METALS:
FERROUS
NON-FERROUS
TYPES OF METALS
FERROUS METALS
Iron, which contains no trace amount of carbon, is soft, easily worked, oxidizes rapidly, but is
susceptible to most acids. It is the main element in steel.
Cast iron and gray cast iron are brittle metals with high compressive strength and capacity to
absorb vibration.
Malleable iron, often used for the same purposes, is a low carbon iron that is cast, reheated and
slowly cooled, or annealed, to improve its workability.
Wrought iron is soft, corrosion and fatigue resistant, and machinable. Because of its corrosion
resistance, wrought iron until recently was used grade applications. It often is cast or worked
into bars, sheets or pipes.
Steel is iron with low to medium amounts of carbon; carbon content is the measure used to
categorize carbon steel. Great carbon content increases strength and hardness but reduces
ductility and welding capability.
Steel alloys are produced when other elements are combined with carbon steel to modify steel
properties. For example, high strength, low alloy steels (hsla) improve corrosion resistance and
are chosen where weight is a consideration and high strength is required.
BELOW ARE A NUMBER OF MODIFYING ALLOY ELEMENTS:
1. Aluminum for surface hardening.
2. Chromium for corrosion resistance.
3. Copper for resistance to atmospheric corrosion.
4. Manganese in small amounts for hardening; in larger amount for wear resistance.
5. Molybdenum, combined with other alloying metals such as chromium and nickel.
6. Nickel increase tensile strength without reducing ductility.
7. Silicon to strengthen low-alloy steels and improve oxidation resistance; in larger amounts
to provide hard, brittle castings resistant to corrosive chemicals.
8. Sulfur for free machining.
9. Titanium to prevent intergranular corrosion of stainless steel.
10. Tungsten, vanadium and cobalt for hardness and abrasion resistance.
STEEL PRODUCTS:
• Rolled structural shapes
• Sheet piling- sections are made to interlock and are avilable in several shape
• Steel pipe- seamless or welded small diameter pipe and electrically welded large
diameter pipe.
• Reinforcing steel- made from new steel or from discarded railway-car axles or rails
Sizes start with n0.2 or ¼ (divide a number of bars by 8 to get the equivalent in inch diameter.
SIZES START WITH N0.2 OR ¼ (DIVIDE A NUMBER OF BAR BY 8 TO GET THE EQUIVALENT IN
INCH DIAMETER.
NO.2= ¼” = 6mm
NO.3= 3/8” = 10mm
NO.4= ½” = 12mm
NO.5= 5/8” = 16mm
NO.6= ¾” = 20mm
NO.7= 7/8” = 22mm
No.8= 1” = 25mm
no.9= 1 1/8” = 30mm
• WELDED WIRE FABRIC- another type of reinforcing material. It consists of parallel,
longitudinal wires wedlded to transverse wires at regular intervals.
• STEEL WIRE- over 150,000 uses for wire including pins, needles, nails, bolts cables, piano
wire, fences
• BOLTS AND NUTS- for bolts, wire is fed into an automatic bolt-making machine which
cuts to length heads, trims, points and in many rolls thread.
• STEEL STRAPPING- made from high-tensile flat wire in a number of sizes.
• OPEN WEB STEEL JOISTS- lightweight warren-type trusses made in several different
styles.
• SHEET STEEL- black and galvanized, ca be used to manufacture corrugated roofing and
sidining.
• STEEL STUDS- lightweight, requiring minimum storage space and does not warp or
shrink. Fasteners do not pop and joints stay closed much faster to install than wood stud
installation.
• PANS AND DONES- manufactured for use in forming one-way and two-way ribbed
concrete floor systems.
NON-FERROUS METAL- used in construction are:
• ALUMINUM- high purity aluminum is soft and ductile, highly corrosion resistant but
lacking strength.
• LEAD- extremely dense metal, easily worked, and corrosive resitant.
• ZINC- although corrosion resistant in water and air, is brittle and low in strength.
• CHROMIUM AND NICKEL- are also used primarily as alloying elements.
MONEL- a nickel-copper alloy, most commonly is used to make fasteners and anchors, and is
excellent where high corrosion resistance is required.
COPPER- is resistant to corrosion, impact and fatigue, yet it is ductile.
BRONZE- originally was a copper-tin alloy; however, today copper is alloyed with various
elements such as aluminum and silicon.
BRASS- is copper with zinc as its principal alloying element; however, some types of brass alloy
often as called bronze
TIN- lustrous white, soft and malleable metal having a low melting point; relatively unaffected
by exposure to air; used for making alloys and solder and in coating sheet metal.
Aluminum foil- uses as a vapor barrier on walls and ceilings and as reflective insulation.
STRUCTURAL SHAPES
the most common shapes of structural steel used in building construction are the
American standard forms such as:
1. Square bars- 6. I-beams
2. Round bars 7. Tee beam
3. Plate bars 8. H-column
4. Angle bars 9. Wide flanges
5. Channels 10. Zee
STANDARD CHANNEL
The standard channel has the shape of unsymmetrical balance consisting of two flanges
on one side. The channel section is identified as c 15 x 20 which means that the channel has
depth of 20cm and weights 15 kg per meter length.
WIDE FLANGE
Wide flange sections are designated as w 12 x 24 which means that the flange has a
depth of 24 cm and it weights 12 kg per meter length.
STANDARD I-BEAM
The use of i-beam as a column is uneconomical, because the whirl or revolving action of
the structure about an axis through the centroid parallel to the web of the beam is
comparatively small.
H-BEARING PILES
H-bearing piles although suitable for pile driving on deep excavations is much more
suitable than the i-beam for columns.
ZEE SECTIONS
The zee section is another structural form in a letter z which is not frequent used in
building construction except on the fabrication of steel windows and other frames.
STRUCTURAL WELDING/ JOINING STEEL MEMBERS
FILLET WELD JOINTS- join two surfaces approximately at right angles to each other in lap, tee
and
JOINING STEEL MEMBERS
* RIVETS- is a fastener consisting of a cylindrical body and a formed head which is
brought to a heat, inserted through holes in the members to be joined.
FILLET WELD NOMENCLATURE
The length of a fillet weld is the distance from end-to-end of the full-size fillet.
DOUBLE FILLET WELD DOUBLE-BEVEL GROOVE WELD
Single-bevel groove weld with back-up bar V-GROOVE WELD
V-GROOVE WELD WITH BACK-UP BAR PUDDLE WELD
PARTIAL PENETRATION
SINGLE-BEVEL GROOVE WELD
BOLTS- COMMONLY USED IN STEEL FRAME CONSTRUCTION FALL INTO TWO GENERAL
CATEGORIES:
1. CARBON STEEL BOLTS- or common bolts are similar to the ordinary machine bolts that
can be purchased in hardware stores.
2. HIGH STRENGTH BOLTS- are heat treated during manufacture to develop the necessary
strength.
GLASS AND GLAZING
GLASS
The major ingredient of glass is sand (silicon dioxide). A hard-brittle inorganic substance,
ordinarily transparent or translucent; produced by melting of silica, a flux and a stabilizer; while
molten maybe blown, drawn, rolled, pressed or cast to a variety of shapes.
during its manufactured, ordinary window glass is annealed, cooled slowly
under controlled condition, to avoid locked-in thermal stresses that might cause it to behave
unpredictably in use.
THICKNESS OF GLASS
GLASS IS TYPICALLY MANUFACTURED IN A SERIES OF THICKNESS RANGING
FROM APPROXIMATELY 2.5mm, THROUGH 3mm, IS CALLED SINGLE-STRENGTH, OR 6mm TO
22mm, IS CALLED DOUBLE-STRENGTH, AND ON SPECIAL ORDER, 25mm IS AVAILABLE
TYPES OF CLEAR GLASS
1. GLASS-
Tempered glass is produced by cutting annealed glass to the required sizes for use,
reheating it to approximately 1200 degrees Fahrenheit, cooling both its surfaces rapidly with a
blast of air while its core cools much more slowly.
2. HEAT-STRENGTH GLASS
The heat-strengthened process is similar to tempering, but it’s about one-third
as high as tempered glass in terms of bending and strength.
3. LAMINATED GLASS
It is made by sandwiching a transparent vinyl interlayer between sheets of galss and bonding
the three layers together under heat and pressure when its breaks. The soft vinyl holds the
shards of glass in place rather than allowing them to fall out of the frame.
4. PATTERNED OR ROLLED AND ROUGH CAST GLASS
Hot glass can be rolled into sheets with many different surface patterns for use
where light transmission is desired but vision must be obscured for privacy
PATTERNED OR ROLLED AND ROUGH CAST GLASS
5. SPANDREL GLASS
Special opaque glasses are produced for covering the spandrel area in glass
curtain. It is usually tempered or heat-strengthened to resist the thermal stresses
that can caused by accumulations of solar heat behind the spandrel.
6. WIRED GLASS
Simply a rolled glass into which wire mesh is inserted during the process of
manufacture. The wire greatly increases the resistance to shattering through impact. Its use for
safety glazing, especially during the warm part of the year.
TINTED AND REFLECTED COATED GLASS
1. TINTED GLASS
Tinted glass is made by adding small amounts of selected chemical elements to the molten
glass mixture to produce the desired hue and intensity of color in grays, bronzes, blues, green
and golds.
TINTED AND REFLECTED COATED GLASS
2. REFLECTIVE COATED GLASS
reflective coated glass appears as mirror from the outside on a bright day and at night, with
lights on inside the building, they appear as dark but transparent.
INSULATING GLASS
a second sheet of glass applied to a window with an airspace between the sheets cuts this
rate of heat loss in half. Two kinds of edges seals are fused glass edges and a metal spline
and organic sealant.
SECTION OF INSULATING GLASS
GLASS PRODUCTS
1. GLASS BLOCKS-
Comparable in many ways to unit masonry but have the added feature of transmitting light.
They are made into two separate halves, which are heat-sealed together from to form a hallow
unit with reasonably high thermal efficiency and sound insulation.
TWO TYPES OF GLASS BLOCKS
1. FUNCTIONAL BLOCKS- direct or diffuse the daylight which passes through them to
improve the illumination on the building interior.
THREE STYLES OF FUNCTIONAL GLASS BLOCKS:
a.) LIGHT DIRECTING BLOCK- directs incoming light upward toward the ceiling.
b.) A LIGHT DIFFUSING BLOCK- diffuses incoming light evenly throughout the interior of the
room.
c.) DECORATIVELY OR ARCHITECCTURAL GLASS- available in a wide range of styles and
patterns.
GLASS BLOCKS DESIGN
CONCRETE AND CONCRETE PRODUCTS
CEMENT
REINFORCED CONCRETE
consists of concrete and reinforcing steel; the concrete resists the
compressive stresses and the reinforcing steel resists the tensile stresses.
CONCRETE is a mixture of hydraulic cement (usually portland
cement), aggregates, admixture and water. the concrete strength develops
by the hydration of the portland cement, which binds the
aggregate together.
TYPES OF CEMENT
TYPE I is a general-purpose cement for all uses. it is commonly
used type.
TYPE II cement provides moderate protection from sulfate
attack for concrete in drainage structures and a lower heat
of hydration for concrete use in heavy retaining walls, piers,
and abutments where heat buildup in the concrete can cause
problems.
TYPE III cement provides high strengths at an early age, a
week or less.
TYPE IV cement has a low heat of hydration and is used for
massive concrete structures such as gravity dams.
TYPE V cement is sulfate-resisting cement for use where soil
and groundwater have high sulfate content.
POZZOLANS such as fly ash can be used to reduce the amount
in a concrete mix.
ADMIXTURES
admixture are various compounds, other than cement, water and
aggregates, added to a mixture to modify the fresh or hardened properties of
concrete.
AGGREGATES
the aggregates portion of a concrete mix is divided into fine and coarse
aggregates. the fine aggregate generally is sand particles less than 3/8 in
large.
THE COARSE AGGREGATES is crushed rock and gravel. concrete weighs
135 pcf to pcf. lightweight aggregate is manufactured from expanded
shale, slate, clay or slag and the concrete weighs from 85 pcf to 115 pcf.
REINFORCING STEEL
manufactured as round rods with raised deformations for adhesion and
resistance to slip in the concrete, is available in several grades (yield
strength) and diameters manufactured in astym standards.
SLUMP TEST
The astm standard slump cone test is to determine only the
consistency among batches of concrete of the
Same mix design it should not be used to compare
mixes of great different mixproportions. A slump
test mols is a funnel-shaped
Sheet metal form.
CYLINDER TEST
A major problem with concrete tests is that the most
important data, the compressive strength, cannot
Be determined until after curing has begun. This
Occasionally has caused the removal of deficient
Concrete several weeks after it was placed.
COMPRESSION TEST
A test for determining the compressive strength of a
Concrete batch, using hydraulic press to measure the
Maximum load a test cylinder can support in axial
compression before fracture.
CORE TEST
A compression test of a cylinder cut from a hardened
Concrete structure, usually by means of a core drill.
CAST-IN-PLACE CONCRETE
concrete deposited, formed, cured and finished in its final
Position as part of a structure.
PRECAST CONCRETE
is a construction product produced by casting concrete in a reusable mold or
"form" which is then cured in a controlled environment, transported to the
construction site and lifted into place ("tilt up"). In contrast, cast-in-place
concrete is poured into site-specific forms and cured on site. Precast stone is
distinguished from precast concrete using a fine aggregate in the mixture, so
the final product approaches the appearance of naturally occurring rock or
stone.
CONCRETE PLACEMENT
The process of depositing and consolidating freshly mixed concrete in
a form or in the final position where it is to harden. Concrete should be
placed in horizontal layers of uniform thickness; each layer being thoroughly
consolidated before the next layer is positioned.
DIRECT PLACEMENT
the discharging of freshly mixed concrete directly into a form from a
concrete mixer, buggy or crane.
FREE FALL
the descent of freshly mixed concrete into a form without
the aid of a drop chute.
DROP CHUTE
A chute for containing and directing a falling stream
Of freshly mixed concrete so as not to cause segregation.
SPADING
Consolidation of newly placed concrete by the repeated insertions and
withdrawals of a flat, spadelike tool.
RODDING
Consolidation of newly placed concrete by the repeated insertions and
withdrawals of a rod.
TIME OF HAUL
The period from first contact between mixing water and cement to
completion of discharge of the freshly mixed concrete from a truck mixer.
PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE
Concrete design strength generally is stated as a minimum compressive
strength at 28 days of age for concrete in various structural elements.
The typical design mix for 3,000psi concrete would have 517 lb. Of cement
(5 ½ sacks), 1300 lb of sand, 1800 lb of gravel, and of gravel and 34 of water
(6.2 gal per sack) which would yield one c.u. Yard of concrete, the standard
unit of measure.
CURING AND PROTECTION
Proper curing is essential to obtain design strength, moisture, at temperature
above 50degrees Fahrenheit, must be available for hydration, and the
concrete must be protected against temperatures below 40deg f. During
early curing.
HOT AND COLD WEATHER CONSTRUCTION
Additional precautions are needed in hot and cold weather to ensure proper
curing of the concrete. High temperatures accelerate hardening. More water
is needed to maintain the mix consistency; more cement is required to
prevent reduced strength from added water.
DEFINITIONS (CONCRETE)
Form liner- material for lining to the inside of a form, especially selected to
impart a smooth or patterned finish to the concrete surface.
RELEASED AGENT- any of a material, as soil or silicone for preventing the
bonding of concrete to a surface.
BULKHEAD- a partition closing the end of a from or preventing the passage
of newly place concrete at a construction joint.
KEYWAY- a longitudinal groove or channel formed in a concrete footing or
other member that has set, providing a shear-resisting key for newly placed
concrete.
YOKE- a clamping device for keeping column forms or the tops of wall forms
from spreading under the fluid pressure of newly placed concrete.
FORMWORK – THE TEMPORARY STRUCTURE REQUIRED TO SUPPORT NEWLY
PLACED CONCRETE, INCLUDING THE FORMS AND ALL NECESSARY
SUPPORTING MEMBERS, BRACING AND HARDWARE.
FORM- BOARDING OR SHEETING OF WOOD, METAL, PLASTIC OR
FIBERGLASSFOR CONTAINING AND GIVING A DESIRED SHAPE.
FORM TIE- A FORM TIE HAVING NOTCHES OR CRIMPS WHICH ALLOW ITS
ENDS TO BE SNAPPED OFF BELOW THE CONCRETE SURFACE AFTER
STRIPPING OF THE FORMS.
AGITATOR TRUCK. CONCRETE MIXER
BUGGY PNEUMATIC
PLACEMENT
GUNITE TROWEL
PAVEMENT SAW
CONCRETE AND CONCRETE PRODUCTS
CEMENT
MASONRY
INTRODUCTION
masonry system considered in division 4. Masonry, consist of clay masonry,
both bricks and clay tile; concrete masonry both brick and concrete masonry
and concrete masonry units; glass blocks; terra-cotta; adobe and stone work
masonry systems are durable, weather resistant construction systems that
may be structural, provide fire protection and thermal support, resist sound
penetration and reduce noise levels.
BRICK MASONRY
to make a rigid wall of brick, individual bricks are laid together in horizontal
layers or coarsest. The bricks bound together by a cementing material.
The mason spreads a layer of mortar with a wide, flat trowel. He then sets
the bricks on the mortar pressing them down lightly.
PROPERTIES OF MASONRY WALLS
• WALL TYPE #1- 6” hallow clay masonry (5 5/8”) in 67% solid, 130 pcf
density.
• WALL TYPE # 2- 8” hallow concrete masonry (7 5/8”), in 53% solid,
135 pcf density.
• WALL TYPE # 3- 8” fully grouted concrete masonry (7 5/8”), 53% solid,
135 pcf density for concrete and grout.
• WALL TYPE # 4- 4” solid clay masonry and 4” hallow concrete masonry
with full collar joint (3 5/8”-3/4-3 5/8”)
• WALL TYPE #5- 4” solid clay masonry and 4” hallow concrete masonry
with full collar joint; it is 64% solid; 135 pcf density for clay masonry,
colalr joint grout, and concrete masonry.
• WALL TYPE # 6- 4” solid clay masonry with nominal 2” cavity; concrete
masonry is 64% solid; 135 pcf density for clay masonry, collar joint
grout and concrete masonry.
• WALL TYPE # 7- 4” solid masonry; 135 pcf density with lightweight
framing.
THERE ARE DIFFERENT KINDS OF SIZES AND PATTERNS OF LOCALLY
AVAILABLE MATERIALS CLASSIFIED UNDER MASONRY. THREE KINDS
ARE AS FOLLOWS:
FIRE RESISTANCE
Fire-safe building design is a balanced approach that includes compart
mentation (fire containment), automatic detection and automatic
suppression. Non-combustible masonry walls do not contribute to the fuel
load, nor are they consumed by fire.
THERMAL RESISTANCE
Energy efficient can be easily achieved with masonry construction. Masonry
wall systems accommodate interior insulation, integral insulation or exterior
insulation for maximum design flexibility.
ACOUSTIC PERFORMANCE
Masonry is one of the most effective materials for controlling sound. The
excellent sound insulation offered by the mass masonry is expressed in
terms of sound transmission class (stc) ratings.
STRUCTURAL PERFORMANCE
Masonry provides excellent structural performance in resisting both vertical
and lateral loads. The inherent strength and stiffness of the load bearing
masonry system limits both structural and non-structural damage even
under extreme loading events.
ECONOMY
Masonry construction can be inexpensive. Its life-cycle cost is very good
based on its relatively long life and low maintenance and energy costs
MORTAR AND GROUT
mortar and grout are the cementitious bonding agents that integrate
masonry units into masonry assemblages. Because concrete, masonry
mortar and grout contain the same principal ingredients, some designers
assume what is good practice for one will also be good practice for another.
Mortar and grout structurally bind masonry units together, whereas concrete
is usually itself a structural material.
MORTAR
GROUT