit. The response of a circuit (containing resistances,
inductances, capacitors and switches) due to sudden application of voltage or
current is called transient response. The most common instance of a transient
response in a circuit occurs when a switch is turned on or off –a rather common
event in an electric circuit.

[Link]
 [Link]

Growth or Rise of current in R-L circuit

To find the current expression (response) for the circuit shown in fig. 10.6(a),
we can write the KVL equation around the circuit

The table shows how the current i(t) builds up in a R-L circuit.

et
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Consider network shown in fig. the switch k is moved from

position 1 to 2 at reference time t = 0.

Now before switching take place, the capacitor C is fully charged to V

volts and it discharges through resistance R. As time passes, charge and hence
voltage across capacitor i.e. Vc decreases gradually and hence discharge current
also decreases gradually from maximum to zero exponentially.

After switching has taken place, applying kirchoff’s voltage law,

Where VR is voltage across resistor and VC is voltage across capacitor.

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Above equation is linear, homogenous first order differential equation. Hence

rearranging we have,

Integrating both sides of above equation we have

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Now at t = 0, VC =V which is initial condition, substituting in equation we have,
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Where Q is total charge on capacitor

Similarly at any instant, VC = q/c where q is instantaneous charge.

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Thus charge behaves similarly to voltage across capacitor.

Now discharging current i is given by

but VR = VC when there is no source in circuit.

The above expression is nothing but discharge current of capacitor. The variation
of this current with respect to time is shown in fig.

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This shows that the current is exponentially decaying. At point P on the graph.

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The current value is (0.368) times its maximum value. The characteristics of
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decay are determined by values R and C, which are 2 parameters of network.
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For this network, after the instant t = 0, there is no driving voltage source in
circuit, hence it is called undriven RC circuit.
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3. TRANSIENT RESPONSE OF RC CIRCUITS

Ideal and real capacitors: An ideal capacitor has an infinite dielectric

resistance and plates (made of metals) that have zero resistance. However, an
ideal capacitor does not exist as all dielectrics have some

leakage current and all capacitor plates have some resistance. A capacitor’s of
how much charge (current) it will allow to leak through the dielectric medium.
Ideally, a charged

capacitor is not supposed to allow leaking any current through the dielectric
medium and also assumed not to dissipate any power loss in capacitor plates

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resistance. Under this situation, the model as shown in fig. 10.16(a) represents
the ideal capacitor. However, all real or practical capacitor leaks current to
some extend due to leakage resistance of dielectric medium. This leakage
resistance can be visualized as a resistance connected in parallel with the
capacitor and power loss in capacitor plates can be realized with a resistance
connected in series with capacitor. The model of a real capacitor is shown in
fig.

Let us consider a simple series RC−circuit shown in fig. 10.17(a) is connected

through a switch ‘S’ to a constant voltage source .

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The switch ‘S’ is closed at time ‘t=0’ It is assumed that the capacitor is initially
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charged with a voltage and the current flowing through the circuit at any instant
of time ‘’ after closing the switch is
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Current decay in source free series RL circuit: -

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At t = 0- , , switch k is kept at position ‘a’ for very long time. Thus, the network
is in steady state. Initial current through inductor is given as,

Because current through inductor can not change instantaneously

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Assume that at t = 0 switch k is moved to position 'b'.

Applying KVL,

Rearranging the terms in above equation by separating variables

Integrating both sides with respect to corresponding variables

Where k’ is constant of integration.

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To find- k’:

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Form equation 1, at t=0, i=I0
Substituting the values in equation 3
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Substituting value of k’ from equation 4 in

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fig. shows variation of current i with respect to time

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From the graph, H is clear that current is exponentially decaying. At point P

on graph. The current value is (0.363) times its maximum value. The
characteristics of decay are determined by values R and L which are two
parameters of network.
The voltage across inductor is given by

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4. TRANSIENT RESPONSE OF RLC CIRCUITS

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In the preceding lesson, our discussion focused extensively on dc circuits having

resistances with either inductor () or capacitor () (i.e., single storage element) but
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not both. Dynamic response of such first order system has been studied and
discussed in detail. The presence of resistance, inductance, and capacitance in the
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dc circuit introduces at least a second order differential equation or by two

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simultaneous coupled linear first order differential equations. We shall see in next
section that the complexity of analysis of second order circuits increases
significantly when compared with that encountered with first order circuits. Initial
conditions for the circuit variables and their derivatives play an important role
and this is very crucial to analyze a second order dynamic system.

Response of a series R-L-C circuit

Consider a series RLcircuit as shown in fig.11.1, and it is excited with a dc
voltage source C−−sV.
Applying around the closed path for ,

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The current through the capacitor can be written as Substituting the current
‘’expression in eq.(11.1) and rearranging the terms,

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The above equation is a 2nd-order linear differential equation and the parameters
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associated with the differential equation are constant with time. The complete
solution of the above differential equation has two components; the transient
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response and the steady state response. Mathematically, one can write the
complete solution as
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Since the system is linear, the nature of steady state response is same as that of
forcing function (input voltage) and it is given by a constant value. Now, the first
part of the total response is completely dies out with time while and it is defined
as a transient or natural response of the system. The natural or transient response

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(see Appendix in Lesson-10) of second order differential equation can be

obtained from the homogeneous equation (i.e., from force free system) that is
expressed by

and solving the roots of this equation (11.5) on that associated with transient part
of the complete solution (eq.11.3) and they are given below.

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The roots of the characteristic equation are classified in three groups
depending upon the values of the parameters ,,RLand of the circuit
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Case-A (overdamped response): That the roots are distinct with negative real
parts. Under this situation, the natural or transient part of the complete solution is
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written as
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and each term of the above expression decays exponentially and ultimately
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reduces to zero as and it is termed as overdamped response of input free system.

A system that is overdamped responds slowly to any change in excitation. It may
be noted that the exponential term t→∞11tAeαtakes longer time to decay
its value to zero than the term21tAeα. One can introduce a factorξ that provides
an information about the speed of system response and it is defined by damping
ratio

RLC Circuit:

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Consider a circuit in which R, L, and C are connected in series with each
other across ac supply as shown in fig.
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The ac supply is given by, V = Vm sin wt

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The circuit draws a current I. Due to that different voltage drops are,
1. Voltage drop across Resistance R is VR = IR
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2. Voltage drop across Inductance L is VL = IXL

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3. Voltage drop across Capacitance C is Vc = IXc The characteristics of

three drops are,
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(i) VR is in phase with current I

(ii) VL leads I by 900

(iii) Vc lags I by 900
According to krichoff’s laws

Steps to draw phasor diagram:

1. Take current I as reference
2. VR is in phase with current I

3. VL leads current by 900

4. Vc lags current by 900

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5. obtain resultant of VL and Vc. Both VL and Vc are in phase opposition

(1800 out of phase)

6. Add that with VRby law of parallelogram to get supply voltage.

The phasor diagram depends on the condition of magnitude of VL and Vc

which ultimately depends on values of XL and Xc.
Let us consider different cases:
Case(i): XL > Xc
When X L > Xc
Also VL > Vc (or) IXL > IXc
So, resultant of VL and Vc will directed towards VL i.e. leading current I.
Hence I lags V i.e. current I will lags the resultant of VL and Vc i.e. (V L -
Vc). The circuit is said to be inductive in nature.
From voltage triangle,

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If , V = Vm Sin wt ; i = Im Sin (wt - ф )
i.e I lags V by angle ф
Case(ii): XL < Xc
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When XL < Xc
Also VL < Vc (or) IXL < IXc
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Hence the resultant of VL and Vc will directed towards Vc i.e current is said
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to be capacitive in nature
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Form voltage triangle

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i.e I lags V by angle ф

Case(iii): XL = Xc
When XL = Xc
Also VL = Vc (or) IXL = IXc

So VL and Vc cancel each other and the resultant is zero. So V = VR in such

a case, the circuit is purely resistive in nature.

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Impedance:

In general for RLC series circuit impedance is given by, Z = R + j X

X = XL –Xc = Total reactance of the circuit
If XL > Xc ; X is positive & circuit is Inductive
If XL < Xc ; X is negative & circuit is Capacitive
If XL = Xc ; X =0 & circuit is purely Resistive
Tan фL - =Xc[(X)∕R]
Cos ф = [R∕Z]
Z = 2 √+(X L(R-Xc ) 2)
Impedance triangle:
In both cases R = Z Cos ф

X = Z Sin ф

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Power and power triangle:
The average power consumed by circuit is,
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Pavg = (Average power consumed by R) + (Average power
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consumed by L) + (Average power consumed by C)

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Pavg = Power taken by R = I2R = I(IR) = VI

V = V Cos ф P = VI Cos ф
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Thus, for any condition, XL > Xc or XL < Xc General power can be expressed
as
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P = Voltage x Component in phase with voltage

Power triangle:
S = Apparent power = I2Z = VI

P = Real or True power = VI Cos ф = Active po Q = Reactive power = VI Sin ф

5. CHARACTERIZATION OF TWO PORT NETWORKS IN TERMS OF

Z,Y AND H PARAMETERS.

The purpose of this appendix is to study methods of characterizing and analyzing

two-port networks. A port is a terminal pair where energy can be supplied or
extracted. A two-port network is a four-terminal circuit in which the terminals
are paired to form an input port and an output port. Figure W2–1 shows the

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customary way of defining the port voltages and currents. Note that the reference
marks for the port variables comply with the passive sign convention.

The linear circuit connecting the two ports is

Assumed to be in the zero state and to be free of any independent sources. In

other words, there is no initial energy stored in the circuit and the box in Figure
W2–1 contains only resistors, capacitors, inductors, mutual inductance, and
dependent sources. A four-terminal network qualifies as a two-port if the net
current entering each terminal pair is zero. This means that the current exiting the
lower port terminals in Figure W2–1 must be equal to the currents entering the
upper terminals.

One way to meet this condition is to always connect external sources and loads
between the input terminal pair or between the output terminal pair. The first task

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is to identify circuit parameters that characterize a two-port. In the two port

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approach the only available variables are the port voltages V1 and V2, and the
port currents I1 and I2. A set of two-port parameters is defined by expressing two
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of these four-port variables in terms of the other two variables. In this appendix
we study the four ways in Table W2–1.
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TWO-PORT PARAMETERS

Note that each set of parameters is defined by two equations, one for each
of the two dependent port variables. Each equation involves a sum of two terms,
one for each of the two independent port variables. Each term involves a
proportionality because the two-port is a linear circuit and superposition applies.
The names given the parameters indicate their dimensions (impedance and

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