GENETIC MODIFICATION
Can be described as the changing of genetic material of an organism
by removing, changing or inserting individual genes.
The process of genetic modification using bacterial production of a human
protein involves the following steps:
a) Isolation of the DNA making up a human gene using restriction enzymes,
forming sticky ends. This is done by;
Identifying the gene that codes for the desired protein.
Using enzymes called restriction enzymes to cut the DNA on either
side of the gene.
The enzymes leave short lengths of unpaired bases at either end
of the cut DNA, called STICKY ends.
b) Cutting of bacterial plasmid DNA with the same restriction enzymes,
forming complementary sticky ends. This is done by;
Removal of plasmids from the bacteria, and then cutting the
plasmids using the same restriction enzymes.
Reason for using the same restriction enzymes is so that the sticky ends on
the plasmid DNA are complementary to those on the human DNA.
c) Insertion of human DNA into bacterial plasmid DNA using DNA ligase to
form a recombinant plasmid. This done by;
Mixing human DNA and the cut plasmids. The sticky ends
(unpaired bases) on the human DNA pair up with the
complementary sticky ends on the plasmid DNA.
DNA ligase links the two strands together closing the plasmid loop.
d) Insertion of the recombinant plasmids into bacteria. This is done by;
Mixing the genetically modified plasmids to a culture of bacteria.
Some of the bacteria take up the plasmids into their cells. These
are now genetically modified bacteria.
e) Multiplication of bacteria containing recombinant plasmids.
This is done by;
Putting the GM bacteria into the fermenters where they reproduce
asexually to form large populations.
f) Expression in bacteria of the human gene to make the human protein.
The bacteria use the code on the human DNA to make the human
protein, which can be extracted from the fermenters.
Must know
Bacteria are used in biotechnology and genetic modification due to;
Their rapid reproduction rate.
Their ability to make complex molecules.
“Why” are bacteria useful in biotechnology and genetic modification?
Because:
i. There are few ethical concerns over their manipulation and growth.
No one minds what is done to the bacteria.
ii. Of the presence of plasmids. Plasmids are small circles of DNA found
in bacteria.
These are quite easy to transfer from one cell to another.
Scientists can use plasmids to transfer genes from one
organism’s cells to another.
EXAMPLES OF GENETIC MODIFICATION
1. The insertion of human genes into bacteria to produce human
proteins.
Human genes can be inserted into bacteria. The bacteria follow
the instructions on the gene to make a protein that is normally
made in human cells.
Example: the production of insulin hormone.
2. The insertion of genes into crop plants to confer resistance to
herbicides.
Herbicides are sprayed on crop plants to kill weeds. However this
is no use if the herbicide also harms the crop plants. Some crop
plants have been genetically modified to be resistant to herbicides.
Example: soya plants have been genetically modified and are
resistant to an herbicide called glyphosate which is sprayed onto
them.
3. The insertion of genes into crop plants to confer resistant to insect
pests.
Some crop plants have been genetically modified to resist insect
pests.
Example: cotton plants have been genetically modified so that they
contain a substance called Bt, which is toxic to insects. Insect pests, such
as the cotton weevil, are killed if they eat the cotton plants.
4. The insertion of genes into crop plants to improve nutritional
quantities.
Some crop plants have been genetically modified for the purpose
of making large quantities of nutrients that humans need.
Example: golden rice which has been genetically modified to produce a
substance called carotene which is required for good sight.
Answers are on page 436 of the new biology book: please study