Cell Cycle • The time it takes to complete one cell

cycle is the generation time.

It is the series of events that take place in a cell
leading to its division and duplication. It is the Further Information
process by which a cell grows, replicates its
DNA, and divides into 2 daughter cells. It is the • Cells divide when they reach a certain
sequence of cell growth and division. size.
o Nerve, skeletal, muscle, and red
• Why animals grow to be big. blood cells do not divide.
• Why animals shed their skin. • Cell division involves mitosis or
(Molting/Ecdysis) meiosis, and cytokinesis.
• Mitosis or Meiosis involves the division
Stages of the Cell Cycle
of chromosomes.
• Cytokinesis refers to the division of the
cytoplasm.
• Karyokinesis refers tot the division of
the nucleus.
• Mitosis without cytokinesis results in
multinucleate cells.

Cell Division

• All cells are derived from pre-existing

cells.
• New cells are produced for growth and
to replace damaged or old cells.
• Cell Division is different for prokaryotes
(bacteria) who undergo binary fission,
and eukaryotes (Protist, Fungi, Plants,
Animals) who undergo the meiosis
and/or mitosis.
• It is necessary for reproduction of
unicellular or multicellular organisms.

Prokaryotes

• Lack a nucleus.
• A single circular chromosome.
1. Interphase (G1, S, G2) • Divide via Binary Fission.
2. Mitosis (PMAT – Prophase, Metaphase,
Anaphase, Telophase) Eukaryotes
3. Cytokinesis • Must divide their nucleus and other
Why do Cells Divide? organelles in preparation for cell
division.
They divide for growth, repair, and • Before nuclear division, genetic
reproduction. material replicates.
Other Definitions of Cell Cycle Mitosis

• The period from the beginning of one Mitotic division results in genetically identical
division, to the beginning of the next. eukaryotic cells (a clone).
Mitosis is the basis of asexual reproduction. 2. Centromere – joins the chromatids
together. The point where sister
It is simply the division of somatic (body) cells. chromatids are joined together.
Meiosis 3. P arm – otherwise known as the short
arm; upwards.
It results in the halving of the chromosome 4. Q arm – otherwise known as the long
number in preparation for fertilization. arm; downward.
5. Telomere – tips of the chromosome.
Meiosis shuffles genes in new combinations.
Karyotype
Meiosis results in genetically different cells.
• Picture of an individual’s
Meiosis and fertilization are the basis of sexual
chromosomes.
reproduction.
o Identify sex and
It is simply the division of gametes (sex cells). chromosome defects.
• Final pair identifies sex.
Terminologies o Same Size: XX = Female
o Different Size: XY = Male
• Chromatin – thin fibrous form of DNA
and proteins • A normal human will have 46
chromosomes
• Sister Chromatids – identical
structures that result from Chromosome Segregation in Prokaryotes
chromosome replication, formed
during the S phase. • Reproduce by a type of cell division
• Chromosomes – tightly coiled called binary fission.
strands of DNA. • The bacterial chromosome replicate.
• Diploid (somatic) cells contain the • The two daughter chromosomes
entire set of chromosomes. actively move apart.
• Haploid (gametes) cells contain only
half of the total number of
chromosomes.
• Cell Cycle – sequence of phases in
the life cycle of the cell.

Anatomy of a Chromosome
Two Parts of the Cell Cycle

1. Growth and Preparation (Interphase)

• Occurs between divisions.
• Longest part of the cycle
• 3 Stages (G1, S, G2)
o G1 (Gap 1) Phase – cell
grows in size, and
synthesizes proteins and
organelles. The cell is
recovering from mitosis.
o S (Synthesis) Phase –
1. Chromatids – two identical parts of a
DNA Replication occurs.
chromosome.
o G2 (Gap 2) Phase – the
cell continues to grow
 and prepare for mitosis. The Cell Cycle Control System (Internal)
Organelles are
replicated and more The sequential events of the cell cycle are
growth occurs. directed by a distinct cycle control system
o Interphase before similar to a clock.
Mitosis – DNA is The clock has specific checkpoints where the
replicated along with cell cycle stops until a go-ahead signal is
other organelles and received.
cellular components.
The cell prepares for Two types of regulatory proteins involved:
division.
• Cyclins
2. Cell Division o a family of proteins that fluctuate
in concentration throughout the
a. Mitosis (Nuclear Division)
i. Prophase – chromatin cell cycle. There are different
types of cyclins, each associated
condenses into
with a specific phase of the cell
chromosomes, nuclear
cycle. The levels of cyclins rise
envelope breaks down,
and fall at specific times, helping
and mitotic spindle begins
to control the progression of the
to form.
cell cycle.
ii. Metaphase -
chromosomes align at the • Cyclin-dependent kinases (CDK)
cell’s equator. (Equatorial o a group of enzymes that are
Plate) activated only when they are
iii. Anaphase – sister bound to a specific cyclin. The
chromatids separate and activation of CDKs is essential for
move to opposite poles of the phosphorylation of target
the cell. proteins, which triggers various
iv. Telophase – nuclear cellular processes involved in the
envelope forms around the cell cycle.
separated chromosomes The activity of cyclins and CDKs fluctuate
and the chromosomes during the cell cycle.
begin to decondense.
b. Cytokinesis (Cytoplasm External Control: In density-dependent
Division) – the final stage where inhibition
the cytoplasm divides, resulting
Crowded cells stop dividing.
in 2 separate daughter cells.
Most animal cells exhibit anchorage
Mitotic Phase
dependence, in which they must be attached
This includes the division of the cell nucleus to a substratum to divide.
(karyokinesis) and the division of the
Loss of Cell Cycle Controls in Cancer Cells
cytoplasm (cytokinesis). It can be observed
through the light microscope. Cancer Cells – do not respond normally to the
body’s control mechanisms. They form
1. Prophase
tumors, and exhibit neither density-
2. Metaphase
dependent inhibition nor anchorage
3. Anaphase
dependence.
4. Telophase
Malignant tumors – invade surrounding
tissues and can metastasize, or they export
cancer cells to other parts of the body where 2. Metaphase
they may form secondary tumors. a. Chromosomes lineup along
the equatorial plate
Mitosis (Growth and Repair) (metaphase plate)
It is a type of cell division in eukaryotic cells b. Movement of chromsomes in
where a parent cell divides to produce two, the equatorial plate
genetically identical daughter cells. (metaphase plate or
metaphase plane)
This process is crucial for growth, c. Spindle fibers attach to the
development, and repair in multicellular centromeres of each
organisms. chromosome.
d. Shortest phase in Mitosis.
Examples: Imagine you have a skin cut. The
cells around the wound need to divide rapidly
to heal the injury. This utilizes mitosis.

4 Stages of Mitosis

These stages are often preceded by

interphase (part of the cell cycle, but not
mitosis itself), and followed by cytokinesis.

1. Prophase and Prometaphase

a. Chromosomes condense into
visible chromosomes.
b. Microtubules form
c. Nuclear envelope begins to
break down.
d. Centrosomes move to opposite
poles of the cell.
e. Spindle fibers begin to form.

3. Anaphase
a. Centromeres divide.
b. Spindle fibers pull one set of
chromosomes to each pole
c. Precise alignment is critical
to division.
d. Formation of Cleavage –
sister chromatids separate
and move towards opposite
poles. The cell elongates as
the spindle fibers pull the
chromatids apart.
 bacterial
chromosomes
replicate and the 2
daughter
chromosomes actively
move apart.

4. Telophase
a. Nuclear envelope forms
around the chromosomes.
(Reformation of nuclear
envelop around the
chromosome at each pole)

b. Chromosomes uncoil,
spindle fibers breakdown
and dissolve.

c. Cytokinesis
i. Animals – cytokinesis
occurs by a process Cytokinesis
known as cleavage,
The actual splitting of the daughter cells into 2
forming of cleavage
separate cells.
furrow. (With the help
of contractile ring, or Centriole
actin ring.)
A barrel-shaped structure in most animal cells
ii. Plants – during involved in the organization of the mitotic
cytokinesis, a cell plate (source) spindle, and in the completion of
forms. (Golgi derived cytokinesis.
vesicles) A disc-like
Centromere
structure in the plane
of the equator of the It is the region where 2 sister chromatids
spindle that separates meet.
two sets of
chromosomes. Kinetocore

The protein structure on chromosomes where

the spindle fibers attach during cell division.
iii. Bacteria – reproduce
via binary fission:
Illustrations of Mitosis • Human Somatic Cells (46n)
• Human Gametes (23 N)

Stages of Meiosis

1. Interphase – chromosome
replication
2. Meiosis 1 – reductional phase
a. Prophase I, Metaphase I,
Anaphase I, Telophase I
3. Meiosis 2 – equational phase
a. Prophase II, Metaphase II,
Anaphase II, Telophase II

Why do we need Meiosis?

It is the fundamental basis for sexual

reproduction.

Tracing the Process 2 Haploid (1n) gametes are brought gametes

are brought together through fertilization to
A cell starts with one nucleus containing DNA form a diploid (2n) zygote.
→ The DNA condenses and becomes visible as
chromosomes → These chromosomes line up Meiosis 1: Reductional Phase
in the middle → They're pulled apart to
opposite sides → Two new nuclei form → The
cell splits into two daughter cells.

Meiosis

It reduces the number of chromosomes by

half.
Prophase 1
Fertilization restores the diploid state of a cell.

Meiosis is a specialized type of cell division

that produces gametes (sex cells) in sexually
reproducing organisms. It results in 4
genetically diverse haploid daughter cells,
each containing half the number of
chromosomes as the parent cell. This process
is crucial for maintaining the correct
chromosome number of offspring and
generating genetic diversity through • Chromosomes condense and
recombination. become visible, and migrate towards
the nuclear envelope.
It is called reduction-division. The original cel o Each chromosome is made up
is diploid (2n), and four daughter cells of 2 identical chromatids,
produced are monoploid (1n) . known as sister chromatids.
• The chromosomes undergo
It produces gametes (eggs and sperm), and
thickening and move away from each
occurs in the testes in males, in the ovaries for
other.
females.
• Homologous chromosomes pair up
 o synapsis – pairing of
homologous
chromosomes, cross-over
between non-sister
chromatids
o Chiasma – point of location
where cross over occurs.
o Tetrads form in Prophase I
Anaphase 1

• Homologous chromosomes
separate and move to opposite
poles.
• Centromeres remain intact.

• Crossing over occurs, exchanging

genetic material.

• The chromosomes migrate to

opposite poles. The homologous
chromosomes are separated.
• The sister chromatids are not
separated.
o Homologous chromosomes Telophase 1
during crossing over –
multiplies the already huge • Chromosomes reach the poles.
number of different gamete • Nuclear envelopes may reform.
types produced by • Cytokinesis occurs, forming 2
independent assortment. haploid cells.
• Nuclear envelope and nucleoli break
down.
• Spindle fibers begin to form.

Metaphase 1

• Homologous (pairs of chromosomes that

are similar in size, shape, and genetic
content. They are inherited, one from each
parent.) chromosome pairs align at the
• Chromosomes continue to migrate
equator.
towards the pole.
• Spindle Fibers attach to the centromeres.
• Both poles have haploid number
• Homologous chromosomes lie on the
(reductional phase) but still double in
equatorial plate. Human eggs are arrested
the amount of DNA.
during this phase, the egg will proceed to
• Condensation of chromosomes and
the next stage if it is fertilized.
cytokinesis takes place.
 • Nuclear envelope begins forming. Metaphase II
• Outcome: 2 daughter cells (n)

Meiosis 2: Reducing Chromosome Number

In human males, meiosis occurs continuously

in the testes to produce sperm. A diploid
spermatogonium (46 chromosomes)
undergoes meiosis to produce 4 haploid
spermatids (23 chromosomes each), which
matures into sperm cells.
• Chromosomes align at the equator
In human females, meiosis begins in fetal
• Spindle fibers attach to individual
ovaries but pauses until puberty. At ovulation,
chromatids.
meiosis I completes in one oocyte, producing
o Human eggs are arrested
a secondary oocyte and a polar body.
during this phase and will
Meiosis II only completes if fertilization proceed when fertilized.
occurs, resulting in the ovum and another • If fertilization does not occur, the egg
polar body. remains static, but eventually
degrades during a certain period of
The process ensures genetic diversity in time.
offspring, and is a fundamental aspect of
sexual reproduction. Anaphase II

• Sister chromatids separate and

The same process in mitosis (equational
move to opposite poles.
phase) but results in 4 haploid cells.
Telophase II
Prophase II

• Chromatids reach the poles, nuclear

envelopes reform, cytokinesis
occurs.
• Chromosomes condense again
• Spindle fibers form
Results of Meiosis

Comparison of Cell Divisions

Cell Cycle Regulation

For all living eukaryotic organisms, it is

essential that the different phases of the cell
cycle are precisely coordinated.

Errors in the coordination may lead to

chromosomal alterations. Chromosomes or
parts of chromosomes may be lost,
rearranged, or distributed unequally between
the 2 daughter cells.

Checkpoints

Much of the control of the progression through

the phases of a cell cycle are exerted at
checkpoints.

There are many such checkpoints but the

three most critical are those that occur near
the end of G1, prior to S-phase entry. As well
as near the end of G2, before mitosis, and at
metaphase.