MODULE 2 TOPICS
1. A* Problem
2. Define Machine Learning as per Tom Mitchell
3. Types of Machine Learning
4. Challenges and Applications of Machine Learning
5. Machine Learning Process / Model
6. What is Data ? Explain types of data
7. Characteristics of Data / Big Data ( 6 V’s)
8. Types of Data Sources
9. Central Tendency – Mean , Median , Mode
10. Dispersion – Range , Standard Deviation , Variance
11. IQR problems
12. Five-point summary , Box Plot
13. Gaussian Elimination and LU Decomposition
14. Types of Probability Distribution
MODULE 3 TOPICS
1. Define Concept Learning
2. FIND-S algorithm , problem / Maximally Specific Hypothesis ( other term used
for Find – S )
3. Candidate Elimination algorithm , problem
4. K- Nearest Neighbor algorithm , problem
5. KNN weighted algorithm , problem
6. Nearest Centroid Classifier algorithm , problem
7. LWR algorithm , problem
8. Different Learning Types
9. Design of Learning System
10. Difference between Instance Based Learning and Model Based Learning
11. Applications of Regression Analysis
12. Types of Regression
13. Linear Regression Problem
14. Linear Regression in Matrix Form Problem
15. Validation of Regression Methods
Algorithms – Refer Textbook pdf shared in Google Classroom.
Text marked in Red Color are the imp topics included for 2nd Internals.
MODULE 2
[Link] Machine Learning as per Tom Mitchell
"A computer program is said to learn from experience E with respect to some
class of tasks T and performance measure P if its performance at tasks in T, as
measured by P, improves with experience E."
Experience (E): Refers to the data or input that the machine learning system uses
to learn and make predictions.
Task (T): Represents the specific job or activity that the machine learning system
is designed to perform.
Performance Measure (P): Indicates how well the system is accomplishing the
task, and it serves as the basis for improvement.
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3. Types of Machine Learning
a. Supervised Learning : Supervised algorithms use labelled dataset. As the
name suggests, there is a supervisor or teacher component in supervised
learning.
A supervisor provides labelled data so that the model is constructed and
generates test data.
Learning takes place in two stages , for example the teacher communicates the
information to the student that the student is supposed to master. The student
receives the information and understands it, during this stage the teacher has no
knowledge of whether the information is grasped by the student. Next teacher
asks the student a set of questions to find out how much information has been
grasped by the student. This learning is called Supervised Learning
Supervised Learning has two methods :
1. Classification and 2. Regression
b. Unsupervised Learning : In this learning , there is no supervisor or teacher like
component. It is learnt by self – [Link] is based on trial and error.
The program is supplied with objects, but no labels are defined. The algorithm
itself observes the examples and recognizes patterns based on the principles of
grouping.
Grouping is done in ways that similar objects form the same group.
1. Cluster Analysis and Dimensional Reduction algorithms are examples of
unsupervised algorithms.
c. Semi Supervised Learning : There are circumstances where the dataset has a
huge collection of unlabeled data and some labelled data. Labelling is a costly
process and difficult to perform by the humans. Semi-supervised algorithms use
unlabeled data by assigning a pseudo-label. Then, the labelled and
pseudo-labelled dataset can be combined.
Example : Text Classification
d. Reinforcement Learning : Reinforcement learning mimics human beings. Like
human beings use ears and eyes to perceive the world and take actions,
reinforcement learning allows the agent to interact with the environment to get
rewards. The agent can be human, animal, robot, or any independent program.
The rewards enable the agent to gain experience. The agent aims to maximize
the reward. The reward can be positive or negative (Punishment). When the
rewards are more, the behavior gets reinforced, and learning becomes possible.
Example : Driverless Cars.
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5. Machine Learning Process / Model
1. Understanding the business – This step involves understanding the
objectives and requirements of the business organization. Generally, a single
data mining algorithm is enough for giving the solution. This step also involves
the formulation of the problem statement for the data mining process.
2. Understanding the data – It involves the steps like data collection, study of
the characteristics of the data, formulation of hypothesis, and matching of
patterns to the selected hypothesis.
3. Preparation of data – This step involves producing the final dataset by
cleaning the raw data and preparation of data for the data mining process. The
missing values may cause problems during both training and testing phases.
Missing data forces classifiers to produce inaccurate results. Hence, suitable
strategies should be adopted to handle the missing data.
4. Modelling – This step plays a role in the application of data mining algorithm
for the data to obtain a model or pattern.
5. Evaluate – This step involves the evaluation of the data mining results using
statistical analysis and visualization methods. The performance of the classifier is
determined by evaluating the accuracy of the classifier. The process of
classification is a fuzzy issue. For example, classification of emails requires
extensive domain knowledge and requires domain experts. Hence, performance
of the classifier is very crucial.
6. Deployment – This step involves the deployment of results of the data mining
algorithm to improve the existing process or for a new situation.
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6. What is Data ? Explain types of data
Data are facts. Facts are in the form of numbers, audio, video, image. which we need to
analyze data for taking decisions.
Data is available in different data sources like flat files, databases, or data
warehouses. It can either be operational data or a non-operational data.
Data by itself is meaningless. It has to be processed to generate any information.
There are three kinds of data. They are structured data, unstructured data, and
semi structured data.
1. In structured data, data is stored in an organized manner such as a
database where it is available in the form of a table. The data can also be
retrieved in an organized manner using tools like SQL.
few structured data are i) Record data – data with measurements. ii) Data
Matrix – consists of numeric attributes, the data is thought of as points or
vectors in the multidimensional space where every attribute is a dimension
describing the object. iii) Graph data – involves relationships among objects.
For example, a web page can refer to another web page this can be modeled
as a graph. The modes are web page and the hyperlink is an edge that
connects the nodes.
iv) Ordered data – data with time series , data which doesn’t have time
stamps , data which has attributes such as positions or areas.
2. Unstructured data includes video, image, and audio. It also includes textual
documents, programs, and blog data. It is estimated that 80% of the data is
unstructured data.
3. Semi-Structured Data Semi-structured data are partially structured and
partially unstructured. These include data like XML/JSON data, RSS feeds,
and hierarchical data.
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[Link] of Data / Big Data ( 6 V’s)
1. Volume – Since there is a reduction in the cost of storing devices, there has been a
tremendous growth of data. Small traditional data is measured in terms of gigabytes
(GB) and terabytes (TB), but Big Data is measured in terms of petabytes (PB) and
exabytes (EB). One exabyte is 1 million terabytes.
2. Velocity – The fast arrival speed of data and its increase in data volume is noted as
velocity. The availability of IoT devices and Internet power ensures that the data is
arriving at a faster rate. Velocity helps to understand the relative growth of big data and
its accessibility by users, systems and applications.
3. Variety – The variety of Big Data includes: • Form – There are many forms of data.
Data types range from text, graph, audio, video, to maps. There can be composite data
too, where one media can have many other sources of data, for example, a video can
have an audio song. • Function – These are data from various sources like human
conversations, transaction records, and old archive data. • Source of data – This is the
third aspect of variety. There are many sources of data. Broadly, the data source can be
classified as open/public data, social media data and multimodal data.
4. Veracity – Veracity of data deals with aspects like conformity to the facts,
truthfulness, believability, and confidence in data. There may be many sources of error
such as technical errors, typographical errors, and human errors. So, veracity is one of
the most important aspects of data.
5. Validity – Validity is the accuracy of the data for taking decisions or for any other
goals that are needed by the given problem.
6. Value – Value is the characteristic of big data that indicates the value of the
information that is extracted from the data and its influence on the decisions that are
taken based on it.
Thus, these 6 Vs are helpful to characterize the big data.
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14. Types of Probability Distribution
Probability distributions are of two types:
[Link] probability distribution
[Link] probability distribution
The relationships between the events for a continuous random variable and their
probabilities
Probability Distributions : [Link], 2. Rectangular, [Link] distributions fall
under this category.
1. Normal Distribution – Normal distribution is a continuous probability distribution.
This is also known as gaussian distribution or bell-shaped curve distribution. It is the
most common distribution function. The shape of this distribution is a typical
bell-shaped curve. In normal distribution, data tends to be around a central value with
no bias on left or right. The heights of the students, blood pressure of a population, and
marks scored in a class can be approximated using normal distribution. PDF
(Probability Distribution Function) of the normal distribution is given as:
Normal distribution is characterized by two parameters – mean and variance.
2. Rectangular Distribution – This is also known as uniform distribution. It has equal
probabilities for all values in the range a, b. The uniform distribution is given as follows:
[Link] Distribution – This is a continuous uniform distribution. This probability
distribution is used to describe the time between events in a Poisson process.
Exponential distribution is another special case of Gamma distribution with a fixed
parameter of 1. This distribution is helpful in modeling of time until an event occurs.
Discrete Distribution : 1. Binomial, 2. Poisson,[Link] distributions fall under this
category.
1. Binomial Distribution – Binomial distribution is another distribution that is often
encountered in machine learning. It has only two outcomes: success or failure. This is
also called the Bernoulli trial.
The objective of this distribution is to find the probability of getting success k out of n
trials. The way to get success out of k out of n number of trials is given as:
2. Poisson Distribution – It is another important distribution that is quite useful. Given an
interval of time, this distribution is used to model the probability of a given number of
events k. The mean rule l is inclusive of previous events. Some of the examples of
Poisson distribution are number of emails received, number of customers visiting a
shop and the number of phone calls received by the office.
The PDF of Poisson distribution is given as follows
[Link] Distribution – This distribution models an experiment whose outcome is
binary. The outcome is positive with p and negative with 1 - p. The PMF of this
distribution is given as:
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MODULE 3
1. Define Concept Learning
Concept learning can be formulated as a problem of searching through a
predefined space of potential hypotheses for the hypothesis that best fits the
training examples.
A task of acquiring a potential hypothesis (solution) that best fits the given
training examples.
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2. Different Learning Types
There are different types of learning. Some of the different learning methods are
as follows:
1. Learn by memorization or learn by repetition also called as rote learning is
done by memorizing without understanding the logic or concept. Although rote
learning is basically learning by repetition, in machine learning perspective, the
learning occurs by simply comparing with the existing knowledge for the same
input data and producing the output if present.
2. Learn by examples, also called as learn by experience or previous
knowledge acquired at some time, is like finding an analogy, which means
performing inductive learning from observations that formulate a general concept.
Here, the learner learns by inferring a general rule from the set of observations or
examples. Therefore, inductive learning is also called discovery learning.
3. Learn by being taught by an expert or a teacher, generally called as passive
learning However, there is a special kind of learning called active learning where
the learner can interactively query a teacher/expert to label unlabelled data
instances with the desired outputs.
4. Learning by critical thinking, also called deductive learning, deduces new
facts or conclusions from related known facts and information.
5. Self learning, also called reinforcement learning, is a self-directed learning
that normally learns from mistakes, punishments and rewards.
6. Learning to solve problems is a type of cognitive learning where learning
happens in the mind and is possible by devising a methodology to achieve a
goal. Here, the learner initially is not aware of the solution or the way to achieve
the goal but only knows the goal. The learning happens either directly from the
initial state by following the steps to achieve the goal or indirectly by inferring the
behavior.
7. Learning by generalizing explanations, also called as explanation-based
learning (EBL) is another learning method that exploits domain knowledge from
experts to improve the accuracy of learned concepts by supervised learning.
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3. Design of Learning System
A system that is built around a learning algorithm is called a learning system.
The design of systems focuses on these steps:
1. Choosing a training experience
2. Choosing a target function
3. Representation of a target function
4. Function approximation
Training Experience
Let us consider designing of a chess game. In direct experience, individual board
states and correct moves of the chess game are given directly. In the indirect
system, the move sequences and results are only given.
The training experience also depends on the presence of a supervisor who can
label all valid moves for a board state. In the absence of a supervisor, the game
agent plays against itself and learns the good moves, if the training samples
cover all scenarios, or in other words, distributed enough for performance
computation. If the training samples and testing samples have the same
distribution, the results would be good.
Determine the Target Function
The next step is the determination of a target function. In this step, the type of
knowledge that needs to be learnt is determined. In direct experience, a board
move is selected and is determined whether it is a good move or not against all
other moves. If it is the best move, then it is chosen as: B-> M, where, B and M
are legal moves. In indirect experience, all legal moves are accepted and a score
is generated for each. The move with the largest score is then chosen and
executed.
Determine the Target Function Representation
The representation of knowledge may be a table, collection of rules or a neural
network. The linear Combination of these factors can be coined as:
Where, x1, x2, and x3, represent different board features and w0, w1, w2, and
w3, represent weights.
Choosing an Approximation Algorithm for the Target Function T
The focus is to choose weights and fit the given training samples effectively. The
aim is to reduce the error given as:
here b is the sample and V(b) is the predicted hypothesis
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4. Difference between Instance Based Learning and Model Based Learning
Instance Based Learning Model Based Learning
Lazy Learners Eager Learners
processing of training instances is processing of training instances is
done only during the testing phase. done during the training phase.
No model is built with the training Generalizes a model with the
instances before it receives a test training instances before it
instance receives a test instance
Predicts the class of the test Predicts the class of the test
instance directly from the training instance from the model built
data
Slow in testing phase Fast in testing phase
Leams by making many local Leams by creating global
approximations approximation
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5. Types of Regression