Chapter 1
Surveying:
➢ The art of determining the positions of different objects
➢ on the surface of earth
➢ by measuring the horizontal distances between them.
Levelling:
➢ The art of determining the vertical distances of different points
➢ on the surface of earth
Basis of Difference Surveying Levelling
Primary Objective To determine the relative positions To determine the relative
of points on a horizontal plane. heights (elevations) of points.
Plane of Measurement Horizontal Plane (X and Y axes). Vertical Plane (Z axis).
Measurements Taken Horizontal distances and Vertical distances (heights
horizontal angles. and depths).
End Product Maps and plans showing features Cross-sections, longitudinal
like rivers, roads, buildings, and profiles, and contour maps
property boundaries. showing the topography of
the land.
Key Instruments Theodolite, Total Station, GPS, Dumpy Level, Auto Level,
Chain, Tape, Compass. Tilting Level, Levelling Staff.
Scope Surveying is the broader field that Levelling is a specific branch
encompasses various techniques, or operation within the larger
including levelling. field of surveying.
Object of surveying:
To prepare a map to show the positions of objects on the surface of earth.
It is drawn to some suitable scale
Shows the natural features (town, village, rivers etc.) of a country.
Also includes details of different engineering works (roads, railways,
irrigation canals)
Uses of surveying:
To prepare a topographical map hills, valleys, rivers, villages, towns, forests.
To prepare a cadastral map boundaries of fields, houses and other properties.
To prepare an engineering map roads, railways, reservoirs, irrigation canals.
To prepare a military map road and railway connection with different countries.
To prepare a contour map capacity pf a reservoir and route for railways, roads, etc.
To prepare a geological map areas with underground resources.
To prepare an archeological map places where ancient relics exist.
Classification of surveying:
1. Plane surveying:
➢ The curvature of earth is not taken into consideration.
➢ The surface of earth is considered as plane.
➢ Is carried out over a small area (less than 250 km2).
➢ The lines joining two points is considered to be straight.
Ex: The triangle formed by any three points is considered as plane triangle and the
angles of plane triangle are assumed to be plane angles.
2. Geodetic surveying:
➢ The curvature of earth is taken into consideration.
➢ It is extended over a large area (over 250 km2)
➢ The lines joining two points is considered to be a curved line.
Ex: The triangle formed by any three points is considered to be spherical and the angles
of triangle are assumed to be spherical angles.
Basis of Difference Plane Surveying Geodetic Surveying
Shape of the Earth Considered flat. Curvature Considered a spheroid. Curvature is
is ignored. accounted for.
Area Covered Small areas, typically less Large areas, exceeding 250 km².
than 250 km².
Lines Between Considered straight lines. Considered curved lines (arcs or
Points geodesics).
Triangles Formed Angles are plane angles Angles are spherical angles (sum >
(sum = 180°). 180°).
Level of Accuracy Less accurate. Suitable for Highly accurate. Forms the basis for
local, standalone projects. national control networks.
Calculations Uses simple plane Uses complex spherical trigonometry
geometry and trigonometry. and geodetic principles.
Typical Applications Property surveys, National mapping, establishing
construction site layouts, national boundaries, large-scale
architectural plans, local infrastructure projects (e.g.,
engineering projects. continental railways), crustal
movement studies.
Responsible Agency State agencies (e.g., National agencies (e.g., Survey of
(as per the book) Irrigation Dept., Railway India).
Dept.).
General principle of surveying:
1. To work from the whole to the part:
The whole area is enclosed by main stations and survey line.
The area is divided into a number of parts by forming well-conditioned (equilateral)
triangles.
The main survey lines are measured with a standard chain.
The triangles are measured.
The purpose of this process is to avoid error. If there is any error in measurement, it
won’t affect the whole work. The error can be eliminated.
But if reverse process (from the part to the whole) is followed, then a minor error in
measurement can cause trouble and a time will come when it will be uncontrollable.
2. To locate a new station by at least two measurements (linear or angular) from fixed
reference point:
• Linear measurements refer to horizontal distances measured by chain or tape.
• Angular measurements refer to horizontal angle taken by prismatic compass or
theodolite.
Methods of linear measurement:
1. By pacing or stepping:
• For rough and speedy work.
• By counting the number of walking steps (2.5 ft or 80 cm) of a man.
• This method is generally used in reconnaissance survey.
2. By passometer:
• Passometer (a small instrument just like a stop watch) is used for counting the
number of steps automatically.
• It’s convenient over the pacing method when a long distance is to be measured
and when it becomes very difficult to count and remember the number of steps.
3. By speedometer:
• Used in automobiles for recording distance,
4. By perambulator:
• Perambulator (wheel fitted with a fork and handle) shows distance per
evolution. There is a dial which records the number of revolutions.
5. By chaining:
• Accurate and common method for measuring distance.
• The distance is measured in the field by chain or tape.
Accessories for linear measurements:
1. Ranging rods:
• Rods which are use for ranging a line are known as ranging
rod.
• Made of seasoned timber or bamboos or GI pipes of 25 mm
diameter (if circular).
• Generally circular, but sometimes wooden ranging rods are
square (pointed)
2. Chains:
A chain is prepared with 100 or 150 pieces of galvanized mild steel wire of diameter 4
mm. The pieces are connected with each other with three oval shaped rings. Two brass
handles are at the end of the chain. Tallies are provided at every 10 or 25 links to make
the process of counting easy.
There are five different types of chains:
a) Metric chain:
20 m chain: 100 links, each 0.2 m. Tallies are provided at every 10 links (2 m)
(Two teeth) (One tooth)
ISI Tallies at every 5 m and brass ring after every 1 m.
30 m chain: 150 links, each 0.2 m. tallies are provided at every 25 links (5 m)
b) Steel band: It consists of a ribbon of steel (width 16 mm and length 20 or 30 m),
has brass handles at each end. It is used where more accuracy is required.
c) Engineers’ chain: 100 ft long, divided in 100 links (each link is 1 ft). Tallies are
provided at every 10 links (10 ft).
d) Gunters’ chain: 66 ft long, divided into 100 links. It was previously used to measure
distance in miles and furlongs.
e) Revenue chain: 33 ft long, divided into 16 links. It is used in cadastral survey.
Advantages of chain:
• They can be read easily and quickly.
• They can withstand wear and tear.
• They can be easily repaired in field.
Disadvantages of chain:
• They are heavy.
• They take too much time to open or fold.
• They become longer or shorter due to continuous use.
• They sag excessively when the measurement is taken in suspension.
3. Tapes:
Four types of tape:
a) Cloth or lilen tape:
• Made of woven lilen
• Is varnished to resist moisture
• Width: 15mm. Length: 10 and 15 m.
• Is used to measure offsets or ordinary work.
b) Metallic tape:
• Lilen tape + Brass or copper wire to make it durable.
• Length: 15, 20 and 30 m.
• Is used for survey work.
c) Steel tape:
• Made of steel ribbon (width: 6 to 16 mm)
• Length: 10, 15, 20, 30 and 50 m
• Is used for measurements in constructional works.
d) Invar tape;
• Made of an alloy of steel (64%) and nickel (36%).
• It’s thermal coefficient is very low, so it is not affected by the change in
temperature.
• Length: 30, 50 and 100 m.
• Is used where maximum precision is required (such as triangulation survey
conducted by the Survey of India Department).
Basis of Cloth or lilen Metallic tape Steel tape Invar tape
difference tape
Made of Woven lilen Lilen + Brass / Steel ribbons Alloy of steel
Copper (width: 6 to 16 (64%) and
mm) nickel (36%)
Length (m) 10 and 15 15, 20 and 30 10, 15, 20, 30 30, 50 and 100
and 50
Measurement Offsets or Survey work Constructional Triangulation
usage ordinary work works survey
4. Arrows
• Made of tempered steel wire (diameter 4 mm)
• One end is bent into a ring of diameter 50 mm and the
other end is pointed.
• Length: 400 mm
• Are used for counting the number of chains while
measuring a chain line.
Ranging
➢ The process of establishing intermediate points on a straight line between two end
points is known as ranging.
➢ It must be done before a survey line is chained.
➢ Generally ranging is done by naked eyes with three ranging rods, but it can also be done
by line ranger or theodolite.
➢ Ranging may be two kinds: a) Direct and b) Indirect
Direct ranging:
When intermediate ranging rods are fixed on a straight line by direct observation from end
stations, the process is known as direct ranging. Direct ranging is possible when the end stations
are intervisible. The following procedure is adopted for direct ranging.
Assume that A and B are two end stations of a chain line, where two ranging rods are already
fixed. Suppose it is required to fix a ranging rod at the intermediate point P on the chain line in
such a way that the points A, P and B are in the same straight line. The surveyor stands about
2 m behind the ranging rod at A by looking towards the line AB. The assistant holds a ranging
rod at P vertically at arm's length. The rod should be held lightly by the thumb and forefinger.
Now, the surveyor directs the assistant to move the ranging rod to the left or right until the three
ranging rods come exactly in the same straight line. To check the non-verticality of the rods,
the surveyor bends down and looks through the bottom of the rods. The ranging will be perfect
when the three ranging rods coincide and appear as a single rod. When the surveyor is satisfied
that the ranging is perfect, he signals the assistant to fix the ranging rod on the ground by
waving both his hands up and down. Following the same procedure, the other ranging rods may
be fixed on the line.
Indirect ranging:
When the end stations are not intervisible due to there being high ground between them,
intermediate ranging rods are fixed on the line in an indirect way. This method is known, as
indirect ranging or reciprocal ranging. The following procedure is adopted for indirect ranging.
Suppose A and B are two end stations which are not intervisible due to high ground existing
between them. Suppose it is required to fix intermediate points between A and B. Two chain
men take up positions at R1 and S1 with ranging rods in their hands. The chainman at R1 stands
with his face towards B so that he can see the ranging rods at S1 and B. Again, the chainman at
S1 stands with his face towards A so that he can see the ranging rods at R1 and A. Then the
chainmen proceed to range the line by directing each other alternately. The chainman at R 1
directs the chainman at S1 to come to the position S2 so that R1, S2 and B are in the same straight
line. Again, the chainman at S2 directs the chainman at R1 to move to the position at R2 so that
S2, R2 and A are in the same straight line. By directing each other alternately in this manner,
they change their positions every time until they finally come to the positions R and S, which
are in the straight-line AB. This means the points A, R, S and B are in the same straight line.
Feature Direct Ranging Indirect (Reciprocal) Ranging
Key Condition The two endpoints (A and B) are The two endpoints (A and B) are NOT
visible to each other. visible to each other.
Primary No visual obstacles between A hill or high ground obstructs the line
Obstacle endpoints. of sight.
Procedure A single surveyor stands at one Two surveyors (or chainmen) take
end (A), sights the other end (B), intermediate positions (R and S) from
and directs an assistant to place where they can see one endpoint and
intermediate rods (P) in a straight each other. They direct each other
line. alternately until both are on the line
AB.
Complexity Simple and straightforward. More complex and requires a
repetitive, reciprocal process.
Figure
Unfolding and folding a chain
Unfolding:
Step 1: Strap is unfastened
Step 2: Two brass handles are held in left hand and the bunch is thrown forward with the right
hand.
Step 3: One chainman stands at the starting station by holding one handle.
Step 4: Another chainman moves forward while holding the other handle until the chain is
completely extended.
Folding:
Step 1: A chainman moves forward by pulling the chain at the middle so that two halves of the
chain come side by side.
Step 2: From center position two links are taken at a time with right hand and place on the left
hand alternatively, brass handles will come on top.
Step 3: The bunch should be fastened with strap.
Testing a chain
➢ A test gauge (have two pegs with nails on top) is established on a level platform with
the help of steel tape (standardized at 20oC and under a tension of 8 kg).
➢ The incorrect chain is fully stretched by pulling it under normal tension (8 kg) along
the test gauge.
➢ If the length of the chain doesn’t match with standard length, then the error should be
noted.
Adjustment of chain
When the chain is too long: When the chain is too short:
a) Closing up the joints of the ring a) Straighten the bent links
b) Hammering the elongated rings b) Opening the joints of the links
c) Replacing some old rings by new rings c) Replacing the old rings by some larger rings
d) Removing some of the rings d) Inserting new rings where necessary