Chapter Three

AC Circuit Analysis
 3. Steady-State Sinusoidal Analysis
* In most circuits, the transient response (i.e., the
complimentary solution) decays rapidly to zero, the steady-
state response (i.e., the forced response or the particular
solution) persists.
* In this chapter, we learn efficient methods for finding the
steady-state responses for sinusoidal sources.

2
 3. Steady-State Sinusoidal Analysis

3.1 Sinusoidal Currents and Voltages

3.1.1 Phase and Phase Angle
* Consider the sinusoidal voltage as shown,
v ( t ) = Vm cos(ω t + θ ) where
Vm is the Peak value of the voltage
ω is the angular frequency in rad/s
θ is the phase angle (usually in degree)
Since the angle increasesby 2 π per cycle
we have : ω T = 2 π , T is the period in s,
1
the frequency in Hz (or s ) : f =
-1

T
2π
ω= = 2π f
T

3
3. Steady-State Sinusoidal Analysis – 3.1 Sinusoidal Current and Voltage
3.1.1 Phase and Phase Angle
* We usually use cosine function to model a sinusoidal signal.
In case there is a sine function, we can use the following
conversion:
sin(z) = cos(z - 90)
For example :
v x (t ) = 10 sin(200t + 30 )
v x (t ) = 10 cos(200t + 30 − 90 )
= 10 cos(200t − 60 )
and thus we can say that the phase angle of v x (t) is - 60 

4
3. Steady-State Sinusoidal Analysis – 3.1 Sinusoidal Current and Voltage
3.1.2 Root-Mean-Square (RMS) Values (or Effective Values)
Consider a sinusoidal voltage given by :
v (t ) = Vm cos(ω t + θ )

V m cos 2 (ω t + θ ) dt
1 1
 
T T
= v (t)dt =
2 2
Vrms
T 0 T 0

 1 + cos(2ω t + 2θ )dt
Vm T
=
2T 0

2
 
=
Vm
T +
1
sin( 2 ω T + 2 θ ) −
1
sin( 2 θ )
2T  2ω 2ω 
Vm
Vrms = = 0.7071Vm Note : residential power : 110Vrms (Vm = 155.5V),60 Hz
2

Im
Similarly, I rms = = 0.7071 I m
2
5
3. Steady-State Sinusoidal Analysis – 3.1 Sinusoidal Current and Voltage
3.1.3 Power in terms RMS Value
Consider applying a periodic voltage v(t) with period T to a resistance R.
v 2 (t )
The power delivered to the resistance is given by p(t ) = ,
R

 p(t ) dt
T
the energy delivered per period is : E T =
0

The average powe per period is :

v (t )
2
 1 T 2
2

=  p(t ) dt = 
ET 1 1

T T
Pav = dt =  v ( t )dt  / R
T T 0 T 0 R  T
0

By defining the root - mean - squre (rms) value of the periodic voltage v(t) as :
2

v (t ) dt , we have Pavg
1 Vrms

T
V rms = =
2

T 0 R

Similarly, if we define the rms value of the periodic current as :

i 2 (t ) dt , we have Pavg = I rms R

1

T
I rms =
2

T 0
6
3. Steady-State Sinusoidal Analysis – 3.1 Sinusoidal Current and Voltage
Example 3.1 – Power delivered to a resistance by a sinusoidal source
Given : a v(t) = 100cos(100πt) V
is applied to a 50 Ω resistance
Find : V rms , the average power Pavg
and p(t )

f = ω/2 π = 50 H z , T = 1/f = 20 ms
V rms = V m / 2 = 70.71V
2
V rms ( 70.71 ) 2
Pavg = = = 100 W
R 50
v 2 (t ) 100 2 cos 2 (100π t )
P (t ) = =
R 50
= 200 cos 2 (100π t ) W
= 100 + 100 cos(200πt ) W
7
3. Steady-State Sinusoidal Analysis
3.2 Phasors
3.2.1 Definition
* A phasor is a vector in complex number plane that represents
the magnitude and phase of a sinusoid.
* In ac circuit analysis, voltages and currents are usually
represented as phasors.

For a sinusoidal voltageof the form v1 (t ) = V1 cos(ω t + θ1 )

we definethe phasor as : V1 = V1 θ1
If the sinusoid is of the form v 2 (t ) = V2 sin(ω t + θ 2 )
we can convert it to v 2 (t ) = V2 cos(ω t + θ 2 − 90), therefore
V2 = V2 ( θ 2 − 90 )
Similarly, for i1 (t ) = I 1 cos(ω t + θ1 ) and i2 (t ) = I 2 sin(ω t + θ 2 )
we can write I 1 = I 1 θ1 and I 2 = I 2 ( θ 2 − 90 )

8
3. Steady-State Sinusoidal Analysis – 3.2 Phasors
3.2.1 Definition
* Euler’s Identity:
complex exponential e jθ = cosθ + j sinθ
Ae jθ = A cosθ + jA sinθ
Ae j( ωt + θ ) = Acos( ωt + θ ) + jAsin( ωt + θ )
Acos( ωt + θ ) = Re (Ae j( ωt + θ ) )

* In phasor application:
In circuit application, Ae j( ωt + θ ) is simplified to the form Ae jθ
by deleting the term Ae jwt . As a result,
A cos( ωt + θ ) is presented as Re(Ae jθ ) or simply its phasor form
A = Aθ = A cos( ωt + θ )
For example, the sinusoidal voltage
v 1 (t) = V1 cos( ωt + θ 1 ) is presented as V1 = V1 θ 1
9
 3. Steady-State Sinusoidal Analysis – 3.2 Phasors
3.2.4 Phasor vs. Sinusoids
* The phasor is simply a “snapshot” of a
rotating vector at t=0.
complex exponential e jθ = cosθ + j sinθ
Ae jθ = A cosθ + jA sinθ
Ae j( ωt +θ ) = Acos( ωt + θ ) + jAsin( ωt + θ )
Acos( ωt + θ ) = Re (Ae j( ωt +θ ) )
Consider the sinusoidal voltage as shown :
v(t ) = Vm cos( t +  )
It' s just the real part of a rotating vector :

v(t ) = Re Vm e j ( t + ) 
Vm e j ( t + ) = Vm (  t +  ) and
at t = 0, v(0) = Vm cos = Vm 
The phasor for v(t) is defined as :
V = Vm 
10
3. Steady-State Sinusoidal Analysis – 3.2 Phasors
3.2.2 Phasor Summation
Consider the summation of three voltages
v(t) = 10 cos( ωt) + 5 sin( ωt + 60  ) + 5 cos( ωt + 90  )
We first rewrite all the functions to cosine form
v (t ) = 10 cos(ω t ) + 5 cos(ω t − 30 ) + 5 cos(ω t + 90 )
    
= Re 10e j ω t + Re 5 e j ( ω t − 30 ) + Re 5 e j ( ω t + 90 ) 
v (t ) = Re 10e jωt
+ 5e + 5e 
j ( ω t − 30 ) j ( ω t + 90 )

= Re (10 + 5 e + 5 e )e 
− j 30 j 90 jωt

In Euler' s Identity (or in polar form) :


v (t ) = Re (100 + 5  − 30 + 5 90 ) e j ω t 
Consider the complex number :
100 + 5  − 30 + 5  90 = 10 + 4.33 − j 2.50 + j 5
= 14.33 + j 2.5 = 14.54 9.90 = 14.54 e j 9.90
(
 v (t ) = Re 14.54 e j 9.90 e j ω t ) 
v (t ) = Re 14.54 e j ( ω t + 9.90 )

= 14.54 cos(ω t + 9.90 ) 11
3. Steady-State Sinusoidal Analysis – 3.2 Phasors
3.2.2 Phasor Summation
Now we use Phasor notation to simplify our calculation:

v(t ) = 10 cos( t ) + 5 sin( t + 60) + 5 cos( t + 90)

v(t ) = 10 cos( t ) + 5 cos( t − 30) + 5 cos( t + 90)
V = V1 + V2 + V3
= 100 + 5 − 30 + 590
= 10 + 4.33 − j 2.50 + j 5
= 14.33 + j 2.5
= 14.549.90
 V = 14.549.90
 v(t ) = 14.54 cos( t + 9.90)

Note: In using phasors to add sinusoids, all of the terms must

have the same frequency.
12
3. Steady-State Sinusoidal Analysis – 3.2 Phasors
Example 3.2 – Using phasors to Add Sinusoids
Suppose that v1 (t ) = 20 cos( t − 45)
v 2 (t ) = 10 sin( t + 60)
Find v s (t) = v1 (t) + v 2 (t)
The phasors are : V1 = 20 − 45 and V2 = 10 − 30
V s = V1 + V 2
= 20 − 45 + 10 − 30
= 14.14 − j14.14 + 8.660 − j 5
= 23.06 − j19.14
= 29.97 − 39.7
v s (t ) = 29.97 cos( t − 39.7)

13
3. Steady-State Sinusoidal Analysis – 3.2 Phasors
3.2.3 Fundamental Phasor Operations

If V1 = V1  1 , V2 = V2  2 , then
Multiplication : V1  V2 = V1V2  1 +  2
V1 V1
Division : =  1 -  2
V 2 V2
1 1 1
Reciprocal : = =  -1
V1 V1  1 V1
Square Root : V1 = V1  1 /2

14
3. Steady-State Sinusoidal Analysis – 3.2 Phasors
3.2.5 Phase Relationships

Consider the voltages:

v1 (t ) = 3 cos( t + 40) and v 2 (t ) = 4 cos( t − 20)
They can be represented as : V1 = 340 and V2 = 4 − 20
and we may say that :
V1 leads V2 by 60  or V2 lags V1 by 60  .

15
 3. Steady-State Sinusoidal Analysis – 3.3 Complex
Impedances
3.3.1 Impedance
* Impedance means “complex resistance”.
* The impedance concept is equivalent to stating that capacitors
and inductors act as “frequency-dependent resistors.”

* Except for the fact that we use complex arithmetic, sinusoidal

steady-state analysis is the same as the analysis of resistive
circuits.

16
3. Steady-State Sinusoidal Analysis – 3.3 Complex Impedances
3.3.2 Inductance

Consider a current i L (t ) = I m sin( t +  ) flow through an inductor :

diL (t )
v L (t ) = L =  L I m cos( t +  )
dt
In their phasor forms : I L = I m (  − 90 ) and V L =  L I m  = Vm 
Note : the current lags the voltage by 90 
Rewrite voltage as : V L = ( L90)  I m (  − 90 ) = j  L  I L
Define the impedance of the inductance as : Z L = j  L =  L90
We have : V L = Z L I L
This is Ohm' s law in phasor form.
17
3. Steady-State Sinusoidal Analysis – 3.3 Complex Impedances
3.3.3 Capacitance

Consider a voltage v C (t) = Vm cos( ωt + θ ) across a capacitor

dvC
i C (t) = C = -ωCV m sin( ωt + θ ) = ωCV m cos( ωt + θ + 90 )
dt
In their phasor forms : VC = Vm θ , I C = ωCV m θ + 90  = I m θ + 90 
Note : the current leads voltage by 90 
1 1
Rewrite voltage as VC = Vm θ =  - 90  I m θ + 90 =  - 90  I C
ωC ωC
1 1
Define the impedance of capacitance as : Z C = =  - 90 
jωC ωC
we have : VC = Z C I C 18
3. Steady-State Sinusoidal Analysis – 3.3 Complex Impedances

* Impedance that are pure imaginary are called reactance.

3.3.4 Resistance

Define the impedanceof resistanceas Z R = R

we have : V R = R I R

19
3. Steady-State Sinusoidal Analysis – 3.3 Complex Impedances

20
3. Steady-State Sinusoidal Analysis – 3.3 Complex Impedances
Quiz - Exercises 5.6, 5.7, 5.8

21
3. Steady-State Sinusoidal Analysis – 3.3 Complex Impedances
Quiz - Exercises 5.6, 5.7, 5.8

22
3. Steady-State Sinusoidal Analysis – 3.3 Complex Impedances
Additional Example: represent the circuit shown in the
frequency domain using impedances and phasors.

23
3. Steady-State Sinusoidal Analysis – 3.3 Complex Impedances
Additional Example: represent the circuit shown in the
frequency domain using impedances and phasors.

24
3. Steady-State Sinusoidal Analysis – 3.4 Circuit Analysis
3.4 Circuit Analysis
* Impedance circuit analysis is the same as resistive circuit
analysis, we can directly apply KCL, KVL, nodal analysis,
mesh analysis,…
KVL equation:
v1 (t ) + v 2 (t ) − v3 (t ) = 0  V1 + V2 − V3 = 0
KCL equations:
i1 (t) + i2 (t) - i3 (t) = 0  I 1 + I 2 - I 3 = 0

* The above phasor approach can only apply for steady state
with sinusoids of the same frequency.

25
 3. Steady-State Sinusoidal Analysis – 3.4 Circuit Analysis
Example 3.3 – Steady-State AC Analysis of a Series Circuit
* Find the steady-state current, the phasor voltage across each element, and
construct a phasor diagram.

1
Vs = 10030, Z L = j  L = j150, Z C = − j = − j 50
C
Z eq = R + Z L + Z C = 100 + j150 − j 50 = 100 + j100 = 141.445
Vs 10030
I= = = 0.707 − 15
Z 141.445
i (t ) = 0.707 cos(500t − 15)
V R = R  I = 100  0.707 − 15 = 70.7  − 15
V L = j  L  I = 15090  0.707 − 15 = 106.175
1
VC = − j  I = 50 − 90  0.707 − 15 = 35.4 − 105
C 26
Example 3.4 – Series/Parallel Combination of Complex Impedances
* Find the voltage across the capacitor, the phasor current
through each element, and construct a phasor diagram

1
V s = 10 - 90  , Z L = j  L = j100 , Z C = − j = − j100
C
1 1 10
Z RC = = = = 70.71 − 45
1 R + 1 Z C 1 100 + 1 ( − j100 ) 0.0141445
Z RC = 50 − j 50
Z RC 70.71 − 45
VC = V s = 10 − 90 = 10 − 180
Z L + Z RC j100 + 50 − j 50
vC (t ) = 10 cos(1000t − 180) = −10 cos(1000t )
Vs 10 − 90 10 − 90
I= = = = 0.1414 − 135
Z L + Z RC j100 + 50 − j 50 50 + j 50
VC 10 − 180
IR = = = 0.1 − 180
R 100
V 10 − 180 10 − 180
IC = C = = = 0.1 − 90 27
ZC − j100 100 − 90
3. Steady-State Sinusoidal Analysis – 3.4 Circuit Analysis
Example 3.5 – Steady-State AC Node-Voltage Analysis
* Find the voltage at node 1 using nodal analysis

Write KCL at node1 and node 2

V1 V1 - V2
+ = 2 - 90
10 - j5
V2 V2 − V1
+ = 1.50 
j10 − j5
(0.1 + j0.2 )V1 − j0.2V2 = − j 2
− j0.2V1 + j0.1V2 = 1.5
Solve for V1 :
V1 = 16.129.7 or v1 (t ) = 16.1 cos(100t + 29.7) 28
3. Steady-State Sinusoidal Analysis – 3.4 Circuit Analysis
Exercise 3.11 – Steady-State AC Mesh-Current Analysis
* Solve for the mesh currents

29
 3. Steady-State Sinusoidal Analysis – 3.4 Circuit Analysis
Additional Example :

Deter min e B and L

when i(t) = Bcos (3t - 51.87 )A

30
 3. Steady-State Sinusoidal Analysis – 3.4 Circuit Analysis
Additional Example :

31
 3. Steady-State Sinusoidal Analysis – 3.4 Circuit Analysis

Additional Example :

32
 3. Steady-State Sinusoidal Analysis – 3.4 Circuit Analysis
Additional Example : Commercial Airliner Door Bridge Circuit

33
 3. Steady-State Sinusoidal Analysis – 3.4 Circuit Analysis
Additional Example :

34
 3. Steady-State Sinusoidal Analysis – 3.4 Circuit Analysis
Additional Example :

35
 3. Steady-State Sinusoidal Analysis – 3.4 Circuit Analysis

Additional Example :

36
3. Steady-State Sinusoidal Analysis – 3.4 Circuit Analysis
Quiz – Exercise 3.10
* Find the phasor voltage and phasor current at each element

37
3. Steady-State Sinusoidal Analysis – 3.5 Power in AC Circuit
3.5 Power in AC Circuit
3.5.1 Voltage, Current and Impedance
In the network, v(t) = Vm cos( t) or V = Vm 0 
the impedance Z = Z  = R + jX
where Z = R 2 + X 2 ,  = tan-1 (X/R)
V Vm 0
The phasor current is I = = = I m −
Z Z 
Vm
where I m =
Z
(Note : If V = Vm  v , then
I = I m  v -  = I m  i , where  v -  i =  )

38
3. Steady-State Sinusoidal Analysis – 3.5 Power in AC Circuit
3.5.2 Voltage, Current and Power for a Resistive Load

If the load is pure resistive,

Z = R0, θ = 0
v (t ) = V m cos(ω t )

i (t ) = cos( ω t) = I m cos(ω t )
Vm
R
p(t ) = v (t ) i (t ) = V m I m cos 2 (ω t )
1 1
= Vm I m (
+ cos2ω t)
2 2
V I
The average power P = m m = V rms I rms
2

(1) Current is in phase with voltage.

(2) Energy flows continuously from
source to load.
39
3. Steady-State Sinusoidal Analysis – 3.5 Power in AC Circuit
3.5.3 Voltage, Current and Power for an Inductive Load
If the load is pure inductance,
Z = ωL90  , θ = 90 
v (t ) = Vm cos(ω t )
i (t ) = I m cos(ω t − 90 )
= I m sin(ω t )
p(t ) = v (t ) i (t )
= Vm I m cos(ω t )sin(ω t )

sin(2ω t ) = Vrms I rms sin2ωt

Vm I m
=
2
The average power P = 0

(1) Current lags the voltage by 90 degree (ELI)

(2) Half of the power is positive, energy is delivered to the inductance
and stored in the magnetic field; the other half of the power is
negative, the inductance returns energy to the source.
(3) The average power is zero, and we say reactive power flows back40
and forth in-between the source and the load.
3. Steady-State Sinusoidal Analysis – 3.5 Power in AC Circuit
3.5.4 Voltage, Current and Power for a Capacitive Load
If the load is pure capacitance,
1
Z=  - 90  , θ = -90 
ωC
v (t ) = Vm cos(ω t )
i (t ) = I m cos(ω t + 90 )
= − I m sin(ω t )
p(t ) = v (t ) i (t )
= −Vm I m cos(ω t ) sin(ω t )

sin(2ω t ) = −Vrms I rms sin 2 ωt

Vm I m
=−
2
The average power P = 0
(1) Current leads the voltage by 90 degree (ICE)
(2) The average power is zero: reactive power flows back and forth in-
between the source and the load.
(3) Reactive power is negative (positive) for a capacitance
(inductance).
(4) Reactive power in inductance and in capacitance cancel each other.
41
3. Steady-State Sinusoidal Analysis – 3.5 Power in AC Circuit
3.5.5 Power Calculation for a General (RLC) Load
For general RLC load,Z = R + jX = Z  , - 90     90 
v(t ) = Vm cos( t )
i (t ) = I m cos( t −  )
p(t ) = Vm I m cos( t ) cos( t −  )
= Vm I m cos( ) cos 2 ( t ) + Vm I m sin( ) cos( t ) sin( t )

cos( )1 + cos(2 t ) +

Vm I m Vm I m
= sin( ) sin(2 t )
2 2
 = 0 : pure resistive, only the 1st term remains;
 = 90  : pure reactive, only the second term remains.
Active (Real) load due to R
Reactive load due to L, C

42
3. Steady-State Sinusoidal Analysis – 3.5 Power in AC Circuit
3.5.5 Power Calculation for a General (RLC) Load
v(t ) = Vm cos( t ) v(t ) = Vm cos(ω t + θ v )
i (t ) = I m cos( t −  ) i (t ) = I m cos(ω t + θ i ), θ = θ v - θ i
p(t ) = Vm I m cos( t ) cos( t −  ) = I m cos( ω t + θ v - θ )
p(t) = Vm I m cos( ) cos 2 ( t ) p(t ) = Vm I m cos(ω t + θ v ) cos(ω t + θ v − θ )
+ Vm I m sin( ) cos( t ) sin( t ) p(t ) = Vm I m cos(θ ) cos 2 (ω t + θ v )
+ Vm I m sin(θ ) cos(ω t + θ v ) sin(ω t + θ v )
cos( )1 + cos(2 t )
Vm I m
p(t ) =
2
cos(θ )1 + cos(2( ω t + θ v ))
Vm I m
p(t ) =
Vm I m
+ sin( ) sin(2 t ) 2
2 Vm I m
+ sin(θ ) sin(2( ω t + θ v ))
2
Since the terms involving cos(2( t +  v )) and sin(2(t +  v ))
have average values of zero, the average(real) power P is :
Vm I m
P= cos( ), using Vrms = Vm / 2 and I rms = I m / 2 ,
2
we have P = Vrms I rms cos( ) 43
3. Steady-State Sinusoidal Analysis – 3.5 Power in AC Circuit
3.5.5 Power Calculation for a General (RLC) Load
p(t ) = m m cos(θ )1 + cos(2ω t ) + m m sin(θ )sin(2ω t )
V I V I
2 2
Average Power: P = m m cos(θ ) = Vrms I rms cos(θ ) W
V I
2

Power Factor: PF = cos(θ ), θ = θv − θ i is called the power angle

Power factor is often stated as percentage, e.g.,
90% lagging (i.e., current lags voltage, inductive load)
60% leading (i.e., current leads voltage, capacitive load)
Vm I m
Q= sin(θ ) = V I sin(θ ) VAR (Volt Amperes Reactive)
Reactive Power: 2 rms rms
The last term in power formula is the power flowing back and forth
between the source and the energy-storage elements. Reactive
power is its peak power.
Apparent Power: S  Vrms I rms VA (Volt - Ampere)
P 2 + Q 2 = (Vrms I rms ) cos 2 (θ ) + (Vrms I rms ) sin 2 (θ ) = (Vrms I rms )
2 2 2

Note: 5kW load is different from 5kVA load. 44

3. Steady-State Sinusoidal Analysis – 3.5 Power in AC Circuit
3.5.5 Power Calculation for a General (RLC) Load

45
 3. Steady-State Sinusoidal Analysis – 3.5 Power in AC Circuit
3.5.6 Impedance triangle and Power Triangle
* The impedance triangle:

* The Power triangle:

Apparent power, average (real) power, and reactive power form a
triangle.
S = Vrms I rms VA (Volt - Ampere)
P 2 + Q 2 = (Vrms I rms ) cos 2 ( ) + (Vrms I rms ) sin 2 ( ) = (Vrms I rms )
2 2 2

46
 3. Steady-State Sinusoidal Analysis – 3.5 Power in AC Circuit
3.5.6 Impedance triangle and Power Triangle
cos(θ )1 + cos(2ω t ) + m m sin(θ )sin(2ω t )
Vm I m V I
p(t ) =
2 2

Z = Z θ = R + j X , cos(θ ) = , sin(θ ) =
R X
Z Z
Vm I m V I R
The average power P = cosθ = m m 
2 2 Z
2
I
(Note : V m = I m Z ) = m R = I rms R
2

2
V I
Similarly, the reactive power Q = m m sinθ = I rms X
2

2
(X  0, inductive load; X  0, capacitiveload)
2
V Rrms
Also : P = where V Rrms is the voltage acrtoss the resistance
R
2
V Xrms
Q= where V Xrms is the voltage across the reactance
X
2 2 2 2
Vm I m R Vm R Vm R 2 1 VRm 1 VRrms
P= = = = =
2 Z 2 Z2 2 Z2 R 2 R R 47
 3. Steady-State Sinusoidal Analysis – 3.5 Power in AC Circuit
Example 3.6 – AC Power Calculation

(1) Find the power and reactive power taken from the source
θ = θ v − θ i = −90 − ( −135 ) = 45
Vs 10
Vs ,rms = = = 7.071V
2 2
I 0.1414
I rms = = = 0.1 A
2 2
The power : P = Vs ,rms I rms cos(θ )
= 7.071 0.1 cos(45) = 0.5W
The reactive power Q = Vs ,rms I rms sin(θ )
= 7.071 0.1 sin(45) = 0.5VAR 48
 3. Steady-State Sinusoidal Analysis – 3.5 Power in AC Circuit
Example 3.6 – AC Power Calculation

(2) The reactive power deliveredto the inductor :

QL = I rms X L = ( 0.1 ) 2 ( 100 ) = 1.0VAR
2

(3) The reactive power deliveredto the capacitor :

2
 0.1 
QC = I C ,rms X C =   ( −100 ) = −0.5VAR ( Note : Q = QL + QC )
2

 2
(4) The (real) power deliveredto the resistance:
2
 IR 
2
 0.1 
2

PR = I R ,rms R =   R=  100 = 0.5W

 2  2
Of course,the power absorbedby the capacitance and inductanceis 0
PL = 0 , PC = 0
All of the power delivedrdby the source is absorbedby the resistance. 49
 3. Steady-State Sinusoidal Analysis – 3.5 Power in AC Circuit
Additional Example:

50
 3. Steady-State Sinusoidal Analysis – 3.5 Power in AC Circuit
Additional Example:

51
 3. Steady-State Sinusoidal Analysis – 3.5 Power in AC Circuit
Additional Example:

52
 3. Steady-State Sinusoidal Analysis – 3.5 Power in AC Circuit
Additional Example:

53
 3. Steady-State Sinusoidal Analysis – 3.5 Power in AC Circuit
Additional Example:

54
 3. Steady-State Sinusoidal Analysis – 3.5 Power in AC Circuit
Additional Example:

55
 3. Steady-State Sinusoidal Analysis – 3.5 Power in AC Circuit
Example 3.7 – Using Power Triangles
Find power, reactive power, and power factor for the source
and the phasor currents as shown.

We first find the power and reactive power for each load, then
sum over to obtain the power and reactive power for the
source.

56
 3. Steady-State Sinusoidal Analysis – 3.5 Power in AC Circuit
Example 3.7 – Using Power Triangles

For load A, we have : cos( A ) = 0.5

PA = Vrms I Arms cos( A ) = 10 4 ( 0.5 ) = 5 kW
Q A = − (Vrms I Arms ) − PA
2 2

( ) − (5000)
= − 10 4
2 2
= −8.660kVAR
For load B,  B = arccos( 0.7 ) = 45.57
QB = PB tan( B ) = 5000tan(45.57)
QB = 5.101kVAR
The power and reactive power deliveredby the source :
P = PA + PB = 5 + 5 = 10kW
Q = Q A + QB = −8.660 + 5.101 = −3.559kVAR 57
 3. Steady-State Sinusoidal Analysis – 3.5 Power in AC Circuit
Example 3.7 – Using Power Triangles

The power and reactive power deliveredby source : i

P = PA + PB = 10kW , Q = Q A + QB = −3.559kVAR v
The power angle: θ = tan−1 (Q/P ) = −19.59
The power factor : cos(θ ) = 0.9421 or 94.21% leading.
The apparent power : S = Vrms I rms = P 2 + Q 2 = 10.61kVA
The effective source voltage: Vrms = V / 2 = 1kV
The effectivecurrent : I rms = Vrms I rms /Vrms = 10.61A
I m = I = 2 I rms = 15 A
θ i = θ v − θ = 30 − ( −19.59 ) = 49.59, I = I θ i = 1549.59
58
 3. Steady-State Sinusoidal Analysis – 3.5 Power in AC Circuit

3.5.7 Power-Factor Correction

59
 [Link]-State Sinusoidal Analysis – 3.5 Power in AC Circuit
Example 3.8 – Power-Factor Correction
A 50kW load operates from a 60-Hz 10kV-rms line with a power
factor of 60% lagging. Compute the capacitance that must
be placed in parallel with the load to achieve a 90% lagging
power factor.

θ L = cos −1 ( 0.6 ) = 53.13

QL = P tan(θ ) = 66.67 kVAR
θ new = cos −1 ( 0.9 ) = 25.84 50kW
Qnew = P tan(θ new ) = 24.22kVAR PF = 0.6

QC = Qnew − QL = −42.45kVAR

XC =
Vrms
=
2
10 4( ) 2

= −2356Ω
QC − 42450 QL = 66.67kVA
ω = 2π 60 = 377.0
1 1 Qnew = 22.42kVA
C= = = 1.126 μF
ω X C 377  2356 P = 50kW
60
 [Link]-State Sinusoidal Analysis – 3.5 Power in AC Circuit
Quiz - Exercise 3.12 – Power in AC Circuits
.

61
[Link]-State Sinusoidal Analysis – 3.6 Thevenin and Norton
3.6 Thevenin and Norton Equivalent Circuits
* A two terminal circuit composed of sinusoidal sources (of the
same frequency), resistances, capacitances, and
inductances can be simplified to Thevenin or Norton
equivalent circuit.

2.6.1 Thevenin Equivalent Circuits

Vt = Voc
Voc Vt
Zt = =
I sc I sc
* The Thevenin impedance can also be
obtained by zeroing sources.
2.6.2 Norton Equivalent Circuits
Voc Vt
Zt = =
I sc I sc
I n = I sc
62
3. Steady-State Sinusoidal Analysis – 3.6 Thevenin and Norton
Example 3.9 – Thevenin and Norton Equivalents
We find Z t by zeroing sources
1
Zt =
1 100 + 1 ( − j100 )
1
=
0.0141445
= 70.71 − 45
= 50 − j 50
Apply short circuit at terminals
V 1000
IR = s = = 10 A
100 100
I sc = I R − I s
= 1 − 190
= 1.414 − 45 A
Vt = I sc Z t
= 1.414 − 45  70.71 − 45
= 100 − 90 V
63
3. Steady-State Sinusoidal Analysis – 3.6 Thevenin and Norton
Additional Example:

64
3. Steady-State Sinusoidal Analysis – 3.6 Thevenin and Norton

65
3. Steady-State Sinusoidal Analysis – 3.6 Thevenin and Norton
3.6.1 – Maximum Power Transfer

Assume Z t = Rt + jX t , Z L = R L + jX L
I = Vt /(Z t + Z L ) = Vt /[(Rt + R L ) + j(X t + X L )]
I m = Vtm / Z = Vtm /[(Rt + R L ) 2 + (X t + X L ) 2 ] 1/2
1 Vtm2 R L
Avg. output power P = I 2
RL =
2 [(Rt + R L ) 2 + (X t + X L ) 2 ]
rms

P P
P = Pmax when = 0 and =0
RL X L
 R L = Rt and X L = -X t  Z L = Rt - X t
i.e., when Z load = Z t we have max. power output
*

Z total = Z t + Z load = Rt + j X t + Rt − j X t = 2Rt

If Z load can only be resistive, then when

Z load = Rload = Z t we have [Link] power.

66
3. Steady-State Sinusoidal Analysis – 3.6 Thevenin and Norton
Example 3.10 – Maximum Power Transfer
Since Z t = 50 − j 50
(a) we will have [Link] power when
Z load = Z t = 50 + j 50
*

Vt 100 − 90
Ia = = = 1 − 90
Z t + Z load 50 − j 50 + 50 + j 50
2
 1 
P = I arms Rload =   ( 50 ) = 25W
2

 2
(b) If the load has to be resistive,
Rload = Z t = 50 − j 50 == 70.71
Vt 100 − 90
Ib = =
Z t + Z load 50 − j 50 + 70.71
100 − 90
= = 0.765 − 67.50
130.66  − 22.50
2
 0.7653 
P = I brms Rload =  70.71 = 20.71W
2

 2  67
3. Steady-State Sinusoidal Analysis – 3.6 Thevenin and Norton
Quiz – Exercise 5.14 and Exercise 5.15

68
3. Steady-State Sinusoidal Analysis – 3.6 Thevenin and Norton
Quiz – Exercise 3.14

69
3. Steady-State Sinusoidal Analysis – 3.6 Thevenin and Norton
Quiz – Exercise 3.15

70
3. Steady-State Sinusoidal Analysis – 3.6 Thevenin and Norton
Quiz – Exercise 3.15

71
3. Steady-State Sinusoidal Analysis – SUMMARY

72
2. Steady-State Sinusoidal Analysis – SUMMARY

73
2. Steady-State Sinusoidal Analysis – SUMMARY

74