ZNOTES.
ORG
UPDATED TO 2023-2025 SYLLABUS
CAIE IGCSE
CHEMISTRY
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE THEORY SYLLABUS
Prepared for Tamba for personal use only.
CAIE IGCSE CHEMISTRY
1. States of Matter
1.1. Solids, Liquids and Gases
States of Matter are the different forms in which matter can exist
The three states of matter are Solid, Liquids, and Gases
Properties of Solid, Liquid and Gases
1.2. Changes of States
Boiling and Evaporation
Boiling and Evaporation are both endothermic processes:
Boiling and evaporation are processes that involve the conversion of a liquid into a gas.
Both processes allow molecules to move further apart from each other.
| Boiling | Evaporation | |----|----| | happens at a set temperature called the boiling point |
occurs at any temperature below the boiling point and above the freezing point (liquid) | |
occurs throughout the liquid | only occurs at the surface | | relatively faster process | a slow
process |
Condensation
Condensation is the process by which a gas converts into a liquid. It happens at the same
temperature as the boiling point.
As temperature decreases, the energy of particles will decrease, making them move
more slowly.
Condensation and Freezing are both energy-given-out reactions.
Freezing, Melting and Sublimation
1. Melting is the process in which a solid converts to a liquid. It happens at a set
temperature called the melting point.
2. Freezing is the process in which a liquid converts to a solid. It happens at the same
temperature as the freezing point.
3. Sublimation occurs when a solid has enough energy to convert into a gas or gas
converted into a solid.
[Link]
Copyright © 2025 ZNotes Education & Foundation. All Rights Reserved. This document is authorised for personal use only by Tamba at Harvest International School Uganda on 04/07/25.
CAIE IGCSE CHEMISTRY
1.3. Cooling and Heating Curves
Cooling Curves
1. On cooling, the particles of a gas move slower and slower and the gas contracts
2. The particles are now closer together, and inter-molecular bonds start to form between
them once the condensation point is reached
3. The temperature of the substance stops falling; the energy released by bond formation
cancels out the energy lost due to cooling
4. Once all the gas has turned into liquid, the temperature starts to fall again, and the
liquid begins to contract until the freezing point is reached
5. At the freezing point, inter-molecular bonds between the liquid molecules start to
develop to form a solid
6. At the freezing point, the temperature remains constant until all of the liquid has
solidified since the energy released due to bond formation cancels out the energy lost
due to cooling
The following curve is obtained if this phenomenon is plotted - the cooling curve:
Heating Curves
1. On heating, the particles of a solid start to vibrate faster and faster in their mean
positions, and the solid begins to expand
2. Once the melting point is reached, the intermolecular bonds between the particles
begin to break.
3. The temperature of the substance at this point remains constant until all the solid has
turned into a liquid because the energy received by the system is cancelled out by the
energy used to break intermolecular bonds
4. Once all the solid has turned to liquid, the temperature starts to rise again, and the
liquid begins to expand until the boiling point is reached
5. At the boiling point, the intermolecular bonds between the liquid molecules start to
break down to form a gas
6. At the boiling point, the temperature of the substance remains constant until all of the
liquid has vaporised since the energy absorbed by the substance is cancelled by the
energy used for the breakdown of intermolecular bonds
The following curve is obtained if this phenomenon is plotted - the heating curve:
1.4. Diffusion
Diffusion: the net movement of particles from a region of higher concentration to a region of
lower concentration as a result of their random movement until equilibrium is reached.
The rate of diffusion is most rapid in gases > liquids > solids.
Effect of Relative Molecular Mass in Diffusion
[Link]
Copyright © 2025 ZNotes Education & Foundation. All Rights Reserved. This document is authorised for personal use only by Tamba at Harvest International School Uganda on 04/07/25.
CAIE IGCSE CHEMISTRY
The rate at which gases diffuse differs and depends on the gas's molecular' mass.
At the same temperature, molecules with a lower mass move faster on average than
those with a higher mass.
1.5. Pressure and Temperature on Gas
Gases are compressible. By changing the pressure acting on them, their volume may be
influenced.
1. An increase in external pressure produces a contraction (<b>decrease</b>) in volume.
The gas is said to be <b>compressed</b>.
2. A fall in external pressure produces an expansion (<b>increase</b>) in volume. The gas
is said to be decompressed.
The volume of gases may also be influenced by temperature. The temperature of a gas affects
its internal pressure and, thereby, its volume.
1. When temperature increases, the gas molecules have <b>increased kinetic
energy</b> and hit the walls of their container more often and with greater force. This
causes an increase in internal pressure and an increase in volume.
2. When the temperature decreases, the gas molecules have decreased kinetic energy and
hit the walls of their container less often and with attenuated force. This causes a
decrease in internal pressure and a decrease in volume.
2. Atoms, Elements and Compounds
2.1. Elements, Compounds and Mixtures
Elements: A substance made of atoms that share the SAME number of protons and
cannot be broken down into simpler substances by chemical methods.
There are 118 elements in the periodic table, such as sodium.
Compounds: Two or more elements chemically bonded together (in a fixed
proportion).
e.g. Carbon Dioxide, Sodium Chloride
Mixtures: Two or more elements not chemically bonded together.
e.g. Sand and Water, Oil and Water
2.2. Atomic Structure
All substances are made of tiny particles called atoms, the building blocks of all matter.
The structure of the atom has a central nucleus containing neutrons and protons
surrounded by electrons in shells
The characteristics of neutrons, protons, and electrons are as follows:
|Subatomic particle|Relative Mass|Relative Charge| |:---|:---|:---| |Proton|1|+1| |Neutron|1|
0| |Electron|1/1840|-1|
Since electrons and protons have opposing and equal charges, the atom’s overall
charge is neutral.
Neutrons have the purpose of holding the nucleus together. The larger the nucleus gets,
the more neutrons are required to hold the nucleus together.
2.3. Proton and Nucleon Number
[Link]
Copyright © 2025 ZNotes Education & Foundation. All Rights Reserved. This document is authorised for personal use only by Tamba at Harvest International School Uganda on 04/07/25.
CAIE IGCSE CHEMISTRY
The Proton Number (Atomic Number) is the number of protons in the nucleus of an
atom.
It is unique to each element. It is denoted by the letter “Z”. For a neutral atom, the
number of protons and electrons are equal; therefore, the proton number (Z) also
corresponds to the number of electrons.
The Nucleon Number (Mass Number) is the total number of protons and neutrons in
the nucleus of an atom.
Mass number = number of protons + number of neutrons
Number of protons = mass number – number of neutrons
Number of neutrons = mass number – number of protons
The following format (AZX Notation) is shown below:
2.4. Electronic Configurations of Elements & Ions
Atoms have electrons that orbit around a central nucleus, and these orbits are referred to as
electron shells.
The energy levels of the shells increase as their distance from the nucleus increases.
The first shell has a max capacity of 2 electrons, while the subsequent shell can hold up
to 8.
For this syllabus, we only need to know the general complete electronic configuration as
(2.8.8)
Group VIII noble gases have an entire outer shell
the number of outer shell electrons is equal to the group number in Groups I to VII.
the number of occupied electron shells is equal to the period number
2.5. Isotopes
Isotopes: different atoms of the same element with the same number of protons but different
numbers of neutrons.
The isotopes of an element have the same chemical properties because they contain
the same number of outer shell electrons and, therefore, have the same electronic
configuration.
The difference in mass affects the physical properties, such as density, boiling point and
melting point
2.6. Relative Atomic Masses
Most elements exist naturally as a mixture of their isotopes. Using the data on the
abundance of these naturally occurring isotopes, we can calculate the mass relative
atomic mass of the element.
The formula:
$$ \text{Relative atomic mass} = \frac{\left( % \text{ of isotope 1} \times \text{mass
number of isotope 1} \right) + \left( % \text{ of isotope 2} \times \text{mass number of
isotope 2} \right)}{100} $$
An example for calculating the relative mass and abundance:
Question: Iridium has two isotopes. These isotopes are Iridium - 191 and Iridium
- 193. A natural sample consists of 37.3% of Iridium - 191. Calculate the relative
atomic mass ($A_{\text{r}}$) of the natural sample of Iridium.
$%$ of Iridium - 191 = $37.3%$
$%$ of Iridium - 193 = $100% - 37.3% = 62.7%$
$A_{\text{r}}$ = $\frac{(37.3 , \times , 191) , + , (62.7 , \times , 193)}
{100}$
$\therefore$ $A_{\text{r}}$ = 192.2
2.7. Metallic Bonding
[Link]
Copyright © 2025 ZNotes Education & Foundation. All Rights Reserved. This document is authorised for personal use only by Tamba at Harvest International School Uganda on 04/07/25.
CAIE IGCSE CHEMISTRY
Metallic Bonding: the electrostatic attraction between the positive ions in a giant metallic lattice and a “sea” of delocalised
electrons.
Properties of Metallic Bonding
1. Metallic Bonds have good electrical conductivity: Delocalised electrons can move through the structures and carry
current.
2. High Melting and Boiling Point: More energy to overcome strong forces of attraction between positive metal ions
and the sea of delocalised electrons and vibrate/transfer heat
3. Malleability: Can be hammered into shapes as layers can slide over each other.
4. Ductility: Can be drawn into thin wires
2.8. Giant Covalent Structures
Giant Covalent (Macromolecular) Structures: solids with very high melting points, where all the atoms are made of pure
carbon.
Diamond