CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. Introduction

This chapter provides a comprehensive review of the existing literature relevant to the study's
central focus: the relationship between parenting styles and the development of emotional
intelligence among adolescent female students within the specific socio-cultural context of
Kaduna State, Nigeria. This review aims to establish a solid theoretical foundation, synthesize
prior empirical findings, and identify existing gaps that this research intends to address. By
examining established theories and previous studies, we will better understand the complex
relationship between parenting practices and the emotional development of adolescents,
particularly within the unique cultural environment of Kaduna State.

2.2. Concept of Parenting Styles

The concept of parenting styles was introduced in the 1960s by Diane Baumrind on more than
100 preschool-age children to explain differences in the way parents attempt to control and
socialize their children. She identified some important dimensions of parenting such as
disciplinary strategies, warmth and nurturing communication styles, and expectations of maturity
and control. Based on the dimensions, she suggested that the majority of parents display one of
three different parenting styles i.e. Authoritarian, Authoritative, and Permissive. Later, in 1983,
researchers (Maccoby, 2009) added the fourth style of parenting Uninvolved. Parenting is an
evolving process with dedication and commitment, parents can cultivate a positive relationship
with their children. Over time child will grow as a responsible adult. If Parents will manage to
provide them a supporting, healthy, but not “too controlling” environment they will become
emotionally stable and intelligent.

Types of Parenting Styles.

Following are Four types of Parenting Styles by (Baumrind & Martin).

2.2.1. Authoritative Parenting Style.

It involves high demandingness and high responsiveness. Authoritative parents have high
expectations for achievement and maturity, but they are also warm and responsive. These parents
set rules and enforce boundaries by having open discussion, providing guidance and using
reasoning. These parents provide their kids with reasoning and explanation for their action.
Explanations allow children to have a sense of awareness and teach kids about values, morals,
and goals. Their disciplinary methods are confrontive, i.e. reasoned, negotiable, outcome-
oriented, and concerning with regulating behaviors. Authoritative parents are affectionate and
supportive. They provide their children with autonomy and encourage independence. They also
allow bidirectional communication. This parenting style is also known as the democratic
parenting style. Children of authoritative parents are cherished.
Based on Baumrind’s research on parenting styles, children of authoritative parents tend to:

 Appear happy and content.

 Are more independent
 Are more active.
 Achieve higher academic success.
 Develop good self-esteem.
 Interact with peers using competent social skills.
 Have better mental health, less depression, anxiety, suicide attempts, delinquency,
alcohol and drug use. Exhibit less violent tendencies.
 Are securely attached.

2.2.2. Authoritarian Parenting Style.

It Involves High Demandingness and Low responsiveness. High levels of parental control and
low levels of responsiveness are the two characteristics of authoritarian parents. Although
authoritarian parenting and authoritative parenting styles have similar names, they have several
important differences in parenting belief, demand and approach. While both parental styles
demand high standards, authoritarian parents demand blind obedience using reasons such as
“because I said so”. They only allow one-way communication through rules and orders. Any
attempts to reason with them are seen as backtalk. These parents use stern discipline and often
employ harsh punishment, such as corporal punishment, as a way to control children’s behavior.
Their disciplinary methods are coercive, i.e. arbitrary, peremptory, domineering, and concerned
with marking status distinctions. Authoritarian parents are unresponsive to their children’s needs
and are generally not nurturing. They usually justify their mean treatment of their kids as tough
love.

Children whose parents have an authoritarian parenting style tend to.

 Have an unhappy disposition.

 Be less independent.
 Appear insecure.
 Possess low self-esteem.
 Exhibit more behavioral problems.
 Perform worse academically.
 Have poorer social skills.
 Be more prone to mental issues.
 Be more likely to have drug use problems.
 Have worse coping skills.

2.2.3. Permissive Parenting style.

It involves low demandingness and high responsiveness. Permissive parents set very few rules
and boundaries and they are reluctant to enforce rules. These indulgent parents are warm and
indulgent but they do not like to say no or disappoint their children.
Children of permissive parenting tend to have the worst outcomes:

 Cannot follow rules.

 Have worse self-control.
 Possess egocentric tendencies.
 Encounter more problems in relationships and social interactions.

2.2.4. Neglectful Parenting Style.

It involved low demandingness and low responsiveness. Neglectful parents do not set firm
boundaries or high standards. They are indifferent to their children’s needs and uninvolved in
their lives. These uninvolved parents may have mental issues themselves such as depression, or
physical abuse or child neglect when they were kids.

Children raised by neglectful parents:

 Are more impulsive.

 Cannot self-regulate emotion.
 Encounter more delinquency and addictions problems.
 Have more mental issues e.g. suicidal behavior in adolescents.

Humans at birth is like a white paper that has not been written something on it yet, and we read
same in the future what write on them; in other words, personality of children are made by the
family, school and other social environments. The family is the first social institution where the
child is upbringing, and specific ways which families apply for upbringing their children is
called parenting styles. Families have different cultures and its role in character building of
children is more important than other institutions. Parenting styles can be affected by many
factors, including: cultural, social, political, economic, etc, therefore it must be admitted that
parenting behaviors may change due to cultural, ethnic and economic. Authoritative style
(decisive and reassuring parents (strong)), permissive style (permissive parents), despotic style
(despotic parents) and neglect style (negligent or inattentive parents) are the most important
parenting practices (Dolati, 2010).

Parenting is the style of child upbringing refers to a privilege of responsibility of mother and
father, together or independently to prepare the child for society and culture, which provides
ample opportunity to a child to find roots, continuity and a sense of belonging (Sirohi and
Chauhan, 1991) and also serves as an effective agent of socialization. Though parenting, as a
perception of the parents of their own attitude towards the child, happens to be of great
significance in the dynamics of behaviour for socio-psychological researches, but how child
perceives his/her parenting always remains a neglected phase of researches and should be
deemed most important as he is the one whose process of socialization stands for furtherance
(Bharadwaj, 1996). Individual experiences not only help in making the sense of self identity and
self-ideal but may also lead her to perceive, think and act in a self-directed manner. So, it appears
that child’s perception of parental attitude towards herself should be of great concern in the
dynamics of behaviour and may open new avenues of research for deeper probe in the domain of
parent-child relationship.
The two distinctive roles of parents include both mothering and fathering. A child bestows on
both mother and father together or independently, the responsibility of upbringing her. These
perceptions may be referred to apparently direct and immediate knowledge associated to their
conscious or unconscious experiences by which they initiate and control behaviour enormously.
It is important to note that most of the children have a fairly definite clear cut concept of ‘father’
which differs markedly from their concept of ‘mother’. Therefore, it appears to be of utmost
importance to study perceptions regarding their fathering and mothering separately as well as
parenting as a whole on different dichotomous modes of parenting.

Fathering

The role of a father or the style of individual’s upbringing stands as a bridge by which the child
comes into the contact of outside world encourages curiosity and a will to face the challenges of
the world and appears as a symbol of assertive, independent, emotional and psychological
support in the realization of truth. To love children is predominantly a feature of fathering in
non-deviant families and relates to acceptance, satisfaction and differentiating experiences in the
children (Khokhar, 1983) that can also be deemed as conditional one because it is acquired or
earned by the child’s performance of duty, obedience and fulfilment of father’s expectations.
Whereas, inadequate fathering is usually understood to be a prime source of maladjustment
(Erickson, 1963), truancy, guilt, self-devaluation and dependency (Coleman, 1970) and chemical
dependence (Bharadwaj, 1996).

Mothering

The role of mother or the style of upbringing is largely associated with congenial development of
personality because the child first comes in contact with mother and always depends on her to
satisfy his basic needs. The role of mother shows better control over the children and stands for
friendship with less punishment and dominance, symbol of emotional support, interpersonal
sensitivity and help and plays an important role in making a person more productive and
imaginative. Whereas, patterns of inadequate maternal behaviour seem to be responsible for the
problem of children’s behaviour and chemical dependence (Bharadwaj, 1995) and tends to
inhibit the exploration of child’s personality in the environment.

Bharadwaj et al. (1998) had identified eight parenting models have been identified which are
enumerated as under:

a. Rejection vs. Acceptance

b. Carelessness vs. Protection
c. Neglect vs. Indulgence
d. Utopian expectation vs. Realism
e. Lenient standard vs. Moralism
f. Freedom vs. Discipline
g. Faulty role expectation vs. Realistic role expectation
h. Marital conflict vs. Marital adjustment.
There is a dichotomy in each parenting model that can be studied as the role of mothering and
fathering separately as well as parenting as a whole except the marital conflict vs. marital
adjustment which can only be associated with the study of adequate or inadequate parenting as a
whole.

a. Rejection vs. Acceptance

A child develops shocks when he does not find proper care and response of his parents. The
infantile honesty and truthfulness meets an adverse atmosphere and therefore the psychological
growth of the child is affected. It is quite natural that a child meets proper nourishment of his
genuine feelings. Denial of love and affection freezes the genial current of infantile simplicity.
Various aberrations in the behaviour of child are the product of this denial of natural love to
them.

Rejection of parents manifests itself in interpersonal relationships in direct ways, when the child
has to face excessive criticism, invidious comparison, harsh and inconsistent punishment by both
or either of the parents in his upbringing. Rejection of parents may also evince itself in physical
neglect, denial of love and affection, lack of interest in his activities and failure to spend time
with her.

On the other hand, parental acceptance implies an attitude of love for the child. The accepting
parent puts the child in a position of importance in the home and develops a relationship of
emotional warmth. Parental acceptance encourages the child and makes itself apparent in
receptive or positive attitude towards the child’s idea and judgement, worthiness and capability,
love and affection and admiration along with adequate attention towards her.

b. Carelessness vs. Protection

Parenting on carelessness dimension manifests itself, when both or either parents do not pay
adequate heed towards child’s activities thus giving an impression of unwantedness by careless
and unthoughtful negligible behaviour towards her even in presence of his proper and worthy
behaviour in day to day matters.

On the other hand, the sense of protection in the child makes her better and more confident. It is
true that over protection is a disease and obstructs the independent growth of the child. But the
sense of protection gives her strength and psychological support. So the sense of protection
should not be confused with the term overprotection which consists in excessive contact of
parents with the child, such as fondling her or sleeping with her, prolongation of infantile care as
nursing, bathing and dressing when child can do it itself, prevention of the growth of self-
reliance by supervising the child’s activities too much and defending her or solving his problems.
It also shows over-anxiousness towards the child’s health and shield her from vigorous
participation in competitive activities. Thus, over protection signifies giving more care to their
child than what is necessary and can only be deemed as the hyper state of protection.

c. Neglect vs. Indulgence

Neglecting the children by their parents even after conscious of their need is again injurious to
their psychological health. It manifests itself in lack of attention and cooperation with them,
wilful ignoring them and their activities and avoidance of their genuine needs. Giving more
importance to self-designs of work but least attention to their feelings and needs, come within
purview of neglect.

On the other hand, over indulgence of parents with the child develops certain psychological
inconsistencies in the latter. It may be seen in the parents yielding to every demand of the child
and failure to exercise the needed constraint even when necessary. Such a child becomes unfit
for a reasonable adjustment in the social circumstances. However, it should be kept open to
parents that indulgence with the child to a reasonable degree shall be deemed as a health giving
sign. It helps in developing the child’s emotional response to the situation.

d. Utopian Expectation vs. Realism

The utopian expectation dimension exhibits itself in expecting a very high quality of
performance from the child even against his capabilities. Some parents use their children as a
means of achieving their own thwarted ambitions without taking into consideration their abilities
and limitations. Such parents are over-ambitious regarding their children. The more children
achieve, the more parents expect of them. Thus, very high, unrealistic and imaginary demand of
parents regarding to the performance of their children come within the purview of utopian
expectations which are not fulfilled by the children. A parental attitude of realism signifies itself
in taking into consideration the objective realities pertaining to both, the child’s capabilities and
outside world while setting up and expecting his level of performance.

e. Lenient Standard vs. Moralism

This mode of parenting takes into account lenient standard as the negative dimension and
moralism as the positive dimension. Lenient standard of parents makes themselves apparent in
permitting lesser restrictions from deviations from ethical and moral behaviour and an attitude
showing indifference against such inhibitions to restrict child’s freedom and individuality.

Moralism as socio-cultural product refers to the doctrine of duties of life, principles and conduct
adhering to what is right and virtuous and plays an important role in the dynamics of social
relations. It would be an admirable exercise, if a child is prone to inculcate a reasonable degree
of moralism in his personality orientations. If parent’s behaviour evinces moralism to an
excessive degree, it harms the child’s natural and dynamic integration. Certain parents develop
an attitude of condemnation of the child’s mild departure from the ideals of morality and force
them to live a strong puritan life.

f. Freedom vs. Discipline

Freedom manifests itself in absence of restraints over all matter to what they may pertain to. In
fact, the child is a sole decision maker of his activities. There are hardly any questioning
impediments on the part of parents. He may disregard or disobey his parents without any fear of
punishment from them.
On the other hand, parents with a penchant for strict discipline simply pass on orders to their
children who have to merely obey them. The child is not allowed to take any decision regarding
his dress, appearance, manners, friends or other activities of his life. Disobedience is met with
punishment whereas obedience is appreciated. Although, the discipline is strong need of social
orientations yet the severe discipline on the part of parents hamper the delight and liberty of the
child which he wishes to obtain at every stage of life.

g. Faulty Role Expectation vs. Realistic Role Expectation

On the dimension of faulty role expectation parenting, the child is always confused and
embarrassed because of the unpredictable expectations of his parents. Parents usually expect
divergent and contradictory roles from their children. The other dimension of realistic role
expectation is just reverse. Parents present themselves as an example to be followed by the
children and their behaviour is thoughtful, consistent and predictable in day to day strifes. The
children know for certain what their parents are alike and what is expected to them.

h. Marital Conflict vs. Marital Adjustment

On the negative dimension marital conflict affects the child as and when he/she witnesses open
conflicts between their parents. The child is not able to reconcile with and it leaves a non-
palatable feeling on his mind. Marital adjustment exhibits itself in a calm and composed
adjustment between the parents thereby creating a solidarity and congenial atmosphere of peace
and harmony in the family.

2.3. Concept of Emotional Intelligence

The merging of emotion and intelligences as a cognitive ability under the caption of emotional
intelligence was proposed by Yale psychologist Peter Salovey and John Mayer (1990) of
University of New Hampshire. The concept of Emotional Intelligence, however, received
popularity by the best-selling book, “Emotional Intelligence” by Goleman (1995), the cover
article on “Time” by Gibbs (1995) and then some other popular books like ‘Executive EQ:
Emotional Intelligence in Leadership and Organization’ by Cooper and Sawaf (1997), ‘The
Heart of Parenting: How to raise an Emotionally Intelligent Child’ by Gottman (1997). “The
Whole Intelligence: Emotional Quotient”, by Salerno (1996) and ‘Raising Your Emotional
Intelligence’ by Segal (1997).

Even though the term emotional intelligence has received considerable attention recently, earlier
psychologists and philosophers had already laid down the foundation. According to Spinoza
(1677), both the emotion and the intellect together contribute to the ultimate cognitive tool. He
talked about three levels of cognition or knowledge, that is emotional cognition, intellectual
cognition and a kind of intuition. Aristotle (1984) also stresses on what reason dictates when one
gets angry with the right person to the right degree at the right time. “Reasons without affect
would be impotent, affect without reason would be blind (Tomkins, 1962). Ellis (1962) points
out that human emotion and thinking are not separate processes but that they significantly
overlap and can never be viewed completely apart from each other. To quote, Mowrer (1960)
“the emotions are of quite extraordinary importance in the total economy of living organisms and
do not deserve being put into opposition with ‘intelligence’. Mahoney (1991) also states that
cognitive constructivists view, feeling, knowing and acting as inseparable experiences of our
adaptation and development. The emotions are it seems, themselves a higher order of
intelligence (Salovey, Woolery and Mayer, 2001).

2.3.1. Definitions of Emotional Intelligence

Peter Salovey and John Mayer (1990) defined emotional intelligence as “ability to monitor one’s
own and others feelings and emotions, to discriminate among them and to use their information
to guide one’s thinking and actions”. According to Goleman (1995) emotional intelligence
consists of “abilities such as being able to motivate oneself and persist in the face of frustration;
to control impulse and delay gratification; to regulate one’s moods and keep distress from
swamping the ability to think; to empathize and to hope”.

Bar - On (1997) defined emotional intelligence as – an array of non-cognitive capabilities,

competencies and skills that influence one’s ability to succeed in coping with environmental
demands and pressure.

2.3.2. Models of Emotional Intelligence

The insight that emotion and intelligence (cognition) can complement each other became the
basis of formulation of the various current models of emotional intelligence. At the core of these
various models is the understanding of emotional intelligence as a construct to recognize the
meaning of various emotional patterns and to reason and problem solve on the basis of them
(Mayer and Salovey, 1997; Salovey and Mayer, 1990).

At present, the following major models of emotional intelligence are available:

2.3.2a. Model of Affective Regulation by Dr. Daniel Goleman (1995).

2.3.2b. Cognitive Model of Emotional Intelligence by John Mayer and Peter Salovey (1997).

2.3.2c. Emotional competence model by Saarni (1997)

2.3.2d. Relational Model of emotional intelligence by Bar-On (1997).

Goleman viewed emotional intelligence as the ability to know and manage one’s own emotions,
recognize them in others and to handle relationships. It includes abilities such as being able to
motivate oneself and persist in the face of frustration, it controls impulse and delay gratification,
to regulate one’s moods and keep distress from swamping the ability to think, to empathize and
to hope”. The main areas are:

a. Knowing one’s emotions

b. Managing emotions
c. Motivating oneself
d. Recognizing emotions in others and
 e. Handling relationships.

Goleman calls emotional intelligence “a master aptitude” a capacity that profoundly affects all
other abilities, either facilitating or interfering with them. Elements of emotional intelligence as
given by Goleman are:

a. Self-awareness: Self-awareness means

 Know own feelings
 In touch with feelings
 Use feelings to make decisions with confidence.

b. Emotional management: Emotional Management means

 Not reflecting on own moods
 Focus on results (what needs to be done)
 Express feelings (not passive)

c. Self-motivation: Self-motivation means

 Delay gratification
 Not use impulse in pursuing goals
 Use anxiety to help perform well
 Don’t give up in face of setbacks
 Maintain optimism
 Enjoy focused concentration and peak performance

d. Empathy: Empathy means

 Sense what others are feeling.
 Feel rapport with others
 Interactions go smoothly
 Social effectiveness
 Good at handling conflict
 Good at handling emotional aspects
 Can sense pulse of relationships in groups
 Can articulate unstated feelings
 Naturally take lead in organizing groups
 People appreciate leadership
 Talent for setting disputes
 Talent for negotiating
 Talent for deal making.

e. Relationship: Relationship means

 Balance compassion and caring
 Persuade others to work to a common goal
 Help others to learn
 Promote social harmony
 Trust, building
 Networking; build rapport with key network
  Promote and exhibit co-operation with others.
 Effective team working
 Consensus building
 Collaboration

f. Communication: Communication means

 Open communication
 Listen
 Speak one’s mind

g. Personal style: Personal style means

 Balance hard/soft in decision
 Stress management
 Accept personal responsibility
 Little need for control

2.3.2b. Cognitive Model of Emotional Intelligence by John Mayer and Peter Salovey (1997)

This model primarily focuses on the complex, potentially intelligent tapestry of emotional
reasoning in everyday life. It is based on assumption that emotions convey knowledge about
person’s relationship with the world e.g: fear indicates threat the person is facing, happiness
indicates one’s harmonious relationship with others or anger generally reflects injustice, thereby
certain general rules and laws can be employed in recognizing and reasoning with feelings.

According to Mayer and Salovey (1997), examining more complex manifestations of emotional
intelligence often requires understanding of individual’s cultural framework. Also, not all
questions about emotions have the right answers. Mayer and Salovey (1997) revised their earlier
model saying the former one “omits thinking about feelings”. So more emphasis was given to
cognitive ability and the new model presents a hierarchy of mental abilities.

Accordingly, the revised model consists of the following four abilities:

a. Perception, appraisal and expression of emotion: the core capacities are identifying
feelings, and thoughts through proper and appropriate words in self as well as in others,
and discriminating between real and unreal emotional expression.

b. Emotional facilitation of thinking: The core abilities are using emotions in thinking by
giving proper attention to useful information using emotions in appropriate judgement
and memory concerning feelings. This ability also includes emotional facilitation to be
optimistic, using emotion in tasks requiring reasoning as well as creativity.

c. Understanding and analyzing emotions, employing emotional knowledge: the core

capacities are understanding the differences between emotions; the consequences of the
emotions, identifying complex feelings, understanding the transitions of emotions and;
 d. Reflective regulation of emotions to promote emotional intellectual growth: the
central ideas are one’s ability to stay open to feeling including pleasant and unpleasant,
capacity to be in and out of emotion depending on the importance through proper
judgement, capacity to “monitor emotions” in terms of how much reasonable and clear
they are ; and ability to manage emotion in oneself and others by moderating negative
emotions and enhancing pleasant ones, without repressing or exaggerating information
they may convey”.

2.3.2c. Emotional Competence Model by Saarni (1997):

Saarni defined emotional competence in terms of skills consisting of the ability to understand,
manage and express the social and emotional aspects of one’s life in ways that enable the
successful management of life. It includes self-awareness, emotional regulation, working co-
operatively and caring about oneself and others. Saarni proposed eight skills indicative of an
emotionally competent person are as follows:

a. be aware of one’s own sometime complex emotional state

b. able to discern other’s emotional state
c. able to state and communicate our emotions
d. able to feel with and for others
e. able to understand that we and others, don’t always show emotions accurately
f. able to cope with different emotional communication when relating to others
g. aware of emotional communications in interpersonal relationship
h. aware that one is in charge of one’s feelings and may choose one’s emotional response in
a given situation.

2.3.2d. Relational Model of Emotional Intelligence by Bar-On (1997):

Bar-On defined Emotional Intelligence in terms of an array of emotional and social knowledge
and abilities that influence our overall ability to effectively relate with environmental demands. It
includes:

a. the ability to be aware of, to understand, and to express oneself

b. the ability to be aware of, to understand and to relate to others
c. the ability to deal with strong emotions and control one’s impulses and
d. the ability to adapt to change and to solve problems of a personal or a social nature.

2.4. Empirical Literature Review on Parenting Styles and Emotional Intelligence

Baumrind’s (2000) worked on the interactions between parenting style and

emotional development in children, had determined that a parent’s chosen

pattern of child-rearing had the power to affect the manifestation and level
of intensity of a child’s abilities across four major areas of emotion:

Perception, understanding, integration, and management of emotions. When

it comes to parenting and emotional intelligence, there are two groups of

parents as it relates to the world of emotions. Emotion Dismissing parents

and Emotion-Coaching parents. Emotion Dismissing parents are action-

oriented and don’t want to become emotional. In fact, they tend to see being

emotional as potentially destructive in themselves and in their children. On

the other hand, emotion- coaching parents are the opposite; they accept

emotions and explore emotions in themselves and others (Williams, 2012).

Adler, (1924) outlining the impact of parenting style on adult personality

showed significant links emotional intelligence, wellness in life, self-control,

self-esteem, and relationship satisfaction.

Parenting Styles Emotional Intelligence

Adheisat (2018) investigate the relationship between the parenting styles

and emotional intelligence of a sample of kindergarten children in Zarqa II

Governorate, Jordan. Sample included 100 kindergarten children, 47 of whom

were male and 53 were female. The results revealed that the prevalent

parenting styles were the democratic, authoritative, and permissive styles

respectively. Further, the results showed a statistically significant positive

relation between the democratic parenting style and emotional intelligence

in all its domains, and showed a statistically significant negative relationship

between the authoritative and permissive styles and emotional intelligence.

Furthermore, the results revealed a lack of statistical differences in all areas

due to the impact of gender in emotional intelligence

Quynh (2020) examine the association between parenting styles and EI

among Vietnamese adolescents. This is a cross-sectional school survey using

multilevel regression analyses controlling for potential confounders and

school cluster effects. Results from 1,593 students revealed that boys had

significantly higher overall EI, Well-Being, and Self-Control subscale scores

than girls. The warmth of parents during childhood was associated with

higher EI, while overprotectiveness and authoritarianism from mothers were

associated with lower EI among adolescents. This study supports the impact

of parenting styles on EI. The warmth and care from both mother and father

will benefit the emotional development of their children in Vietnam.

Motalebi (2016) examined the association between perceived parenting

styles and emotional intelligence in Iranian boy students. The sample size

was 188 boy students (age from 16 to 19) were chosen by a multi-stage

cluster sampling method. To analyze the data, Pearson correlation coefficient

and multivariate regression analysis were used. The findings revealed there

were positive associations between affectionate constraint parenting style,

and optimal parenting style with high ability of emotional intelligence, and

negative associations existed between affectionless control style and

neglectful parenting style with high ability of emotional intelligence. The

affectionate constraint parenting style was a powerful predictor of high

ability of emotional intelligence, and neglectful parenting style was a

plausible predictor of low ability of emotional intelligence in adolescents.

Shalini (2013) examined the influence of perceived paternal parenting styles

on emotional intelligence of adolescents. Sex differences in perceived

paternal parenting style was also explored. The participants comprising of

973 Pre University college students ranging in age between 16-18 years

were administered. Results indicated father’s authoritative and authoritarian

parenting style significantly correlated with emotional intelligence and

fathers were perceived to be more authoritative towards girls than boys.

Findings suggest greater involvement of fathers and adopting an

authoritative approach in bringing up emotionally intelligent adolescents.

Salimynezhad (2015) find a relationship between parental styles with

emotional intelligence, in elementary schools students of MAKOO. The

sample size was 80 boys and girls elementary schools students were chosen

by a cluster sampling method. The methods of this research was descriptive

and correlation analysis. To analyze the data, Pearson correlation coefficient

with SPSS 16th software were used. The findings revealed there were

positive associations between all parenting styles with emotional

intelligence. Girl’s students’ authoritarian parenting style more positive

relations with intelligence than the boys.

Evangelia (2016) examine the relationship between parenting styles and trait

EI in an adolescent population. The sample of our study consisted of 127

adolescents from Greek schools, 15–19 years old. The estimation of the

association between parenting scores and trait EI was based on a

multivariable mixed-effects regression model. An association between

parenting styles and trait EI, statistically significant for authoritativeness and

marginally significant for authoritarianism emerged even after controlling for

a set of potential predictors of trait EI. Additionally, statistically significant

associations of adolescents ‘and parental education with trait EI were found.

These findings provide insight in the field of trait EI antecedents and

underline the potential significance of primary prevention programs with

parents that aim to develop trait EI at a young age.

Chong (2015) study sought to extend knowledge about trait emotional

intelligence (EI) by examining its relationship with paternal and maternal

parenting styles and positive and negative self-talk among Singaporean

adolescents. Students in Grades 6 through 8 (262,49.3% girls, mean age =

13.94) completed instruments measuring trait EI, perceived authoritative,

authoritarian, and permissive parenting styles, and positive and negative

self- talk. The findings provided further insights to inform how parenting

practices and demands can foster self-talk that would have important

implications for children’s socioemotional development.

Sung (2013) examine the impact of parenting styles on emotional

intelligence of HIV- affected children in Thailand. This study uses data from

205 HIV-affected children in northern and northeastern Thailand. Correlation

and regression analyses were used to examine the predictors of emotional

intelligence. Children reporting higher levels of stress reported less caring

parenting style. Children with higher self-esteem were also more likely to

perceive their parents as caring. Children who scored lower on their self-

esteem reported their parents to be more overprotective and children

reporting higher levels of stress reported their parents to be more

overprotective. Identifying and testing interventions to help parents improve

their parenting styles, while helping their HIV-affected children cope with

stress and self-esteem, are essential in promoting mental health of HIV-

affected children in Thailand.

Laura (2012) highlight the relationship between the level of development of

emotional intelligence and parental styles. There were implied 90

adolescents and their parents. The results show the fact that the

development level of emotional intelligence is influenced by the five parental

styles: authoritarian, dictatorial, permissive, democratic and rejecting /

neglecting. The manner in which parents report to their own adolescents,

marks the level of development of emotional intelligence.

Shahida (2022) assessed the impact of positive parenting on the trait

emotional intelligence, prosocial behavior (altruism) and friendship quality of

adolescents. The sample of present study comprised 350 adolescents (208

boys and 142 girls) aged between 14 and 16 year (M = 15. 46 year, SD = .86)

and their parents. The data were collected from two public and two private

sector schools of Lahore, Pakistan. The final model of a mediational path

analysis revealed that positive parenting had a statistically significant

indirect impact on the prosocial behavior of adolescents via emotional

intelligence. Gender appeared as a significant covariate of both prosocial

behavior and friendship quality. Based on the results, we suggest parents to

practice positive parenting styles and recommend emotional intelligence

training of adolescents to promote prosocial behavior and better relationship

with friends.

Tania (2020) observe the relationship between parenting styles, self-efficacy,

emotional intelligence and academic achievement in medical students. Data

was collected from medical students of Lahore. Results: Correlational

analysis showed highly significant positive association between parenting

styles, self-efficacy, emotional intelligence and academic achievement in

medical students. Regression analysis showed significant prediction between

emotional intelligence and academic achievements. Moderation analysis

showed self-efficacy was significant moderator between authoritarian

parenting style and academic achievement.

Sobia (2019) study was an endeavor to explore the role of parental rearing

practices particularly, emotional warmth in predicting emotional intelligence

and resilience among young adults. Sample comprised of 465 students (227

women, 238 men) with age ranged from 18-26 years from public and private

sector universities of Rawalpindi and Islamabad. Data was collected through

Convenient Sampling Technique. Results revealed that perceived emotional

warmth positively correlated with resilience and emotional intelligence.

Further, significant gender differences were also observed on emotional

warmth; women reported more perceived emotional warmth as compared to

men. Findings of the study have been discussed with reference to pertinent

literature and implications for both clinical and non-clinical sample have

been given.

Moazama (2017) investigate the relationship between attachment styles,

emotional intelligence and social intelligence among conveniently selected

340 university students (155 male & 225 female). Results showed that

emotional and social intelligence were positively related with secure

attachment style and negatively related with preoccupied, dismissing, and

fearful attachment styles. High level of social intelligence moderates the

relationship between attachment style and emotional intelligence.

Limitations of study and suggestions for future endeavors have also been

discussed.

Asrar (2017) Investigate the impact of emotional intelligence on teachers job

performance in the education sector of Pakistan. Sample size consists of 166

teachers from universities in the area of central Punjab, Pakistan. The result
indicated that emotional intelligence has a significant impact on the

teacher’s job performance. Key research finding revealed that emotional

self-awareness, self-confidence, achievement, developing others and conflict

management have a positive and significant relationship with the teacher’s

job performance.

Shahida (2014) examine the relationship between parent’s emotional

intelligence and Adolescent’s aggression, through the mediation of parenting

styles. Two hundred and twenty- five undergraduate students (113 boys

&112 girls; age 17–18 years), from four universities in Pakistan, participated

with their parents. Mediational path analysis supported our hypothesized

model. Results indicate that emotional intelligence of parents indirectly links

to aggression among offspring, through parenting styles. It was concluded

that emotional intelligence training will help parents to improve their

parenting styles, and it will lower the risk of aggression in their children.

Saleem (2018) examine the relationship between emotional intelligence and

aggression and investigating gender differences for both variables. A sample

of 100 University students (50 males and 50 females) were recruited from

two adjacent cities of Pakistan. Results indicated a negative association

between emotional intelligence and aggression specifically with hostility and

anger subscale of aggression. Moreover, no significant gender differences

were observed for emotional intelligence and aggression except for the

physical aggression subscale on which male students scored higher as

compared to female students. Results suggest that emotional intelligence

could be a protective factor against specific aspects of aggression.

Tariq (2014) investigate the relationship of emotional intelligence with self-

esteem and depression among adolescents. 182 participants both male and

female of age range 12 to 18 years with mean age of 15.70 and SD=1.82

were included in this study. Sample was selected via using mixed method

sampling technique. Pearson Product moment of Coefficient of correlation

was used in order to find out relationship of emotional intelligence with self-

esteem and depression among adolescents. Results showed that Emotional

intelligence is positively related to self-esteem and negatively related to

depression among Pakistani adolescents.

2.5. Models of Parenting Styles and Emotional Behavioural Consequences

Family as a unit of social organization serves as an effective agent of socialization where parent-
child relationship happens to be a central factor in children’s social development (Bretherton,
1985) and also influences the segments of personality (Saxena, 1987). Ordinarily the child’s key
models are his parents and their behaviour can have beneficial or detrimental effect on the way
the child learns to perceive, think, feel and act. Men’s and women’s degree of investment in
parenting is more consequential for their socialization practices and view of their children then
degree of investment in work (Green and Goldbery, 1989). How a child performs usually depend
on the various parenting styles by which they are being treated. It was found that good relations
with parents tend to show better social adjustment, emotional adjustment and self-esteem
development (Dembo, Small and Savin, 1987). Loving and accepting parents provide healthy
medium for the child to grow his energies into proper channels and exercise his potentials to the
maximum (Kiran and Singh, 1982). Parents of high achievers are found to be more trusting,
rewarding, loving and showed more tolerance towards their children than parents of low
achievers (Kang, Sibia and Gill, 1995). Whereas deprivation of opportunities to be loved and
beloved retards the pattern of their speech development and it affects the patterns of
personalities. Faulty parent-child relationship ends in child’s mal-adjustment (Erickson, 1963)
and deprivation of parents promotes mental retardation and demotes the process of adjustment.
Socialization practices as nurturant parenting techniques, parental use of reasoning to enhance
children’s perspective taking (i.e., induction), and parental modelling of pro-social behaviour
have been found to be associated with young children’s and adolescent’s pro-social
responsiveness towards peers and other adults, (Eisenberg, 1990; Rodke-Yarrow et al., 1983).
The likelihood of active pro-socially is affected through norms of reciprocity, norms of social
rewards including receiving help in the future (Fiske, 1992). The attachment relationship
between parent and child is a discriminating affectional bond that acts as a mechanism to
maintain contact with attachment figures and to create a sense of “felt security” (Bowlby, 1969,
1980; Sroufe and Waters, 1977). It provides conscious and unconscious rules for organizing
current attachment relationship experiences and directing subsequent behaviour, feelings and
perceptions in relationships (Bowlby, 1969, 1980). Opportunities for adolescents to act pro-
socially would depend on interdependency relationship between parent and child, (Repinski,
1993). MacDonald (1992) proposed the existence of a rewarding affectional system in parent
child relationships; individuals participating in secure attachment relationships having high
warmth are motivated to spend time together and to nurture affiliations. Attachment quality and
interdependency contribute to adolescent pro-social behaviour, (Eberly and Montemayor, 1998).

The two distinctive role of parents include both fathering and mothering. The proper blending of
masculine supervision and feminine tenderness seems to be of utmost importance in the
upbringing of a child for the normal growth, but inadequate patterns of the parenting may lead to
despair and self-devaluation of the personality of the individuals. A few studies concentrate on to
evaluate the two distinctive role of mothering and fathering. It was found that delinquents
experienced greater maternal rejection as compared to non-delinquents (Kroupa, 1988 and
Saxena, 1993). Perceptions of chemical dependents were found to be associated with greater
rejection as compared to non-dependents (Bharadwaj, 1995). Emotional competence was found
to be greater in those early adolescents whose perceived mothering was associated with
acceptance than that of rejection (Mithas, 1997). The perceived mothering of child labour was
also found to be associated with acceptance than of rejection associated with school going
children (Bharadwaj, 1998).

A few researches also study the role of mother and reports that warmth and affection of
mothering is positively related to calm, happy, and cooperative behaviour of children (Bagley
and Schaefer, 1960). Mothers love and attention makes a boy feel warm and cozy (Hoffman,
1960) and show better control over their children as compared to fathers. However, conventional
and traditional behaviour of mothers promote problem like drug addiction (Jessor and Jessor,
1974).

A healthy father-child relationship leads to the feeling of being loved and accepted with a high
degree of self-confidence and non-dependency (Hoffman, 1960). Father accepts and encourage
their children in non-deviant families (Jain, 1986) and absence of fathering may promote
delinquency among boys who live with mothers but absence of mothering due to death was
found to be a dormant factor in the promotion of delinquency, while they are living with their
father. Living apart from one’s biological father is associated with a greater risk of adverse
outcomes for children and adolescents regardless of race; education or mother’s remarriage
(Amato, 2000; Cherlin, 1999), fathers’ high quality involvement is beneficial to children’s well-
being and development (Lamb, 2004), father’s today are often directly involved in child rearing
in numerous ways, including nurturing and care giving, engaging in leisure and play activities,
providing the child’s mother with emotional and practical support and providing moral guidance
and discipline (Cabrera et al., 2000), the biological father leaving away is associated with a
greater risk of adverse child and adolescent outcomes whereas father living with children and
involvement does not affect boys and girls differently but is more beneficial to the adolescent
behavioural outcomes (Charlson 2006). Mc Bride et al. (2005) identified that fathers’ perceived
investments in their parental roles and actual levels of parental involvement are moderated by
mothers’ beliefs about the role of father.

Sim (2003) reviewed earlier studies on father-adolescent relationship, mother adolescent

relations and concluded that the father-adolescent relationship is characterized by physical and
emotional distance, in contrast, the mother-adolescent relationship is characterized by attachment
and intimacy. He remarked that the distance that characterizes the father-adolescent relationship
because in this study most father-adolescent links have been examined either independently or
exclusively. Further he examined father and mother linkages in relation to adolescent academic
and athletic competence and self-worth. He concluded that father characteristics moderate links
between mother characteristics and adolescent attributes. The link between mother’s
responsiveness and self-worth became stronger as father responsiveness increased. These
findings demonstrate the need to consider both parents’ characteristics together rather than
independently or exclusively. As a new perspective, Johnson et al. (1991) has examined how the
combination of parenting styles of mothers and fathers predicted adjustment in the adolescence.
It was found that whose mothers and fathers were either both authoritative or both permissive
(i.e., congruent in parenting styles) had less adjustment difficulties than adolescents whose
mothers were authoritative but fathers were rejecting or those whose fathers were authoritative
but mothers were rejecting. Although this study focused on the congruence of parenting styles,
the results demonstrated that each parent-adolescent link depends on the other. In this instance,
experiences with mother characteristics (or father characteristics) - such as responsiveness and
support-appear to relate more strongly to adjustment in the context of similar experiences with
father characteristics (or mother characteristics). Similarly, Russell and Russell (1987) found that
although mothers and fathers spent differing amounts of time along with their children mothers
and fathers were both equally likely to initiate interaction with their children when both parents
and children were together as a consequence responsiveness and support related to adjustment
strongly. In a similar perspective, Maccoby et al. (1993) remarked that it is important to consider
each parent’s relation with the child or adolescent in the context of the other parent’s relation
with that child or adolescent.

Bharadwaj (1998) has identified and explained 8 models of parenting on the basis of parental
emotional expressiveness, parental practices, parental expectations, parental involvement,
parental control and parental conflicts.

2.5.1 Rejection vs. Acceptance model of parenting

The parenting model of rejection vs. acceptance remains in focus in most of the previous studies
as an important mode of parenting. Parental acceptance was found to be positively associated
with adjustment, adolescent helpfulness (Eberly, Montemayor and Flannery, 1993), sports
achievement (Woolger and Power, 1993), self-concept, curiosity, cognitive competence and
achievement of both boys and girls (Bharadwaj, 1996) and emotional competencies like adequate
expression and control of emotions, ability to function with emotions, ability to function with
problem emotions and encouragement of positive emotions (Garg, 1996). Parental rejection
makes children fearful, insecure, attention seeking, jealous, aggressive hostile and lonely with
distorted and devaluated self-image (Coleman, 1970) emotional instability, poor educational
adjustment and more aggressive tendencies (Verma and Bansal, 1989). Parental rejection also
demotes need for achievement and associated with the main causes of anti-social behaviour like
indiscipline, disobedience and aggressiveness (Mukherjee, 1973). Children sharing healthy and
warm relationship with their parents were more intelligent (Mehta, 1995). The loving and
demanding parenting enhance high achievement motivation, extroversion, self-confidence and
happy going (Suman and Achala, 1997). Adolescents perceived parental rejection develop
evasion, dependence, selfishness and hate, but their perceived parental acceptance inculcates
fortitude, self-reliance, probity and love (Bharadwaj, 1998). Children of warmer parents have
also shown they express affect more appropriately, i.e., in a manner suitable to the context and to
the parent’s prior behaviour (Isley et al., 1999). Parents who provide emotional support,
appropriate monitoring and discipline inculcate and provide opportunity for development of
higher self-esteem and less depression and anxiety and children are less likely to engage in anti-
social behaviour such as delinquency and substance use (Steinberg, 1990), and also such parents
develop generativity among adolescents. The children who are exposed to higher levels of
parental negative affect are less well accepted by their peers, while high levels of parental
positive affect are associated with greater peer acceptance (Carlson et al., 1991), and parental
positive affect are meaningful predicators of children’s socio-metric ratings by teachers and
peers (Parke, 1995).

2.5.2 Carelessness vs. Protection model of parenting

The evaluation of a few studies related to carelessness vs. protection mode of parenting clearly
indicate that most of the studies pay greater attention on the study of overprotection instead of
protection which is highly needed for the convivial growth of personality. Over protection in
terms of over-valuation, adoration and delicate are usually leads to the development of over-
dependence, anxiety, weak achievement, failure to cope with external expectations (Coleman,
1970) and deemed to be more harmful in the development of boys as compared to girls
(Bharadwaj, 1995). However, Garg (1996) found the role of perceived parenting of over
protection in the development of a few emotional competencies like adequate expression and
control of emotions and encouragement of positive emotions. Girls perceived their father’s
behaviour as more protecting than boys. Parental carelessness may grow the feeling of
unwantedness and may result in chemical dependence (Bharadwaj, 1996). Child labourers
perceive their fathering and mothering as imbued with protection than that of carelessness
associated with school going children (Bharadwaj, 1998, 1997). The development of greater
emotional competence was found to be associated with perceived mothering of protection as
against carelessness dimension of parenting (Mithas, 1997).

The perception that one’s mother is less caring was strongest predicator of delinquency
(Pedersen, 1994) and perceptions of poor bonding and caring on the part of one’s father, strongly
predicated anxiety and depression. Linares et al. (2001) found that maternal distress behaviour is
an important mechanism linking to child behaviour problems. Kosterman et al. (2004) examined
the unique influence of mother’s and father’s on their children anti-social behaviour
2.5.3 Neglect vs. Indulgence model of parenting

Sometimes, parents succumb to the child’s slightest whims in terms of indulgence and make
children spoiled, selfish, demanding, rebellious to authority and lack of responsibility. Whereas
parental negligence demotes need for achievement. Perceived fathering of chemical dependents
was found to be associated with greater negligence (Bharadwaj, 1996). Emotional competence
was found to be greater in those early adolescents who perceive their fathering as imbued with
indulgence in general (Mithas, 1997). Delinquents reported their mother to be more neglecting
than non-delinquents (Kroupa, 1988). Perceived maternal neglect was found to be associated
among school going children (Bharadwaj, 1998). Emotional competence happens to be the
resultant from roles of mothering and fathering indulgence in general and in labourer early
adolescents of both the sex (Mithas, 1997). Whereas over indulgence may play a detrimental role
in the development of personality potentials. Parental responsiveness is central to development
of attachment security and self-regulation of stress whereas warmth may be implicated more in
the development of social reciprocity (Bugental, 2000). Family environment i.e., interaction of
cohesion, expressiveness, conflict, acceptance and caring, independence, active recreational
orientation, organization and control between parents and adolescents have significant
relationship with emotional competence of adolescents (Arati and Ratnaprabha, 2004).

2.5.4 Utopian Expectation vs. Realism model of parenting

Parental demand of imaginary perfection from their children leads them to internalize parent’s
unrealistic standards. Parental over-ambitiousness regarding their children leads them to
continual frustrations, guilt and self-devaluations (Coleman, 1970). Chemical dependents
perceive their mothering with full of utopian expectations than that of realism perceived by the
chemical non-dependents (Bharadwaj, 1995). Mithas (1997) reported that emotional competence
was found to be greater in those early adolescents who perceive their mothering as imbued with
utopian expectations than that of realism. The perceived mothering of school going children was
found to be associated with realism than that of utopian expectations perceived by child labour
(Bharadwaj, 1998). As regards to role of fathering, it was found that emotional competencies
were found to be greater in those who perceive fathering as imbued with realism than that of
utopian expectations in labourer girls (Mithas, 1997). It is suggested that a harsh, authoritarian
style of parenting may lead child to adopt a perfectionist orientation and develop depression
(Flett et al., 1995). When parents regularly use controlling practices with children, they may
communicate that it is extremely important for children to make performance standards and this
may faster a perfectionist orientation in children. Unfortunately, the evidence for this proposal is
largely indirect, because perfectionism appears to faster depressive symptoms (Frost et al.,
1991). Children’s perfectionism as prescribed by other’s as a mechanism by which mothers’
frequent use of control heightened children’s vulnerability to depressive symptoms (Kenney et
al., 2005).

2.5.5 Lenient Standard vs. Moralism model of parenting

Parental lenient standard may lead to severe conflicting situations for children. Perceived
fathering of labourer early adolescents was found to be associated with moralism as against
lenient standards associated with non-labourers (Bharadwaj, 1997). Emotional competence was
found to be greater in those early adolescents who perceived fathering was associated with
moralism as against lenient standards (Mithas, 1977). Perceptions as regards to mothering was
found to be associated with lenient standards among chemical dependents as compared to non-
dependents (Bharadwaj, 1995). Emotional competence was found to be greater in those early
adolescents who perceive their mothering as imbued with moralism than that of lenient standards
(Mithas, 1997). Perceived mothering was found to be associated with greater lenient standards
among school going children as compared to child labour (Bharadwaj, 1998). Erickson (1992)
argued that religious education contributes to religiosity and morality. The ability to successfully
moralise and socialize one’s children dependent on a variety of family variables including
parental control, support and the gender of the primary parent. Parental influences have
considered on their off springs religious and moral development (Myers, 1996). In the
development of religiosity and moralism family influence is relatively stable across adolescents
but mediating effect of peers on faith maturity is recognizable (Martin et al., 2003).

2.5.6 Freedom vs. Discipline model of parenting

The most important difference between the situation of delinquent and non-delinquent children
was in home discipline, faulty discipline such as over permissiveness in terms of total freedom
develop rebelliousness, total freedom was found to be related positively to adequate expression
and control of emotion in boys, ability to function with emotions and ability to cope with
problem emotions in weak ego male adolescent labour, high restrictions in terms of severe
discipline demotes need for achievement, chemical dependents also perceive their mothering
with full of severe discipline as against total freedom perceived by non-dependents (Bharadwaj,
1995). Perceived mothering of school going children was found to be associated with greater
freedom as compared to child labourer (Bharadwaj, 1998). The adolescent staying at home with
parents had higher level of achievement motivation and have more emotional maturity as
compared to their counterparts staying in orphanage (Chaudhary and Uppal, 1996). The
supportive behaviours towards their adolescents’ children positively predicted both self-esteem
and academic achievement, psychological control was significantly related to adolescent self-
esteem in both the models of paternal parenting and maternal parenting and behaviours control
was significant predictor of academic achievement and self-esteem (Bean et al., 2003).

2.5.7 Faculty role expectation vs. Realistic role expectation model of parenting

Faulty parenting in terms of faulty role expectations leads to fear, anxiety, shyness and
submission and affects achievement in sports (Woolger and Power, 1993). A child who fails to
meet the unrealistic expectations of a parent desperate to be loved may become the target of
abuse, the role of both mother and father was found to be associated with realistic role
expectations as against faulty role expectations of chemical dependents (Bharadwaj, 1995;
1997). Perceived mothering of child labourer as well as school going children was found to be
associated with faulty role expectations (Bharadwaj, 1998). Emotional competence was found to
be greater in those early adolescents who perceive their mothering and fathering as associated
with realistic role expectations than that of faulty role expectations (Mithas, 1997). Identifying
certain adults as role models, youth believe that these individuals are worthy of imitation in some
respect and that their attitudes or values are one’s they would like to assimilate (Bell, 1970;
Pleiss and Feldhusen, 1995). Role models are key references for adolescents because they
provide a window to the future, model positive behaviour and display adaptive techniques to
which the adolescent aspire (Kemper, 1968). Nelson and Valliant (1993) found that for
adolescent male offenders who did not live with their father, having a substitute adult male role
model. Rhodes (1994) has suggested that role model relationships must be with persons who are
proximal and invested in facilitating the youth’s development. Youth without these proximal role
models may be more at risk for negative outcomes during adolescence than those who have such
role models. Bryant and Zimmerman (2003) found that male adolescents without male role
models and females identifying brothers as role models reported the most problem behaviour.
Adolescents with paternal male role models had the most positive school outcomes, no
differences were found in psychological well-being among adolescents in terms of their male
role models. The presence of female role models, in contrast, was associated with psychological
well-being such that adolescents with maternal role models reported least distress. Adolescents
without female models had the lowest grades and most negative school attitudes.

2.5.8 Marital conflict vs. Marital adjustment model of parenting

Family tensions promote delinquent behaviour. Long-term family tensions may reduce the
cohesiveness and affect the parent’s ability to provide an atmosphere conducive to satisfactory
child rearing and solving the problems of the family (David, 1960). Tension in homes of
delinquents manifests through inter-sibling quarrels (Andry, 1960) and marital stability may
foster love, democracy and independence among children. A first generation research has
established relations between inter-parental discord and children’s adjustment problems
including links between parental discord and child maladjustment measured several years apart
(Grych and Fincham, 1990; Owens and Winslow, 1999). In recent years a second generation of
research has focused on the mechanisms or processes that explain these effects on children
because of exposure to inter-parental discord (Cummings and Davies, 2002). Several conceptual
models have been proposed to explain mal adjustment in children, with common agreement that
emotional, cognitive and behavioural processes are potential mediators and that negative forms
of moral conflicts are predictive of maladjustment (Crockenber and Langrock, 2001). Cummings
et al. (2006) has advanced the process oriented study of links between inter-parental discord and
child adjustment and identified that emotional security as an explanatory mechanism for both
internalizing and externalizing problems in children.

Jay and Singh (1991) conducted a study on “The Role of Parental Rejection on the Development
of Neuroses Among Adolescents”. The sample consisted of 200 school going children, and were
classified as 100 most rejected and 100 most accepted”. The parent-child relation questionnaire
was used. The results revealed that the rejected children were more inclined towards neurotic
tendencies.

Steinberg et al. (1992) conducted a study on “Impact of Parenting Practice on Adolescent

Achievement: Authoritative Parenting, School Involvement and Encouragement to Succeed”.
The sample consisted of 6,400 adolescent of age 14-18 years old. Results indicated that
authoritative parenting leads to better adolescent school performance and stronger school
engagement. The positive impact of authoritative parenting is mediated by its facilitation of
parental involvement in schooling.
Weiss et al. (1992) carried out a study on “Some Consequences of Early Harsh Discipline: Child
Aggression and a Maladaptive Social Information Processing Style”. The results revealed
consistent relation between harsh discipline and aggression in two separate cohorts of children.
This relation was not due to confounding factors such as child temperament, socio-economic
status and marital violence, although the latter variables were related to child aggression.

Laurence et al. (1994) conducted a study on “Over-time changes in Adjustment and Competence
among Adolescents from Authoritative, Authoritarian, Indulgent, and Neglectful Families”. One
year follow up was conducted in order to examine whether the observed differences were
maintained over time in 1987, an ethnically and socio-economically heterogeneous sample of
approximately 2,300 adolescents belonging to age range of 14-18 year olds. The result revealed
benefits of authoritative parenting were largely in the maintenance of previous levels of high
adjustment, the deleterious consequences of neglectful parenting continued to accumulate.

Chaudhary and Bajaj (1995) conducted a study on “Emotional Maturity and Occupational
Aspiration”. Sample consisted of 40 adolescents staying at home and 40 adolescents staying in
orphanage on the basis of emotional maturity scale and occupational aspiration scale. The results
revealed that adolescents staying with parents at home had higher level of emotional maturity
and occupational aspiration than those of staying in orphanages. Emotional maturity was found
to be positively related to occupational aspiration for adolescents staying in orphanages and
negatively related to occupational aspiration for adolescents staying at home.

Chaudhry and Uppal (1996) conducted a study on “The Achievement Motivation in Relation to
Emotional Maturity of Adolescents Staying at Home and Orphanage”. The sample comprised of
80 subjects, age group of 13-16 years. Results revealed that adolescents staying at home with
parents had higher level of achievement motivation and had more emotional maturity as
compared to their counterparts staying in the orphanages.

Krevans and Gibbs (1996) conducted a study on “Parents Use of Inductive Discipline: Relations
to Children’s Empathy and Pro-Social Behavour”. The sample of 78 of sixth and seventh grades
and their mothers and teachers formed the sample. Results revealed that parents use of inductive
as opposed to power-assertive discipline related the children’s pro social behaviour. Children of
inductive parents were more empathic and more empathic children were more pro-social.
Moreover, children’s empathy was found to mediate the relation between parent’s discipline and
children’s pro-social behaviour.

Chowdhury and Samal (1997) conducted a study on “Parental Involvement and Academic
Achievement of the Peer Accepted and Peer Rejected Children”. The total of 30 children of
grade 4th, 5th and 6th belonging to peer accepted and peer rejected group (out of total 136) were
selected as sample indicate the existence of higher parental involvement among peer rejected
children. Academic achievements of peer rejected children were found to be less than peer
accepted children, due to lower parental involvement.

Bhadadwaj (1998) conducted a study on “Perceived Parenting of Rejection – Acceptance and

Adolescents Value Conflicts”. Sample consisted of 500 adolescents. It is discerned that a few
value patterns like evasion, dependence, selfishness and hate were found to be associated with
perceived parenting of acceptance. Fear as a value assumption was found to be greater in rejected
adolescents as compared to accepted ones. However, pragmatism value emerged as an important
tendency of Indian adolescents in making their course of action.

Roychoudhury and Basu (1998) conducted a study on “Parent-Child Relationship, School

Achievement and Adjustment of Adolescent Boys”. The sample consisted of 105 boys of 14 to
15 years of age. The results indicated that the pattern of mothering, significantly influences
school adjustment. Both mothering and fathering styles were associated with academic success.
Particularly, rejection and neglect from parents were found to be highly detrimental.

Shanty and Anita (1998) conducted a study on “Parental Disciplinary Practices and Adolescent
Reactions to Frustration”. Sample consisted of 40 adolescent girls whose mean age was 13 years.
Parental Disciplinary Practices Scale and Verbal Frustration Test were administered. The results
of study made it clear that intensity of disciplined significantly influence the direction and type
of aggression reaction to frustrating situations. The less disciplined group showed more
impressive direction in which aggression was evaded in an attempt to gloss over the frustration
and no attempt is made to focus their aggression on any object in the environment whereas the
more disciplined group seemed to be more extra aggressive in which expression of aggression
was turned on to the environment and experience a hurt ego.

Arati and Prabha (2004) conducted a study on “Influence of Family Environment and Emotional
Competence of Adolescents”. A sample of 120 adolescents (60 boys and 60 girls) in the age
group of 13-16 years studying in VII, IX and X classes was selected from different high schools
of Hyderabad and Secunderabad. The results revealed that the family environment had
significant influence on emotional competence of adolescents. Devi Uma and Rayal (2004)
conducted a study on “Relationship between Adolescents Perception about Family Environment
and Emotional Intelligence”. 224 adolescents studying intermediate course constituted the
sample. Results revealed the four out of eight dimensions of family environment, cohesion,
expressiveness, acceptance and caring and active recreational orientation were positively and
significantly related to total emotional intelligence of adolescents. It is surprising to note that
none of the dimensions of family environment were related to any one of the five components of
emotional intelligence. It is interesting to note that only expressiveness dimension was related to
assertiveness dimension of intra personal component and cohesiveness, expressiveness,
acceptance and caring were significantly and positively related to empathy and interpersonal
relationship dimensions.

Kenney-Benson and Pomerantz (2005) conducted a study on “The Role of Mothers use of
Control in Children’s Perfectionism: Implications for the Development of Children’s Depressive
Symptoms”. Mothers use of control with their elementary school children was observed in the
laboratory along with their affective expression toward their children; children’s behaviour (eg,
task engagement) that might influence mothers’ use of control was also observed. Self-oriented
and socially prescribed perfectionism and depression were assessed in children through self-
report. Mothers using heightened control and children with perfectionist concerns, particularly
socially prescribed ones. This was not due to mother’s affective expression or children’s
behaviour. Childrens’ socially prescribed perfectionism mediated. There is link between
mothers’ use of heightened control of children heightened depressive symptoms.
Stalz, Barber and Olsen (2005) conducted study to assess “The Relative Importance of Maternal
and Paternal Support, Behavioural Control and Psychological Control in Explaining Depression,
Anti-Social Behaviour and Social Initiative”. Sample consisted of 644 adolescents. Results lend
support to the overall parental framework and additionally suggest: (a) mother’s behavioural
control was relatively more important than fathers in explaining son’s subsequent antisocial
behaviour, (b) fathers’ support was relatively more important than mother’s support in
explaining subsequent youth social initiative and (c) mothering and fathering tend to have a
cross-gendered effect on early adolescent’s depression.

2.6. Rationale

The study of parenting styles and emotional intelligence is important

because it helps to understand how parenting practices can impact a child’s

emotional development. Different parenting styles, such as authoritarian,

permissive, and authoritative, have been shown to affect a child’s emotional

intelligence, which includes abilities such as self-awareness, self- regulation,

motivation, and empathy. By understanding the relationship between

parenting styles and emotional intelligence, researchers can better

understand how to support parents in fostering the emotional development

of their children. This can have important implications for child well-being, as

research has shown that individuals with higher emotional intelligence tend

to have better social skills, relationships, and overall mental health.

Additionally, studying parenting styles and emotional intelligence can also

provide insight into how these factors may impact other areas of child

development, such as academic achievement, social behavior, and mental

health. This understanding can help inform interventions and policies aimed

at promoting positive outcomes for children.

2.6. Theoratical Framework

Salovey’s and Mayer’s Theory on Emotional Intelligence.

In 1990, Salovey and Mayer introduced EI as one form of intelligence and a

subcategory of social intelligence. Salovey and Mayer identified EI as the

ability to recognize, incorporate, and understand emotions to stimulate

growth in oneself. The researchers argued that in order to enhance thought

processes, social engagement, and adaptive behavior one must be able to

use appropriately, perceive, manage, and understand emotions of self and

others. Mayer and Salovey (1997) categorized EI in four ways: perception of

emotion, emotional facilitation, understanding emotions, and management

of emotions. First, perception of emotion is described as the ability to

recognize emotions in others as well as yourself. Second, emotional

facilitation is the ability to use emotions to identify and signal changes in the

environment, assist in providing alternative perspectives to others to adjust

moods, and to apply rational ideas and thoughts to complicated situations.

Third, understanding emotions involves familiarity with differing emotions

and emotional changes overtime. Lastly, management of emotions includes

both personal and interpersonal handling of emotions. Salovey (1989) found

that higher EI is associated with better intimate and family relationships,

greater academic 10 achievements, and increased self-esteem while lower or

limited EI is associated with insecurity, depression, poor social relationships,

and academic failures.

2.6. Chapter Summary

The parenting styles of the parents directly influences the character of

children in the adolescence and adulthood. Inappropriate parenting styles

cause psychological problems in the emotional, educational, occupational,

familial and individual performance. A number of studies have reflected that

the change in parenting style of the parents can fix the psychological

problems. The aim of this study is to explore the relationship in parenting

styles and emotional intelligence in adults. This study is going to conduct in

Pakistani context and it will help parents to understand their children

emotional state and deal them with resilience and used compassion then

they will become emotionally intelligent and well-adjusted in all fields of life.