Material Science

Chapter-1
 IMPORTANT TERMS:
 Unit Cell
 Crystal Lattice (Line lattice) @SolutionsAndTricks
 Space Lattice (point lattice)
 Primitive cell
[Link]
 Lattice parameter
 CRYSTALLINE MATERIALS-CRYSTAL SYSTEMS & BRAVAIS LATTICES:
CRYSTAL SYSTEM GEOMETRY BRAVAIS LATRICES
CUBIC a = b = c; α = β= γ =90 SC
BCC
FCC
TETRAGONAL a = b ≠ c; α = β= γ =90 ST
BCT
ORTHORHOMBIC a ≠ b ≠ c; α = β= γ =90 SO
BCO
FCO
ECO
RHOMBOHEDRAL a = b = c; α = β = γ ≠90 SR
HEXAGONAL a = b ≠ c; α = β =90, γ =120 SH
MONOCLINIC a ≠ b ≠ c; α = γ =90 ≠ β SM
ECM
TRICLINIC a ≠ b ≠ c; α ≠ β ≠ γ≠90
Note: triclinic structure is the least symmetric structure
 CRYSTAL STRUCTURE CHARACTERISTICS:
CHARACTERISTIC BCC FCC HCP
a to r relation a = 4r⁄ a = 4r⁄ a = 2r
√3 √2
Average no. of atoms 2 4 6
(Nav)
Coordination 8 12 12
number
Atomic packing 0.68 0.74 0.74
factor (APF)
Examples Fe (except in 910- Fe (in 910 1400°C), Mg, Zn, Zr, Ti, Cd,
1400°C), W, Cr, V, Mo, Ta Al, Cu, Au, Ag. NI, Pt Be, Co etc.
etc. etc.
 HCP Element 𝐜⁄ Ratio
𝐚
Ti 1.587
Mg 1.623
Ideal HCP 1.633
Zn 1.856
Cd 1.886
Be 1.568

 MILLER INDICES OF PLANES:

 Rationalized reciprocals of fractional intercepts taken along the three
crystallographic directions, and written inside parenthesis without a
separating comma between them.
 Indicated by (h k l).
 Always expressed as smallest integers.
 {hkl)- denotes family of planes, that are crystallographically equivalent i.e.,
having same atomic packing.
 Example: family of (111) planes include (i i i), (i 11), (1 i i), (i i 1), (1 i 1)
planes
 CHARACTERISTICS OF MILLER INDICES OF PLANES:
 When a plane is parallel to an axis, its miller index on that axis is zero.
 Parallel planes will have quantitatively same miller indices, except for
arithmetic sign of non-zero indices.
 Two planes (h1k1l1) and (h2k2l2) will be perpendicular, if h1h2 + k1k2 + l1l2 =
0
 The angle, Ɵ at which two planes (h1k1l1) and (h2k2l2) intersect, is given by
(𝐡 𝐡 + 𝐤 𝟏 𝐤 𝟐 + 𝐥𝟏 𝐥𝟐 )
Cos Ɵ = 𝟏 𝟐 ⁄
√ ( 𝐡𝟏𝟐 + 𝐤 𝟏𝟐 + 𝐥𝟏𝟐 ). (𝐡𝟐𝟐 + 𝐤 𝟐𝟐 + 𝐥𝟐𝟐 )
 Planes having low indices are far away from the origin than those having
high indices.
 Inter planar distance (d) = 𝐚⁄ 𝟐
√𝐡 + 𝐤 𝟐 + 𝐥𝟐 )
 MILLER INDICES OF DIRECTIONS:
 Rationalized components of a given direction vector, taken in all
crystallographic directions.
 Indicated by [uvw].
 <uvw> denotes family of directions
 Always expressed as smallest integers.
  DENSITY CALCULATIONS IN CRYSTAL STRUCTURES:
 Three types of Densities exist:
1. Volume density (ρv)
2. Planar density (ρp)
3. Linear density (ρl)
 Volume density (ρv): Ratio of weight of average no. of atoms to the volume
of unit cell.
𝐰𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐚𝐯𝐠. 𝐧𝐨. 𝐨𝐟 𝐚𝐭𝐨𝐦𝐬 ⁄
(ρv)= 𝐕𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐮𝐧𝐢𝐭 𝐜𝐞𝐥𝐥
(Nav X atomic weight)
= ⁄(6.023 X 1023 X Vol. of unit cell)
 Planar density (ρp): The no. of atoms whose centres are intersected per unit
area of the plane under consideration.
(ρp)= 𝐍𝐨. 𝐨𝐟 𝐚𝐭𝐨𝐦𝐬 ⁄𝐚𝐫𝐞𝐚 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐩𝐥𝐚𝐧𝐞
Plane BCC FCC
(100) 1/a2 2/a2
(110) √2⁄ √2⁄
a2 a2
(111) (1/2) 2⁄
⁄ (√3/2)a2
(√3/2)a2

 Linear density (ρl): The no. of atoms, whose centres are intersected per unit
length of a direction under consideration.
Direction BCC FCC
(100) 1/a 2/a
(110) 1/√2𝑎 2/√2𝑎
(111) 2/√3𝑎 1/√3𝑎

 NUMBER OF SLIP SYSTEMS:

CRYYSTAL SLIP PLANES x NUMBER SLIP DIRECTION x NUMBER NUMBER OF
STRUCTURE SLIP SYSTEMS
FCC {111} X 4 <1 i 1> X 3 12
BCC {110} X 6 <i 1 1> X 2 12
{211} X 12 <i 1 1> X 1 12
{321} X 24 <i 1 1> X 1 24
HCP {0001} X 1 <1 1 -2 0> X 3 3
{1 0 -1 0} X 1 <1 1 -2 0> X 3 3
{1 0 -1 1} X 2 <1 1 -2 0> X 3 6
 STRUCTURAL IMPERFECTIONS:
 POINT DEFECTS: Vacancies, Self interstitialcies, Impurities (interstitial and
substitutional), Frenkel and Schotkey defects.
 LINE DEFECTS: Dislocations-Edge dislocations, screw dislocations, mixed
dislocations.
 SURFACE DEFECTS: Grain boundaries, Low angle tilt boundaries, twist
boundaries, twin boundaries, and stacking faults.
 VOLUME DEFECTS: Casting defects, forming defects, welding defects etc.,
 POINT DEFECTS:
 Vacancy
 Self interstitialcy
 Impurity
 Frenkel defect
 Schotkey defect
 Effects of point defects: increases tensile strength and hardness due to
lattice distortion, increases electrical resistivity, increases kinetics of
diffusion and phase transformations.
 Reasons for formation: Plastic deformation, high energy particle radiation.
 Vacancy concentration:
Vacancy concentration in a metal increases with increase in temperature.
Let, nv = no. of vacancies in a metal
nt = total no. of lattice sites in the metal.
nv⁄ = vacancy concentration (or fraction of vacancies in a metal)
nt
𝐧𝐯⁄ = 𝐞−(𝐄⁄𝐊𝐓)
𝐧𝐭
where, E = activation energy(enthalpy of formation of a vacancy)
K = Boltzmann constant
T = Absolute temperature in Ok
 The equilibrium number of both Frenkel and Schottky defects increase with
temperature, as given by the following expression:
−𝐐𝐬
Ns or Nfr = N exp( ⁄𝟐𝐤𝐓)
where, Ns = equilibrium number of Schottky defects
Nfr = equilibrium number of Frenkel defects
N = total number of lattice sites in the crystal
𝛒
= NA. ⁄(𝐀 + 𝐀 )
𝐊 𝐝
QS = energy required for formation of Frenkel or Schottky defect
K = Boltzmann's constant
T = absolute temperature.
 NA = Avagadro's number = 6.023 x 10 atoms/mol
ρ = density of the lonic crystal
Ak = atomic weight of +ve ions in the crystal
Ad = atomic weight of -ve ions in the crystal
 LINE DEFECTS (DISLOCATIONS):
 Observed in crystalline materials using electron microscopes.
 They appear as dark lines in a high magnification transmission electron
micrograph.
 Reasons for formation of dislocations:
i. Solidification
ii. Plastic deformation
iii. As a consequence of thermal stresses induced during rapid
cooling.
 Edge dislocations can have glide motion, climb up or down motion.
 A plane perpendicular to the glide plane is a climb plane.
 Climb is a diffusion controlled phenomenon.
 Climb up( negative climb) - creates vacancies;
 Climb down (positive climb) - increases the rows of atoms below
 Dislocations - it causes the vacancies to annihilate.
 Screw dislocation:
i. It may be thought of as being formed by shear stress that
is applied to produce distortion.
ii. The atomic distortion associated with screw dislocation is
also linear.
iii. For screw dislocations, burger's vector (b) parallel to
dislocation line.
iv. Screw dislocations have no fixed glide plane.
v. Screw dislocations cannot climb up or climb down.
vi. Most dislocations found in crystalline materials are mixed
dislocations. (edge + screw)
vii. For mixed dislocations, b is neither 1er nor parallel to
dislocation line.
viii. Even though, a dislocation changes direction and nature
within a crystal, the b will be the same, at all points along
it's line.
ix. For materials, the burger's vector for a dislocation will
point in a close packed direction, and will be of magnitude
equal to inter atomic spacing.
  INTERACTIONS BETWEEN DISLOCATIONS:
 When two opposite type of edge dislocations travel towards each other, on
the same slip plane, they attract each other and combine into a perfect plane.
 When two opposite type of edge dislocations travel towards each other, on
parallel slip planes, a group of vacancies are formed between them.
 When two similar type of edge dislocations travel towards each other, on the
same slip plane, they repel each other.
 SURFACE DEFECTS:
 GRAIN BOUNDARIES: formed during solidification of polycrystalline
materials
 Nucleus formation
 Growth of solid phase (dendrite). Multiple dendrites meet one another-
junction being known as grain boundary.
 Characteristics Of Grain Boundaries: Grain boundaries are regions of
i. Orientation mismatch
ii. High energy and are chemically reactive
iii. Low melting point
iv. Heavy impurity concentration
v. Grain boundary region is several atomic distances wide.
vi. They are amorphous regions.
 ASTM Method of Grain size determination:
N= 2n-1 (at a magnification of 100X)
where, N = Average no. of grains per square inch
n = Grain size number (on a scale of 1 to 10)
Similarly, Nm = no. of grains per square inch at a Magnification of M
Nm (M/100)² = 2n-1
Note:
a. No. of grains per unit area increases with square of increase in magnification
b. when n increases, average no. of grains per unit area will increase → grain size will
decrease.
 LOW ANGLE BOUNDARIES:
 If Ɵ is less than 100 then grain boundaries are called low angle tilt
boundaries. If Ɵ is more than 100-150 then they are called high angle grain
boundaries.
 LOW ANGLE TWIST BOUNDARIES:
 When two or more no. of parallel screw dislocations are stacked in a grain
boundary, it results in a low angle twist boundary. For this, the angle of twist
(a) = b/h
  TWIN BOUNDARIES: It is a special type of grain boundary across which
there is a specific mirror lattice symmetry: that is the atoms on one side of
the boundary are located in a mirror image positions of the atoms on the
other side. The region of the material between these boundaries is termed as
twin.
 Twin boundaries are due to atomic displacements produced from:
 Applied mechanical shear forces (Mechanical/deformation
twins-BCC, HCP materials)
 Annealing following deformation (Annealing twins-FCC
materials)
 After slip, twinning is the second important mechanism of permanent
deformation, in metals. Twinning is the movement of atoms in the lattice,
resulting in a division of lattice into two parts which are symmetrical, but
differently oriented.
 Twinning is generally caused due to impact, thermal treatment (heat
treatment), and plastic deformation.
 STACKING FAULTS:
 Stacking sequence is defined as the sequence of arrangement of atomic
planes one above the other, to result in stability to a crystalline structure.
 Ex: SC……. AAAA...∞; BCC - ABABABA............∞
FCC - ABCABCABCA..............∞; HCP-ABCABCABCA…………..∞
 The FCC and HCP structures can be built from stacking of close packed planes
of spheres
 Stacking faults are faults in stacking sequence.
Ex: FCC - ABCABCAB_ABCA.......∞
 Stacking faults are easily revealed after etching by a colour difference, under
optical microscope.
 Stacking faults may form during crystal growth. They may result from
separation of two partial dislocations.
 STRENGTHENING MECHANISMS:
 Grain size refinement
 Strain hardening / work hardening
 Strain ageing
 Solid solution strengthening
 Age hardening or Precipitation hardening
 Dispersion strengthening
 Grain size refinement:
 Increasing the number of grain boundaries, introduces more obstructions to
movement of dislocations.
  Hence, fine grain materials have improved yield strength, UTS, toughness,
Fatigue resistance and hardness.
 HALL-PETCH EQUATION STATES,
σy = σi + K d-¹/2
where, σi = Yield stress of a material at an infinite grain size
K = Hall- Petch constant
σy = yield stress of the polycrystalline material
 Strain hardening /work hardening:
 Strain hardening is used to harden metals or alloys that do not respond to
heat treatment.
 The dislocation density in a metal increases with deformation or cold work,
due to dislocation multiplication or the formation of new dislocations.
 Consequently, the average distance of separation between dislocations
decreases.
 At this juncture, due to repulsive interactions between dislocations, motion
of dislocations is hindered.
 Thus, strength of the metal increases, with increase in cold work.
 STRAIN AGEING:
 This refers to changes in the properties of an overstrained (beyond yield
point) alloy with time.
 When a formerly cold worked metal is reheated at relatively low
temperature, the strength of the metal is increased and ductility is decreased.
 This is identified by reappearance of yield point, after reheating the cold
worked metal.
 This reappearance of yield point, is due to diffusion of C and N interstitial
atoms to dislocation sites, during the ageing period, to form new
atmospheres of interstitials that would anchor the dislocations.
 If a low carbon steel is cold worked and kept either at room temperature or
heated to slightly elevated temperature, its hardness and strength will
increase and ductility will go down, and strain rate sensitivity will decrease.
This phenomenon is called strain ageing.
 SOLID SOLUTION STRENGTHENING:
 The introduction of solute atoms into solid solution in the solvent-atom
lattice, invariably produces an alloy which is stronger than the pure metal.
 For extensive solid solubility, the two elements must satisfy Hume
Rothery's rules
 Age hardening or Precipitation hardening:
 The strength and hardness of some alloys may be enhanced by the formation
of extremely small uniformly dispersed particles of second phase within the
original matrix: this must be accomplished by phase transformations induced
by heat treatments. This process is known as, precipitation hardening or age
hardening (strength develops with time).
 Typical examples are: Al-4.5% Cu, Ni-17% Cu-8% Sn, Mg-10% Al, Ti 6% Al-
4% V, Al alloys, Cu-Be alloys, Cu-Sn alloys, some ferrous alloys are also
precipitation hardenable etc.,
 Precipitation hardening is accomplished by two different heat treatments:
i. Solution heat treatment and
ii. Precipitation heat treat treatment
 DISPERSION STRENGTHENING:
 Hard particles (oxides, carbides, nitrides, borides etc.,) are mixed with matrix
powder and consolidated and processed by powder metallurgy techniques.
 Maintain high strength and creep resistance at elevated temperatures of the
order of 80% of the matrix melting point.
 The optimum properties are usually observed when:
a. Concentration of particles is in the range of 2 to 15% (by volume),
b. Their size is between 0.01 to 0.1 μm and
c. When the inter-particle spacing is in the range of 0.1 to 1.0 μm.

CHAPTER-2:
ALLOYS, PHASE DIAGRAMS, Fe-Fe3C EQUILIBRIUM DIAGRAM, TTT DIAGRAM
 ALLOY: An alloy is defined as any substance having metallic character and
composed of two or more number of elements, out of which at least one is a metal.
 EQUILIBRIUM DIAGRAMS- IMPORTANT TERMINOLOGY:
 To estimate no. of phases in an alloy: use Gibb's phase rule
P+F = C+1
where, F = Degrees of freedom( it denotes the no. of independent variables, which
can be varied without affecting no. of phases in equilibrium)
 If F = 0.......resulting transformation is known as Invariant reaction
= 1…….resulting transformation is known as uni-variant reaction
= 2…….resulting transformation known as bi-variant reaction
C = No. of components (it denotes the no. of elements present in the alloy
system)
1 = No. of variables such as temperature, pressure and composition
(they denote the condition under which a phase can exist)
 NOTE: Generally used variables are temperature, pressure and composition.
However, most of the alloys are produced with fixed composition and under
one atmospheric pressure-which is not a variable. Hence, we are left with
only one variable, i.e., temperature, in the study of internal phases in alloys.
 METHODS OF PLOTTING EQUILIBRIUM DIAGRAMS:
 Thermal analysis
 Dilatometry
 optical & electron microscopy
 X-Ray & electron diffraction
 Thermodynamic data analysis
 Electrical Resistivity and Magnetic measurements
 Most of the times, equilibrium or phase diagrams are plotted by the method
of thermal analysis using the data obtained from cooling curves: and other
methods are generally used to eliminate the ambiguities existing in the
diagram plotted by this method.
 COMMON YPES OF PHASE DIAGRAMS:
1. Isomorphous system
2. Eutectic System
3. Partial eutectic system
4. Layer type system
TYPE-I ISOMORPHOUS SYSTEM:
 In this system, the two elements added will exhibit complete solubility in
both liquid and solid states.
Ex: Cu-Ni, Au-Ag, Au-Cu, Mo-W, Mo-Ti, W-V, Au-Ni alloys.
 Tie line Rule:
a. The composition of phases in the two-phase region is not same.
b. To find the composition of the individual phases in the two phase
region, a horizontal line (mo), called tie line, is drawn and its
intercepts on the liquidus and solidus lines, m and o are projected
onto X axis. They are taken as the composition of the liquid and solid
respectively.
 Lever rule:
a. The relative fractions of the phases at a given temperature for an alloy
composition 'n' is obtained by the lever rule. This rule gives the
fraction of a phase by the ratio of the lengths of the tie line between n
and composition of the other phase to the total length of the tie line.
For example,
Fraction of solid = (no/mo)
Fraction of liquid = (mn/mo)
 b. Cooling at a faster rate is known as Non-equilibrium cooling.
i. Non-equilibrium cooling results in an increased temperature
range over which liquid and solid are present;
ii. final solidification occurs at a lower temperature than
predicted by the phase diagram;
iii. the final liquid to solidify will be richer in the lower-melting
point metal;
iv. This variation in composition observed from point to point or
center to surface of a grain or dendrite in a solidified alloy at
room temperature, is called micro-segregation or coring. It is
common in as cast components of some of the alloys such as
bronzes and stainless steels and is not desirable, because:
 It increases brittleness
 It gives non-uniform mechanical properties
 It increases susceptibility to corrosion.
v. CORING is eliminated by using slow cooling rates during
solidification and by homogenization heat treatment given to
the cored castings.
TYPE-II: EUTECTIC SYSTEM:
 In this system of alloys, the two elements added will exhibit complete
solubility in liquid state and complete insolubility in solid state.
Ex: Pb-As, Bi-Cd, Th-Ti, and Au-Si etc.,
 Raoult's law: states that the freezing point of a pure substance will be
decreased by addition of a second substance, provided the latter is soluble in
the pure substance when liquid and insoluble when solidified. The amount of
decrease of the freezing point is proportional to the molecular weight of the
solute.
 eutectic alloys, hypereutectic alloys, hypoeutectic alloys
 TYPE-III: PARTIAL EUTECTIC SYSTEM
 In this system, the two elements added will exhibit complete solubility in
liquid state and partial solubility in solid state.
Ex: Ag-Cu, Pb-Sn, Sn-Bi, Pb-Sb, Cd-Zn and Al-Si alloys.
 In hypoeutectic alloys: From pro-eutectic α, β separates out and this β may
appear at grain boundaries or inside the grains depending on the cooling
rate. It usually appears inside the grains unless the cooling rate is extremely
slow.
 In hypereutectic alloys: From pro-eutectic β, α separates out and this α
may appear at grain boundaries or inside the grains depending on the
 cooling rate. It usually appears inside the grains unless the cooling rate is
extremely slow.
 USES OF EUTECTIC ALLOYS:
 Used for temperature measurement - in the form of tempil sticks(
after the name of tempil corporation, USA)
 Used for electrical and thermal fuses.
 Used for metallized spray coatings.
 Their properties depend upon interlamellar spacing. Lesser the
spacing, better are the mechanical properties. Interlamellar spacing
depends upon cooling rate.
 Majority of eutectic alloys exhibit superplastic behavior
 Components such as instrument covers, refrigerator doors and car
doors, salt and peppershaker, and car body panels have been made
out of these alloys
 TYPE-IV: LAYER SYSTEM:
 In this system, the two elements added will exhibit complete insolubility in
liquid as well as solid states.
Ex: Cu-Mo, Cu-W, Ag-W, Ag-Fe etc.,
 COMMON TYPES OF PHASE TRANSFORMATIONS IN METALLURGICAL SYSTEMS:
Type of Transformation characteristic Examples
transformation Dirn. Of cooling-------------------→
←------------------Dirn. Of heating
Allotropy Solid A → solid B Fe, Sn, Co, Cr, Ti, U, Zr, Mn, Li, Sr
Eutectoid Solid A → solid B + solid C Fe-C, Cu-Sn, Cu-Al, Zn-Al
Eutectic Liquid → solid A + solid C Fe-C, Al-Si, Bi-Cd, Pb-As, Th-Ti,
Cu-Ag, Pb-Sn
Peritectoid Solid A + solid B → solid C Ni-Zn, Cu-Sn, Ni-Mo, Fe-Nb
Peritectic Liquid + solid A → solid C Fe-C, Cu-Zn, Pt-Ag Cu-Sn, Al-Ti,
Al-Mn
Monotectic Liquid A → Liquid B + solid Al-Pb, Cu-Pb, Cu-Cr. Zn-Pb, Ag-
Ni, Zn-Bi
Order-disorder Disordered structure-------------→ Cu-Zn, Au-Cu
←-----------------ordered structure
 VARIOUS PHASES- DEFINITIONS:
 α ( Ferrite)
 γ (austenite)
 δ (ferrite)
 Fe3C (Cementite).
 INVARIANT REACTIONS ( reversible reactions):
1. PERITECTIC REACTION: S1 +L→ S₂ (or) δ + L = γ (→ denotes "on cooling")
2. EUTECTIC REACTION: L → S₂ + S₂ (or) L → γ + Fe3C (→ den. "on cooling")
 This mixture is known as Transformed Ledeburite. It is a hard and
brittle phase.
3. EUTECTOID REACTION: S₂ → S4 + S3 (or) γ → α + Fe3C (→ den. "on cooling")
 This reaction takes place at 727°C and at 0.8% C content. This
reaction takes place at 727°C and at 0.8% C content.
 This eutectoid mixture of ferrite and cementite is called Pearlite, due
to its PEARL-LIKE APPEARANCE, under the optical microscope
 SOLUBILITIES OF CARBON IN VARIOUS PHASES:
 C solubility in δ (ferrite) is 0.1%
 C solubility in γ ( austenite) is 2%
 C solubility in α ( Ferrite) is 0.025%
 C solubility in α ( Ferrite) at room temperature, is 0.008%
 C solubility in Cementite is 6.67%
 CRITICAL TEMPERATURE LINES AND THEIR SIGNIFICANCE:
 A0 LINE: This denotes the temperature at which cementite changes from
ferromagnetic to paramagnetic nature, at 210°C.
 A₁ LINE: transformation of Austenite to Pearlite, upon cooling of eutectoid
steels.
 A2 LINE: It occurs at 768°C. It signifies the ferromagnetic to paramagnetic
transformation, upon heating of Fe-C system of alloys.
 A3 LINE: This is known as upper critical temperature line for Hypoeutectoid
steels. This signifies the completion of ferrite to austenite transformation,
upon heating of Hypoeutectoid steels.
 Acm LINE: This is known as upper critical temperature line for hyper
eutectoid steels. This line signifies the completion of Cementite to austenite
transformation, upon heating of hyper eutectoid steels. It is a function of
carbon content. It ranges from 727°C to 1147°C.
 WIDMANSTATTEN STRUCTURES:
 During cooling of steels from Austenitic region, sometimes the proeutectoid
phase separates not only along the grain boundaries but also in the grains,
along certain crystallographic planes and directions. Because of this, the
structure shows a typical geometric pattern under microscope. Such
structures are called Widmanstatten structures. Since orientation of each
grain of austenite is different, the character of Widmanstatten pattern is also
different from grain to grain.
 Factors influencing Widmanstatten structures:
 Composition of steel: Larger the departure from eutectoid
composition, the amount of proeutectoid phase will be higher, and
formation of Widmanstatten structures is favoured.
 Faster the cooling rate: They are very common in steel castings,
Weldings, hot forged, rolled and extruded components.

CHAPTER-3
FERROUS METALS/ ALLOYS
 Steels- classification: Plain carbon steels, Alloy steels- stainless steels (Ferritic,
austenitic, Martensitic stainless steels), Tool and die steels cold work tool steels, hot
work tool steels, high speed tool steels, special purpose tool steels, Die steels, High
temperature heat resisting steels, Water hardened, oil hardened, air hardened
steels, killed, semi killed, rimmed steels
 Effects of alloying elements in steel:
 Cast irons – (classification):
 white cast iron,
 grey cast iron,
 chilled cast iron,
 Meehanite cast irons,
 Nodular cast irons,
 Malleable cast irons
 Effects of alloying elements in cast iron:
 STEELS – (classification, properties, applications & effects of alloying elements)
 Based on carbon content :- (Plain-carbon steels)
1. Low-carbon steels,
2. medium-carbon steels,
3. high-carbon steels.
 Based on Alloying elements :- (Alloy steels)
1. Low alloy steels
2. high alloy steels
  Based on Grain coarsening characteristics:-
1. fine grain steels
2. coarse grain steels
 Based on type of furnace used for melting:-
1. Electric furnace steels
2. open-hearth steels
3. Bessemer steels
 Based on amount of de-oxidation:-
1. killed steels
2. semi-killed steels
3. rimmed steels
 Based on quenching medium employed:-
1. water hardened steels
2. oil hardened steels
3. air hardened steels
 Based on depth of hardening:-
1. Non hardenable steels (low-carbon mild steels),
2. shallow hardening steels (get hardened only at surface; they
are used for gears, camshafts etc),
3. deep hardening steels (applications same as high-c steels)
 Based on application:-
1. tool steels,
2. die steels,
3. special purpose steels,
4. stainless steels,
 PLAIN CARBON STEELS:
Type of plain Percentage of Applications
Carbon Steel Carbon
Low Carbon 0.008-0.3% steel wire, sheets, rivets, screws, pipes, nails and
Steels chains, cam shafts, tubes, crank shafts, fish plates.
Medium Carbon 0.3-0.7% connecting rods, brake levers, railway coach axles,
Steels spline shafts, thrust washers, clutch discs, set screws,
plate punches
High Carbon 0.7-2% Upto 0.8%C-Cold chisels, wrenches, jaws for vices,
Steels wheels for railway service, shear blades, Hacksaws,
0.8-0.9%C-rock drills, railway rails, Leaf springs,
Punches and dies, Musical instrument wires, More
than 0.9% C- Railway springs, Twist drills, Files,
Cutting tools, Drawing dies, knives etc.,
 ALLOY STEELS- steels whose properties are due to alloying elements, other than
carbon. They are classified into High strength low alloy steels, Dual phase steels and
micro alloyed steels.
 HSLA STEELS: They possess good strength to weight ratio, low carbon content
<0.3%, and their microstructure consists of fine grained ferrite and a hard second
phase of carbides, carbonitrides, or nitrides. They are produced in the form of
sheets, plates, bars and structural shapes. Their ductility, formability and
weldability are inferior to those of conventional low alloy steels. They are used in
automobile bodies to reduce weight, and in transportation, mining, and agricultural
equipment. Plates made of HSLA steels are used in ships, bridges, and building
construction, and shapes such as 1-beams, channels, and angles in structures,
 DUAL PHASE STEELS: These are processed specially to have a mixed ferrite and
Martensite structure. They have high work hardening characteristics (i.e., a high
value of n) and thus have good ductility and formability.
 MICRO-ALLOYED STEELS: They possess superior properties and eliminate the
need for heat treatment. They have ferrite-pearlite microstructure, with fine dispersed
particles of Carbonitride. Their composition consists of 0.5 % C, 0.8% Mn, and
0.1% V. They possess uniform strength and eliminate the need for quenching,
tempering and stress relieving.
 SPECIAL ALLOY STEELS:
1. Stainless steels - ferritic, austenitic, Martensitic stainless steels
2. Tool steels
3. Shock resisting steels - for leaf springs and coil springs.
4. High strength steels - Maraging steels, modified tool steels, ultra-high
strength steels.
 STAINLESS STEELS:
 Stainless steel is an alloy of Iron and carbon with a minimum of 10.5%
Chromium, Si and Manganese.
 Other elements such as Nickel and Molybdenum may be added to impart
other useful properties such as enhanced formability and increased
corrosion resistance.
 Chromium produces a thin layer of oxide on the surface of the steel known as
the 'passive layer'. This prevents any further corrosion of the surface.
 Increasing the amount of Chromium gives an increased resistance to
corrosion.
 They are classified into five types: Martensitic, ferritic, austenitic stainless
steels, precipitation hardened steels, and Duplex- structure steels. Although
stainless steel is much more resistant to corrosion than ordinary carbon or
alloy steels, in some circumstances it can corrode.
 It is 'stain-less' not 'stain-impossible'. In normal atmospheric or water based
environments, stainless steel will not corrode as demonstrated by domestic
sink units, cutlery, saucepans and work-surfaces.
 STAINLESS STEELS-FERRITIC, AUSTENITIC & MARTENSITIC STEELS:
Factor of Ferritic Austenitic stainless steels Martensitic stainless
comparison stainless Steels (200 and 300 series) steels (400 and 500
(400 series) series)
Microstructure Consists of Consists of Austenite as Consists of Martensite as
at room Ferrite as major major phase major phase
temperature phase
General Magnetic, can't Possess highest corrosion They are only type
properties be hardened by resistance, retains ductility hardenable by heat
heat treatment, even at low temperatures, treatment, magnetic in
possess lower non-magnetic, can be all conditions, possess
ductility, lower welded. best thermal
formability than conductivity of all
austenitic steels, stainless steels, cannot
highly soft. be cold worked,
Composition C-0.08 - 0.2%, C-0.03-0.25%, C-0.15-1.2%,
Si-1%, Si-1-2%, Si-1%,
Mn-1-1.5%, Mn-2-10%, Mn-1%,
Cr-11-27% Cr-16-26%, Cr 11.5-18%
Ni-3.5-22%
Applications Heating Aircraft engine parts, heat Pumps and valve parts,
elements for exchanger parts, kettles, rules and tapes, turbine
furnaces, screws cooking utensils, milk cans, buckets, surgical
and fittings, oil components subjected to instruments.
burner parts severe chemical
environments

 Precipitation hardened steels: contain chromium and nickel, along with

copper, aluminium, Titanium or molybdenum. They have good corrosion
resistance, good ductility, and high strength at elevated temperatures. Their
main application is in aircraft and aerospace structural components.
 Duplex-structure steels: Have a mixture of austenite and ferrite. These
steels have good strength and higher resistance to corrosion (in most
environments) and to stress- corrosion cracking than do the 300 series of
austenitic steels. Typical applications of duplex structure steels are in water
treatment plants and heat exchanger components.
 TOOL & DIE STEELS:
 They are specially used for working, shaping and cutting of metals. They
should possess the following properties:
 Hard, tough and wear resistant.
 Tendency for decarburization, oxidation and grain growth should be
minimum.
 COLD WORK TOOL STEELS:
1. Water hardening steels:
 "contains C 0.6 to 1.4%
 Possess poor hardenability, hence hardened by Water hardening
 Contains very little or no alloying elements, hence less expensive.
 Undergo tempering rapidly, and become soft at high temperatures -
hence, not used for hot working or cutting of metals at high speeds.
 Undergo distortion during hardening
 Used for cold wkg- Blanking dies, threading dies, drills, forming tools,
hammers, chisels, wood working tools, shear blades, knives and
razors.
2. Oil hardening steels:
 Contain small amount of alloying elements such as W, Mn, Cr, Mo & V.
 Have better hardenability than water hardening type.
 Used for blanking and forming dies, shear blades, cutting tools and
gauges.
 Distortion during hardening is less
 Contains 1% C, 0.95% Mn, 0.5% W, 0.75% Cr, 0.2% V
3. Air hardening steels:
 Have high hardenability due to addition of various alloying elements
such as Mn, Cr, Mo & W. total content of alloying elements exceeds 5%
 Have less distortion during hardening, high wear resistance, and good
depth of hardening.
 Used for slitting dies, drawing dies, intricate die shapes, gauges and
punches.
4. High Carbon high chromium steels:
 Have high hardenability, less distortion during hardening.
 Contain C-1.5-2%, Cr-12%, +W, Mo, V in small amount.
 Used for drawing dies, blanking dies, forming dies, coining dies,
thread rolling dies, trimming dies, shear blades, punches, cold forming
rolls, cutting tools, gauges.
 HOT WORK TOOL STEELS:
 Used for hot working of metals, such as for stamping, drawing, forming,
piercing, extruding, upsetting and swaging.
 Have good strength, toughness, hardness and wear resistance, resistance to
tempering at high temperatures. Contain carbon-0.35 to 0.65%
They are of three types:
a. Cr-type:
 contain 3-7% Cr+ W, Mo, V, C-0.35 to 0.55%
 Have high ductility, toughness, resistance to splitting.
 Used for die casting dies, extrusion dies, forging dies, mandrels
and hot shears
b. Mo-type:
 contains 14 to 20% Mo, Cr, W and C-0.55 to 0.65%
c. W-type:
 contains 9 to 18% W, 2 to 12% Cr, C 0.3 to 0.5%
 Used for dummy blocks, hot extrusion dies, forging dies and
hot punches.
 HIGH SPEED TOOL STEELS:
 Maintain high hardness up to a temperature of about 550°C
 W-Type HSS: they are designated by T-series. Most widely used grade
contains 0.7%C, 18%W, 4%Cr, and 1% V.
 Mo-type HSS: Designated by M-series. Some amount of W in previous type is
substituted by Mo, to decrease cost. They are difficult to heat treat because of
more tendency of oxidation, decarburization and grain growth during heat
treatment, compared to W- type. Most widely used grade contains 0.85%C,
6% W, 5% Mo, 4% Cr, and 2%V
 Super HSS: contains about 5%V and shows very high hardness (RC70-72), in
the properly heat treated condition, as compared to RC65/66 of the usual
HSS.
 HSS are used for drills, taps, reamers, milling cutters, saws, lathe tools,
punches, drawing dies and wood working tools.
 SPECIAL PURPOSE TOOL STEELS:
 Shock resisting steels (S-series): contain less carbon (0.5%) for better
shock resistance. Due to this, their hardness after hardening is also less.
Alternatively, hardenability is increased by Mn, Cr, W, Mo, V, Si addition. Si
and Mo increase strength, toughness and shock resistance. They are used for
punches, chisels, concrete breakers, rivet sets, forming dies, shear blades etc.
 Low alloy tool steels (L-series): They are similar in characteristics to water
hardening tool steels/ Chromium is the major alloying element of this group.
They are used where high wear resistance and toughness are required.
 Carbon Tungsten tool steels (F-series): contain Carbon more than 1% with
W, as alloying element. Compared to water hardening steels, they have much
higher wear and abrasion resistance. They are used for broaches, reamers,
burnishing tools, taps etc.
 Mould steels (P-series): used for plastic moulds. Mould should have high
surface hardness to take care of abrasive action of moulding
powder/granules, and tough core to withstand the shock during the
compression cycle. Mould requires a high degree of surface finish. They are
low in carbon content (<0.2%) and contain Cr and Ni as main alloying
elements.
 DIE STEELS:
Die steels for Cr- Base: They are used in the absence of shock load and repeated loads, at
hot working <315°C (beyond this temperature, they have poor mechanical properties).
 They contain C-0.35 to 0.4%, Cr-5%, V-0.4%, W-5%, Mo-1.5 to 5%.
 Used for cold heading dies and bending dies.
W-base: W- content increases useful temperature range to 595°C. Carbon
content is controlled from 0.35 to 0.5%, to control hardness, brittleness,
hardenability and toughness. Other elements in composition are Cr-2 to 12
%, V-1%, W-9 to 18%.
 Used as dies for die casting of Al alloys, permanent moulds for brass
and bronze castings, dies for extruding of brass.
Mo- base: They contain C-0.6 to 0.65%, Cr-4%, V-1 to 2%, W-1.5 to 5%,
Mo- 6to 8%. Due to their good red hardness, they can be used where
operating temperature does not exceed 550°C.

Die steels for The oil hardening low alloy type (group- O): They contains Mn and
Cold working smaller amounts of Cr and W. They have good machinability and good
resistance to decarburization, toughness is only fair and red hardness is as
poor as straight carbon toll steels. They are used for threading dies form
tools.
The Medium alloy group( group-A): They contain C-1%, Mn-3%, Cr-5%,
Mo-1 They have excellent non-deformiting properties, good wear
resistance, fair toughness, red hardness, and resistance to decarburization,
but only poor machinability. They are used for Blanking, forming,
trimming, and thread rolling dies.
The high C- high Cr type (group-D): They contains upto 2-2.5%, 12% Cr.
 They also contain Mo, V, and Co. They have excellent wear resistance and
non-deforming properties. Used for blanking and piercing dies, drawing
dies, thread rolling dies.

 EFFECTS OF ALLOYING ELEMENTS IN STEEL:

ELEMENT EFFECTS
Sulphur  Promotes hot cracking tendency
Phosphorous  Increases tensile strength and hardness in steel
 Promotes cold cracking tendency
 Increases corrosion resistance in steels.

Silicon  Increases tensile strength and toughness without decreasing

ductility
 Increases resilience.
 Increases resistivity
 Makes the steel magnetically soft
 It is a powerful de-oxidiser
 Si decomposes cementite into graphite (hence, it is known as
graphitiser)
Manganese  Increases tensile strength and hardness
 HADFIELD- Mn STEELS
 Promotes quench cracking tendency
Nickel  Increases tensile strength and toughness without decreasing
ductility
 Increases corrosion resistance but decreases coefficient of thermal
expansion
W, Cr, V, Mo  W- predominantly increases hot hardness
 Cr- predominantly increases corrosion resistance
 V- predominantly increases endurance strength/ fatigue strength
 Mo- predominantly increases creep resistance.
Titanium and  They are carbide forming elements
Niobium  They increase wear resistance and creep resistance
 They arrest grain growth and result in grain size refinement
Aluminium  It is a powerful deoxidiser
 Arrests grain growth and results in grain size refinement.
Boron  Increases surface hardness, wear resistance and corrosion
resistance
  WHITE CAST IRONS/ MOTTLED CAST IRONS:
COMPOSITION CHARACTERISTICS APPLICATIONS
C=1.8-3.6%, 1. Its fracture surface appears white. Used for producing
Si= 0.5-2%, 2. C is present in combined with iron a malleable cast iron, Jaw
Mn=0.2-0.8%, form Cementite. crusher plates needing
P=0.18%, 3. Hard, brittle and wear resistant. abrasion resistance.
S=0.1%

 GREY CAST IRONS:

COMPOSITION CHARACTERISTICS APPLICATIONS
C=2.5-3.8%, 1. Has presence of graphite flakes in Machine tool beds,
Si= 1.1-2.8%, ferrite/pearlite matrix frames and structures,
Mn= 0.4-1%, 2. Fracture surface appears as grey in manhole covers, cylinder
P=0.15%, colour. blocks and heads of I.C.
S=0.1% 3. Shows lowest melting point of ferrous engines, piston rings etc.,
alloys.
4. high fluidity, vibration damping
capacity, good resistance to sliding
wear

 CHILLED CAST IRONS:

CHARACTERISTICS APPLICATIONS
 Obtained when casting is solidified against metal Rail- road freight car wheels,
chiller, as white cast iron on surface and grey cast Grain crushing mill rolls,
iron in the interior. hammers, grinding balls etc.
 Rapid cooling on surface produces cementite and
slow cooling produces graphite flakes in the interior.
 High hardness and wear resistance on surface and
low hardness and strength at core.

 MEEHANITE CAST IRONS:

COMPOSITION CHARACTERISTICS APPLICATIONS
C=2.5-3% 1. Denotes a group of heavy duty cast Irons Used for heat
inoculated with calcium silicide (acts as a resistance, abrasion
graphitizer). resistance, corrosion
2. Possess good creep resistance. resistance
3. Can be heat treated by water quenching or
 oil quenching and stress relieved by
annealing.
4. Can be welded by arc welding or gas
welding.

 NODULAR/SPHEROIDAL GRAPHITE (SG)/ DUCTILE CAST IRONS:

COMPOSITION CHARACTERISTICS APPLICATIONS
C=3.2-4.2%, 1. Graphite appears as nodules Farm implements and tractors,
Si= 1.1 3.5%, 2. Possess good machinability earth moving machinery, valves &
Mn= 0.3-0.8%, fittings, Steel mill rolls, pipes,
P=0.08%, pumps & compressors.
S=0.2%

 MALLEABLE CAST IRONS:

COMPOSITION CHARACTERISTICS APPLICATIONS
C=2-3%, 1. It is hammered and rolled to Rail road car wheels, Agricultural
Si= 0.6-1.3%, obtain different shapes. implements, conveyor chain links,
Mn= 0.2-0.6%, 2. Has high young's modulus, Gear housings, Automotive
P=0.15%, low coefficient of thermal crankshafts etc.
S=0.1% expansion, good strength &
corrosion resistance due to
Cr & Ni added.

 EFFECTS OF ALLOYING ELEMENTS IN CAST IRON:

ELEMENT AMOUNT % EFFECTS
Si 0.5-3 Controls the form of carbon in Cast iron

S 0.06-0.12 Forms Iron sulphide (low melting point compound), promotes

hot shortness. (Formation of Fes can be avoided by addition of
Mn, because of its greater affinity for sulphur)
P 0.1-0.3  Forms iron phosphide, which inturn results in a ternary
eutectic with cementite and austenite (known as
steadite). This decreases toughness and makes cast iron
brittle.
 Increases fluidity of Cast Iron
Mn 0.1-1 Takes care of Sulphur by forming Manganese sulphide.
Ni, Cr, Mo, --------- To get desired structure and properties
Mg, Cu, V
Note: relative amounts of Si and C will decide whether cast iron will contain cementite,
graphite or both. In addition, structure of C.I may consist of ferrite, pearlite, flake and
spheroidal graphite, temper Carbon etc.
 HEAT TREATMENT-CONVENTIONAL ANNEALING (FULL ANNEALING):
PURPOSE:
1. To decrease internal stresses due to cold working, welding etc.,
2. To reduce hardness (i.e., to make the metal soft) and to increase ductility.
3. To increase the uniformity of phase distribution and to make the material
isotropic in respect of mechanical properties.
4. To refine the grain size.
5. To make the composition homogeneous.
6. To make the steel suitable for subsequent heat treatment like hardening.
PROCESS:
 Steel is heated to above A3 temperature for Hypoeutectoid steel and above A1
for hypereutectoid steels by 30-50°C, held at this temperature for ( 20 min per
cm of the thickest section) a definite period of time and slowly cooled to
below A, or room temperature, usually in a furnace. It is specially used for
complex shapes where even air cooling may cause warping or cracking of
components.
 TYPES OF ANNEALING:
 SUBCRITICAL ANNEALING: In subcritical annealing, cold worked steel is
heated to some temperature below the Lower critical temperature.
i. Stress relief annealing
ii. Recrystallization annealing
iii. Process annealing (intermediate annealing)
 SPHEROIDIZE ANNEALING: Given to high carbon and air hardened alloy
steels to soften them and to increase machinability. The final microstructure
consists of globules of cementite in the matrix of ferrite.
 NORMALIZING:
 Purpose: To produce a stronger and harder steel than full annealing, modify
and refine cast dendritic structures, and refine the grains and homogenize
the microstructure in order to improve response in hardening process.
 Process: Heating to above A3 for Hypoeutectoid steels, and above Acm for
hyper eutectoid steels by 30- 50°C, holding long enough for homogeneous
austenitization, and cooling to room temperature in still air.
 HARDENING:
 PURPOSE: To harden the steel to the maximum level by austenite to
Martensite transformation; to increase the wear resistance and cutting
ability of steel.
 Types of hardening:
1. Conventional hardening
2. Timed quench (interrupted quench)
3. Martempering (Marquenching)
 Conventional hardening: Steel is heated to above A3 temperature for
Hypoeutectoid steels and above A1 temperature for hypereutectoid steels by 50°C,
austenitizing for a sufficient time and cooling with a rate just exceeding the critical
cooling rate of that steel to room temperature or below room temperature. Due to
this austenite transforms to Martensite by diffusionless process.
 Ausforming: Austenitized steel is cooled with a rate exceeding the critical cooling
rate of that steel, to a temperature between nose and Ms, forged or rolled at this
temperature and cooled to room temperature in oil. Due to the plastic deformation
of Austenite, the Martensite formed is fine.
 Steels with sufficient hardenability can only be ausformed.
 Austempering: consists of cooling the Austenitized steel with a rate exceeding the
critical cooling rate in a molten bath held at some constant temperature between
the nose of TTT diagram and Ms temperature i.e., in the Bainitic region, holding at
this temperature for a sufficient period for the completion of Bainitic transformation
and cooling to room temperature at any desired rate.
 Properties of Bainite are intermediate to those of Martensite and pearlite and are
very much similar to that of tempered Martensite.
 ELIMINATION OF RETAINED AUSTENITE:
 For some steels, containing >0.7% C, and some of the alloy steels, Mf
temperature is below room temperature, hence they contain some amount of
retained austenite when quenched to room temperature.
 Such a problem does not exist for plain -C steels containing < 0.7% C, because
the Mf temperature for these steels is above room temperature.
 For certain applications requiring dimensional stability, even a small amount
of retained austenite is not acceptable. Hence, it should be eliminated, using
the following methods.
 Sub-zero treatment: Retained austenite is transformed into Martensite, by
cooling the steel components to a temperature below Mf by using a suitable
medium. Due to this retained austenite will transform into Martensite. It
should be done immediately after hardening (otherwise, austenite gets
stabilized).
  This technique is used for tool and die steels, since, there is a danger of
cracking of hardened steels components, when cooled to sub-zero
temperatures, and they are usually tempered at 150-175 ° C, before
subjecting them to sub-zero treatment.

Cooling medium Minimum attainable temperature 0C

Ice Salt (NaCl) -23
Ice + Calcium Chloride -55
Acetone + Dry ice (frozen CO₂) -76
Liquid air -183
Liquid nitrogen -196
Liquid hydrogen -253
Liquid helium -269

 Plastic deformation: This is known as deformation Induced martensitic

transformation. If austenite is plastically deformed at a temperature above
Ms, martensitic transformation starts.
 This method is applicable to steels containing large amount of retained
austenite like low and medium-C high alloy steels, in which the
Martensite formed is not so hard and brittle.
 This cannot be used for high-C steels, like tool steels, because
Martensite formed in these steels is hard and brittle, hence fracture
will take place before significant martensitic transformation takes
place.
 Tempering: consists of heating the hardened steels to some temperature
below A1 and then holding at this temperature for 1-2 hr, followed by cooling
to room temperature, usually in air. This eliminates retained austenite from
steel.
 This method is applicable to all steels, with small as well as large
amount of retained austenite.
 TEMPERING-TYPES & USES:
Purpose:
1. To relieve internal stresses developed due to rapid cooling, and due to
volume changes occurring in the austenite to Martensite
transformation.(tempering should be done immediately after hardening to
prevent stress cracking)
2. To reduce hardness, and to increase ductility and toughness
3. To eliminate retained austenite.
 Martensite and austenite (retained) are not stable phases and try to transform to
more stable phases, during heating. Depending on the transformation behavior,
Tempering is classified in the following types:
1. Low temperature tempering (100-200°C)
2. Medium temperature tempering (200-500°C)
3. High temperature tempering (500-700°C)
LOW TEMPERATURE TEMPERING:
 Martensite decomposes to give low carbon Martensite or tempered
Martensite-epsilon carbide. There will be no appreciable change in retained
austenite. Hardness may slightly increase this is negligible for plain carbon
steels). The brittleness of steel decreases due to a sharp decrease in internal
stresses.
MEDIUM TEMPERATURE TEMPERING:
 Very fine distribution of cementite is formed in the matrix of ferrite. The
retained austenite may get transformed to Lower Bainite or decompose and
form carbides and Martensite. This transformation of austenite to Martensite
is due to increase in Ms temperature because of decrease in carbon content of
austenite. This freshly formed Martensite also decomposes. The low carbon
Martensite and epsilon carbide transform to ferrite and cementite. The
particles of cementite are very fine and cannot be resolved by optical
microscopes. Such a structure is called TROOSTITE.
 These changes result in decrease in hardness with increasing tempering
temperature. Simultaneously, Toughness and ductility will increase.
HIGH TEMPERATURE TEMPERING:
 Cementite particles become coarse. They appear to be spheroidal in shape
and the structure is called spheroidite.
 When the particles are sufficiently fine which can be hardly resolved, the
structure is called Sorbite. Except these two, all other structures are called
tempered martensites.
 SECONDARY HARDENING:
 For alloy steels containing Cr, W, Mo, V etc., hardness rises during tempering.
This is due to the separation of very hard complex alloy carbides from
Martensite. Such a hardening during tempering is called secondary
hardening.
 TEMPER EMBRITTLEMENT:
 Alloy steels containing Ni, Mn and Cr, when cooled slowly from tempering
temperature of about 350°C to 550°C become brittle in impact, due to a
decrease in toughness. This tendency is called temper embrittlement.
However, they usually show normal ductility in the standard tension test. If
 these steels are quenched in oil or water from tempering temperature, they
remain tough in impact. The embrittlement produced during slow cooling is
due to separation of some brittle phase. This phase may be soluble above
tempering temperature: hence, its separation is suppressed during rapid
cooling, thereby eliminating the embrittling effect. Addition of about 0.5%
Molybdenum also eliminates temper embrittlement.
 SURFACE HARDENING PROCESSES:
 In many applications such as crank shafts, cam shafts, gears etc., a
combination of two properties are needed i.e., hardness (for wear resistance)
on surface and core toughness.
 Low carbon steels are tough but cannot be hardened. High carbon steels can
be hardened but are not so tough.
 CARBURIZING:
 They consists of heating the steel to the austenitic region(c-solubility is
more) in contact with a carburizing medium, holding at this temperature for
sufficient period and cooling to room temperature.
 By diffusion, carbon concentration on surface is increased. High c-content on
surface does not mean high hardness on surface, unless the carbon is present
in the martensitic form. Hence, after carburizing, hardening heat treatment is
necessary to bring martensitic transformation.
 This is also called cementation, case carburizing, and case hardening. It is
classified into:
1. Pack carburizing
2. Gas carburizing
3. Liquid carburizing
Pack carburizing: the components to be carburized are packed with a
carbonaceous material in steel or cast iron boxes, and sealed with clay (to prevent
air from coming into contact with the medium, and burning). The carbonaceous
medium consists of hard wood charcoal, coke and an energiser or accelerator such
as Barium carbonate or some other carbonate like sodium or calcium carbonate.
 The maximum carbon at the surface and the case depth depend on the
carburizing temperature and holding time. Higher the temperature, higher is
the carbon at the surface and more is the case depth.
 Usual carburizing temperature ranges between 925-950°C, case depth varies
from 1mm to 2.5mm for total carburizing time of 6 15hrs.
 Pack carburizing is principally used to produce relatively thick carburized
cases (1mm or more), where great uniformity in carbon content is not
essential.
  For thinner and more uniform cases, gas carburizing and liquid carburizing
are used.
Gas Carburizing: Components are heated in the presence of a carbonaceous gas
such as methane, ethane, propane, or butane diluted with a carrier gas such as flue
gas. These gases decompose and the carbon diffuses into the steel. Gas carburizing
produces extremely uniform cases with shorter times because no boxes and solid
carburizer need to be heated as is required in pack carburizing.
 Also, the process can be performed at somewhat lower temperatures (900-
925°C), than those used for pack carburizing.
 Case depths between 0.2-0.5mm can be obtained in 1-2 hours at a
temperature of 900°C.
 It is particularly suited to large volume production and provides accurate
control of case depth and surface carbon content.
Liquid carburizing: Steel components are immersed in fused salt bath and heated
to austenitic region. The bath is composed of sodium cyanide (-10%), sodium
carbonate, and sodium chloride. Alkaline earth salts of Barium, calcium, or
strontium are usually added to the bath to encourage the Cyanamid shift.
Components from carburizing temperature are directly quenched in water or oil
and tempered to reduce brittleness of case and minimize the danger of cracking
during subsequent finish grinding. Due to faster cooling from austenitic region,
Martensite is produced in the surface and fine ferrite is produced in the centre.
 Use of salt bath offers advantages of rapid and uniform heat transfer, Low
distortion, negligible, surface oxidation and rapid absorption of carbon. Due
to this, highly uniform case depths are obtained with uniformity of carbon
content.
 It is chiefly used for the rapid production of relatively thin carburized cases
on small components.
 Case depths between 0.1 to 0.5mm can be obtained in a period of 0.5 to 1 hr
at the usual carburizing temperature (900-925°C).
 NITRIDING: Steel is heated in contact with a source of atomic nitrogen (a molten
salt bath containing NaCN, without addition of alkaline earth salts-liquid Nitriding
or dissociated ammonia-gas nitriding), at a temperature of about 550°C. The atomic
nitrogen diffuses into the steel and combines with iron and certain alloying
elements and forms respective nitrides. These nitrides increase the hardness and
wear resistance of steels.
 Molecular nitrogen does not diffuse into steel and hence is completely
ineffective as a Nitriding medium.
  Since, the temperature of Nitriding is less (=550°C), carbon cannot diffuse
into steel because of absence of austenite and hence only nitrogen diffuses
into steel.
 The atomic nitrogen diffuses into steel and reacts with iron and forms a
continuous layer of iron nitride. It appears as a white layer under the
microscope. It is extremely hard and brittle, and tends to crack or chip in
service and hence, it is not desirable.
 Plain carbon steels produce only white layer and therefore are not suitable
for Nitriding. In the presence of alloying elements in steel, such as Al, Cr, Mo,
V, W, Mn, and Ti in solid solution, respective nitrides are formed. These
nitrides are hard and tough and therefore such a layer of nitrides does not
crack or chip. Hence, alloy steels are only suitable for Nitriding.
 During Nitriding of alloy steels, first a white layer is formed on the surface
from which nitrogen diffuses deeper into the steel and selectively
precipitates the alloy nitrides. At the usual Nitriding temperature (500-
590°C), these alloy nitrides precipitate in the form of very fine needles in the
matrix of ferrite. Due to this, they remarkably increase the hardness (1000-
1200VPN), without increasing the brittleness of steel. This layer of alloy
nitrides appears as a dark layer, under microscope. This is a useful layer.
ADVANTAGES OF NITRIDING:
1. It does not require a hardening treatment, like carburizing. Therefore
distortions are minimum. It can be applied to finish machined parts requiring
close dimensional tolerances such as precision gears, boring bars, rolling mill
rolls for paper and rubber, forming dies, cam shafts, crankshafts, bushings,
cylinder liners etc.,
2. Nitride precipitation is associated with expansion. Hence, Nitriding leaves
the surface layers in high residual compression. This effectively reduces
notch sensitivity and sharply increases the fatigue life of components.
3. Nitrided cases have better corrosion resistance than the carburized and
hardened components.
4. Because of non-metallic nature of nitrides, nitrided surfaces have low
coefficient of friction. They also have exceptionally high resistance to galling
and seizing even under poorly lubricated conditions. Due to this, nitrided
surfaces have excellent bearing properties.
5. Nitrided surfaces have high hardness than carburized and hardened surfaces.
They also maintain their hardness even at 600°C, where most of the
hardened steels temper rapidly and become soft.
 DISADVANTAGES OF NITRIDING:
1. They are costly.
2. Nitrided cases are relatively thin, usually less than 0.5mm. A case depth of
0.25-0.5mm can be obtained in a period of 24 to 72 hrs, at the usual
temperature of 550°C.
3. No heat treatment can be done after Nitriding. Hence, core properties should
be adjusted before the components are nitrided.
 CARBONITRIDING:
 Carbon helps in increasing the service life of nitrided cases.
 Carbon and nitrogen are both diffused into the surface of steel. The source of
C and N may be fused salt bath or gaseous medium containing CH₁, C₂H, etc.,
with 5-10% NH, The temperature of the process is between A1 and A3 of the
steel (i.e., between 750-850°C). After diffusion, the steel is quenched in oil or
water.
 The phases present in steel at this temperature are ferrite and austenite.
Nitrogen diffuses in ferrite and Carbon diffuses in austenite.
 Nitrogen absorption at the surface of steel retards carbon diffusion so much
that, within an hour, further increase in case depth becomes very slow.
Hence, treatment times for carbonitriding are less than one hour, and case
depths are also smaller (0.075 to 0.25mm).
 FLAME HARDENING: The surface layer of hardenable steell (or cast iron) is heated
to above its upper critical temperature by means of oxyacetylene flames followed by
water spray quenching or immersion quenching to transform austenite to
Martensite.
 Depth of hardened layer depends on the following parameters:
1. Distance between gas flames and component surfaces.
2. Gas pressures and ratios
3. Rate of travel of flame-head or component.
4. Type, volume and application of quench.
 Flame hardening causes less distortion than conventional hardening and due
to high heating rate, oxidation and decarburization are minimum.
 INDUCTION HARDENING: Heating of hardenable steel or cast iron surface layer, is
done by using high frequency induction currents. Within 2-5 minutes, the
temperature of surface layer comes to above the upper critical temperature. The
high frequency Induction currents flow through the surface layer, by a phenomenon
known as skin effect. The thickness of the layer through which these currents
flow, is inversely proportional to the square root of frequency of induced
currents. Hence, the depth of the case hardened layer can be precisely controlled by
controlling the frequency of power supply. The usual range of frequency is from
 1000 hz to 1,00,000 hz and the hardened depth range from 0.5 to 6 mm. After
heating, the component is quenched by water spray.
 Due to fast heating and no holding time, the austenite grain size is very fine
which results in fine grained Martensite.
 Induction hardening is usually followed by low temperature tempering.
Frequently, a self-tempering occurs because usually the component does not
cool completely and the heat from centre flows to the surface to cause the
tempering.
 Steels with carbon between 0.4 to 0.5% are most suitable for induction
hardening. However, case carburized components can also be hardened.
 Some examples are: crank shafts, cam shafts, axles, gears, rolling mill rolls,,
boring bars, brake drums, over-head travelling crane wheels etc.,
 Some advantages are: Fast heating and no holding time leads to increase in
production rates, no scaling and decarburization, less distortion, precise
control of depth of hardened layer
 Some disadvantages are: irregular shaped parts are not suitable for induction
hardening, because of high cost of induction hardening unit, the process is
not economical for small scale production.
 HARDENABILITY-JOMINEY TEST:
 Hardenability is the ease with which a steel can be hardened by martensitic
transformation. It is indicated by the depth of hardening produced under the
given conditions of cooling.
 It is evaluated by
1. Determining the minimum cooling rate to transform an Austenitized
steel to a structure that is predominantly or entirely martensitic, or by
2. Determining the thickness of the largest steel section, that can be
converted to such a structure under the given conditions of cooling.
 Hardenability is most commonly measured by Jominey test. The details of the
test specimen are presented in the figure below. The specimen is
Austenitized at constant temperature for a fixed time and quickly transferred
to a fixture, followed by quenching with free jet of water at 21-27°C.
 The cooling rate is maximum at the end of the specimen where full hardening
occurs and diminishes steadily towards the air cooled end, where structure is
nearly equivalent to that produced by normalizing i.e., all possible rates of
cooling from water quenching to air cooling, are obtained on a single test
piece.
 The cooling rates along the length of the bar are essentially independent of
the composition of the bar. It is therefore possible to compare the
 hardenability of various steels from their microstructures at similar
positions from the quenched end.
 After quenching, two flat surfaces are ground opposite to each other along
the length of the specimen and hardness is measured at intervals of 1/16 in
(1.6mm) and the graph is plotted, as shown in figure, below.

CHAPTER-5
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES AND TESTING
 Tension test
 Hardness tests-Brinell's, Vicker's and Rockwell's hardness tests
 Impact tests-Charpy and Izod tests.
 Creep test
 Fatigue test, Bauschinger effect
 TENSION TEST:
 Engg. Stress (σe)= P/Ao ; where Ao = original area of cross section
 Engg. Strain (ϵe)= dl/lo ; where lo = original gauge length
 Now, true stress- true strain diagram is more accurate than engg. Stress -
strain diagram. During the test, true stress keep on increasing and true strain
keeps on decreasing.
 The true stress and true strain can be calculated by using the following
relations:
σt = σe {1 + (ϵe)}
εt = ln (1 + ϵe)
 The relationship between σt and ϵt is given by σt = K(ϵt)n,... valid upto σu
where ,
K= strength coefficient (it is the true stress at a true strain of unity)
n= strain hardening exponent= 0.1 to 0.5 for most materials.
 Larger value of n denotes more ductility, formability, more toughness.
Further, necking resistance will be more, in the material with large value of n.
 PROPORTIONAL STRESS:
 ELASTIC LIMIT:
 ULTIMATE TENSILE STRESS:
 YIELD STRESS:
 PROOF STRESS:
 RESILIENCE:
 For good resilience, a material should have high EL and low Young's
modulus.
 High resilience is necessary for springs, musical wire instruments,
diaphragms (Cu-Be alloys, Cu-Zn alloys etc), shock absorbers etc.,
 STIFFNESS: Resistance to elastic deformation.
 DUCTILITY: It is indicated by % elongation in length= {(If –I0)/I0} x 100
 MALLEABILITY: It is indicated by % reduction in area of cross section= {(A0 –
Af)/A0) x 100
 CONDITION FOR NECKING: Necking occurs at maximum load.
When, (dσT/dϵT) = σT
This gives, Kn ϵTn-1 = Kn ϵTn
therefore, ϵT = n, at necking condition.
 Slope of true stress- true strain diagram should become equal to true stress,
at that point.
 HARDNESS TEST:
 Indentation hardness:
 Rebound hardness (Shore scleroscope):
 Scratch hardness:
 Cutting hardness:
 Abrasive hardness:
Brinell's hardness test:
BHN = Load/ surface area of indentation
= 2P/π D {D -√(𝐷2 − 𝑑 2 )}
 VICKERS HARDNESS TEST: Works on the same indentation principle as Brinell's
hardness test. Indentor is made of diamond in the form of a square base pyramid
with an included angle of 136° between opposite faces. This angle is chosen because
it corresponds to the most desirable ratio of indentation dia to ball diameter of
0.375, the Brinell's test.
 VICKER'S HARDNESS NUMBER (VHN) = Load/ projected area of indentation
VHN = 1.8544P/d²
where, d= diagonal of impression.

 It is suitable for materials with a wide range of hardness, including very hard
steels.
 ROCKWELL HARDNESS TEST:
 First, minor load of 10kg is applied and then a major load (60/100/150 kg) is
applied.
 Three scales are usually provided on the machine. Meter reading directly
gives hardness denoted by RA / HRA, RB / HRB, RC / HRC etc.,
 No calculations, no surface preparations are involved, fast and accurate
method, can be used on finished specimens.
 Measures hardness on the basis of depth of penetration.
 Moh's scale determines hardness by scratching the test surface with standard
minerals, as given below:
 i. Talc ii. Gypsum iii. Calcite iv. Fluorite
v. Apatite vi. Orthoclase vii. Quartz viii. Topaz
ix. Corrundum x. Diamond.
 Ex: soft metals have a Moh's hardness of 2-3, hardened steels have a
hardness of 6, and Aluminium oxide has a hardness of 9.
 In this method, hardness is defined as resistance to scratching.
 It is widely used for identification of minerals.
 Microhardness test: These are designed in such a way that as low as 1grm and as
high as 1000grm load can be applied. Hence, it can be used for thin sheet materials,
plated layers, nitrided surfaces and phases.
Vicker's 1360 diamond pyramid is used in Tukon tester, whereas pyramidal
diamond Indentor is used in knoop tester, with a transverse angle of 130° and an
included angle of 172°30'.
Knoop test is suitable for very small or thin specimens and for brittle materials such
as gem stones, carbides, and glass. Because the indentations are very small (0.01 to
0.1mm), this test is also used to measure the hardness of individual grains in a
metal.
 Durometer: used for hardness measurement of plastics and rubbers.
 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HARDNESS AND STRENGTH:
Hardness= c. Yield strength,
Where, c= constant= 5.3 for annealed-C steels

= 3.2 for cold worked C-steels

= 3.4 for cold worked Aluminium
 APPLICATIONS OF HARDNESS TESTS:
Sl. APPLICATION HARDNESS TEST
No.
1 Rolling mill rolls RC or vicker's
2 Gold plated surface Micro-hardness test or shore scleroscope
3 GCI casting BHT or R
4 Razor blade Micro-hardness test or shore scleroscope
5 HSS VHT or RC
6 Glass surface Moh's scale
7 Synthetic Rubber Durometer
8 Nitrided surface VHT/microhardness/RA /RC
9 Ball bearing VHT/microhardness/ RC
10 P/M components RHT with 60kg load F/H/L/R scales
11 Crankshaft VHT/ RA /RC
12 SGCI BHT/RB
  IMPACT TEST:
 Under certain situations, a ductile material fails in a brittle manner in the
service and such a failure is characterized by absorption of a small amount of
energy.
 The factors which contribute to brittle type of fracture are:
i. Triaxial state of stress (exists at the tip of a notch)
ii. Low temperature and
iii. High strain rate.
Sl. CHARPY TEST IZOD TEST
No.
1 widely used in the United States widely used in Great Britain
2 Weight of impact hammer (with arm) Weight of impact hammer( with arm)
=20.932kg. 21.79kg pendulum arm length=0.825m
pendulum arm length= 0.825m
3 Pendulum is pre-set at an angle of 85°21', Pendulum is pre-set at an angle of 85°21',
drop height = 0.758m drop height = 0.758m
4 Specimen dimensions: 10x10x55mm Specimen dimensions: 10x10x75mm

 In general, BCC structures have more transition temperature than FCC

structures.
 Coarse grain steels have more transition temperature than fine grained
steels.
 Transition temperature is linearly related to log square root of ferritic grain
size.
 Plain-C steels have higher transition temperature than similar alloy steels.
 Increasing Carbon content, results in increasing of transition temperature.
 Ni and Mn effectively lower the transition temperature, whereas
phosphorous sharply increases transition temperature.
 When carbide or ferrite is outlining the grain boundaries, transition
temperature is raised.
 A mixed microstructure caused by improper heat treatment increases
transition temperature.
 Of all the microstructures, ferrite has the highest transition temperature and
pearlite, Bainite and tempered Martensite have a slightly lower transition
temperature.
 Some of the materials suitable for low temperature service are: Killed low-C
steels, 3% Ni low carbon steel, 6% Ni low carbon steel, austenitic stainless
steel with more than 8% Ni, Pure Al and Monel( 70 Ni-30℃u).
 FATIGUE TEST:
 With frequent stress fluctuations, a material may fail at a stress level far
below its static ultimate strength.
 This failure is incidental and occurs in a brittle manner, with almost no
deformation at the fracture region, and fracture surface is normal to the
direction of applied tensile stress.
 The lowering of yield stress when deformation in one direction is followed
by deformation in the opposite direction, is called the Bauschinger effect.
This is due to the residual stresses from the previous deformation.
 Due to the decrease in yield stress, the plastic deformation at a given applied
stress increases, leading to failure.
 Standard samples are prepared identical in all aspects, and tested one by one
at gradually decreasing stress levels. The number of cycles in each case are
noted. The test data is presented by means of S-N curve.
 Endurance or fatigue strength is the maximum stress that can be applied
repeatedly over a specified number of cycles without fracture( usually 108
cycles)
 The ratio of fatigue limit to the tensile strength is called the "fatigue ratio".
 Fatigue ratio for steels is approximately 0.5 and for non-Fe alloys, it is
approximately 0.35.
 FRACTURE APPEARANCE:
 Fatigue fractures are normally Transgranular i.e., crack propagates through
the grains.

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