CELL – THE UNIT OF LIFE

 DISCOVERY OF CELL :-
 Robert Hooke (1665) – Observed Cork cell under microscope
Dead Plant cell
Gave the term ‘Cell’ from the
latin word
cellula meaning
compartments
 Anton Von Leeuwenhoek – Observed first living cell like
bacteria, RBCs
 Robert Brown (1831) – Nucleus
 Strasburger - Cytoplasm UNICELLULAR
ORGANISMS ARE
 Camillo Golgi (1898) – Golgi Apparatus CAPABLE OF:
 George Palade (1953) – Ribosomes  Independent
 Singer and Nicolson (1972) – Fluid existence
 Performing the
Mosaic Model essential
functions of life
Anything less than a
 CELL THEORY :- complete cell does
not ensure
 1838 – Matthias J. Schleiden (German independent living.
Botanist)
 1839 – Theodore Schwann (British
Zoologist)

Discovered a thin All living organisms Concluded that

presence
outer layer (Plasma are composed of cells of cell wall is a
unique
Membrane) and products of cells characteristic
of plant cell

 1955 – Rudolf Virchow (explained how new cells are formed)

omnis cellula e cellula (All cells arise from pre-existing
cells)

LIMITATIONS:
 Anucleate cells – Mature Mammalian RBCs, Mature Sieve
Tubes
 Coenocyte (Slime moulds, Rhizopus)
 Virus, Viroids
 CELL
SIZE :-

 Largest Isolated Single Cell – Ostrich Egg Cell

  Smallest Cell – Mycoplasmas (PPLO)
 Largest Cell (in humans) – Ovum
 Smallest Cell (in humans) – RBCs
 Longest Cell – Nerve Cell

CELL SIZE

Virus, Viroids 0.02 – 0.2

μm
PPLO
0.1 μm

Mycoplasmas 0.3 μm

 Bacteria 1-2, 3-5 μm PROKARYOTIC

CELL:- Includes
Bacteria, RBC 7 μm PPLO,
Mycoplasmas
and Eukaryotic 10-20 μm Cyanobacteria
Cell
 Show Single envelope
system
 Smaller and multiply more rapidly than Eukaryotic cells
 Show fundamentally similar organization though they
exhibit a wide variety of shapes and functions.

 CELL ENVELOPE :- Chemically Complex; Tightly bound; Three-

layered
 Although Each layer performs a distinct function they work
as a single unit

SLIME LAYER Loose Sheath

Prevents loss of water and
nutrients

 GLYCOCALYX
Thick/ tough layer
MUCOPOLYSACCHARIDES CAPSULE
Helps bacteria to hide from
host’s immunity
 CELL WALL :- Gives gummy and sticky
 Absent in Mycoplasmas NAM
character to cell
 Composed of Peptidoglycan
(Murein/ Mucopeptide)
NAG
 CELL MEMBRANE :-
 Present in all living organisms
  Delimiting Structure
 Composed of phospholipid bilayer
 Structurally similar to membrane in eukaryotes
 Difference from Eukaryote :-
 Structural – Have Hopanoids instead of Sterol (Cholesterol)
 Functional - Prokaryotic plasma membrane is metabolically active
Has oxidative enzymes
LATERAL (respiration), secretion,
increase the surface area
 MESOSOMES of plasma membrane and
enzymatic content.
Analogous to Mitochondria
 Infoldings/
Invaginations of Helps in cell wall formation,
SEPTAL
plasma DNA Replication and
distribution to daughter
membrane cells.
 Membranous
(non-unit) Attached to nucleoid.
 In the form of vesicles, tubules and
extensions
lamellae
 Only in Gram +ve bacteria
 Specialized differentiated form of plasma
 CHROMATOPHORES
membrane :-
 Membranous (non-unit membrane) extensions
 Provide site for attachment of pigments like chlorophyll,
bacteriochlorophyll in cyanobacteria, purple and green bacteria
 Analogous to Thylakoids
 NUCLEOID/ GENOPHORE :-
 Analogous to chromosomes
 Have Genomic DNA (single chromosome/ circular ds DNA)
 Lack
- Nuclear Membrane
- Histone protein Packaging is done by RNA and Polyamines.
 PLASMID :-
 Extra-Chromosomal, extra nuclear, Self-Replicating small circular
ds DNA
 Has certain genes like the f-factor (fertility factor), r-factor
(resistance
against antibodies)
 Confer unique phenotypic character to bacteria
 Known as Episome when it is attached to nucleoid
 Used as vector in genetic engineering.
 Used to monitor bacterial transformation with foreign DNA.

Attached to inner surface

FIXED of Plasma membrane in
prokaryotes
  RIBOSOMES
 15 nm × 20 nm
 Protein factory
 Composed of RNP
= rRNA + Proteins
 70 S (‘S’ represents Svedberg unit or
Sedimentation
Coefficient. It is an indirect
measure of
30 Mg2+ 50 density and
size) S S
16S RNA 5S RNA
+ 23S RNA Several ribosomes may
21 + attach to a single mRNA
Protein chain and form a chain
M
Molecule 34 called polysome/
s Protein polyribosome/ergosome.
Molecule The ribosomes of a
polysome translate the
mRNA into proteins.
 INCLUSION BODIES :-
Prokaryotes have something unique in the form of inclusions.
Unit membrane absent. Non-unit membrane : 2-4 nm. They lie free in the
cytoplasm
 GAS VACOULES (PSEUDOVACOULES) :-
 Makes the bacteria buoyant
 Protects from harmful UV Radiations

 INORGANIC INCLUSIONS :-
 Volutin Granules (Phosphate Granules), Iron and Sulphur Granules

 FOOD STORAGE :-
 Cyanophycean and glycogen granules
 Poly-β-Hydroxybutyrate (PHB) granules is used to form
biodegradable plastic.

 FLAGELLA :- Thin filamentous extensions that extend

from their cell wall.
 Bacteria show a range in the no. and arrangement of
flagella The filament is the
longest portion and
 PILI AND FIMBRIAE :- Do not play a role in motility

PILI FIMBRIAE
 Long, hollow  Short, Solid, Bristle-like
 True pili present in gram -  Allows bacteria to attach
ve bacteria and help in to external surfaces like
mating process. rocks in streams and on
host.
 Help in transfer of DNA  Helically arranged (3-10
from donor bacteria to nm)
host bacteria
(recombination/
conjugation)
 Made of Pilin  Made of proteins
EUKARYOTIC CELL :- Show extensive
compartmentalization
 Show double envelope system

 CELL WALL :-
 Non-living, rigid
 FUNCTIONS:
C – Cell to Cell Interactions
U – Undesirable
Macromolecules
P – Protection from
pathogens,
mechanical injury and
bursting
I – In and Out of Cell
S – Shape, Rigidity

PLANTS FUNGI ALGAE

Cellulose, Pectin, Chitin Cellulose,
Hemicellulose, (N-containing Galactans,
Proteins polysaccharide Mannans, CaCO3
OR
Polymer of NAG)
MIDDLE PRIMARY WALL SECONDARY
LAMELLA WALL
Outermost Middle-layer Innermost
Glues Single-layered Multi- Layered
neighbouring
Cells
Made of Calcium Capable of growth Inextensible
and magnesium
pectate
Formed from Cell Present in young Present in dead
Plate cells cells
Diminishes as cell Forms when
matures growth of cell
stops and on the
inner side
(towards
membrane) of cell
Grows by Grows by
Intussusception Accretion
In Meristem, May be lignified
Parenchyma, Pith (Sclerenchyma,
and Cortex Tracheids,
 Meristem and Vessels) or
Parenchyma Suberinised
only (Endodermis,
have primary Casparin Strips)
cell
wall.

 PIT :- Cell-to-cell interaction. May be simple or bordered

 PLASMODESMATA :-
 Forms symplast (cytoplasmic connection)
 Living
 Contains desmotubule (made in ER)

 CELL

MEMBRANE :-
 Selectively permeable
 Delimiting Structure
 Mainly composed of lipids and proteins. Major lipids are
phospholipids arranged in a bilayer.
 Also possess protein and carbohydrates.
 Asymmetrical in nature
 Amphipathic
 The ratio of proteins and lipids in the P.M. varies from cell to cell.
RBCs contain 52% proteins and 40% lipids.
 Glycerol Nonpolar tail made of Saturated
hydrocarbons

Hydro
phobi
c Hydrophilic

Amphipathic

Can be removed
Peripheral/
easily by slight pH
Extrinsic
change
 PROTEINS
Partially Hard
On the embedde to
basis of d remov
Integral/
extraction Intrinsic
 FUNCTIONS :- Transmembrane/
 PROTEINS :- Tunnel Proteins
- Comprises 60-70% of the P.M.
- Act as receptors
- Polar substances like ions are transported across the membrane
through Carrier proteins
- Do no show flip- flop movement

 CARBOHYDRATES :-
- Only on outer surface
- Help in cell recognition
- Act as antigens
-
 CHOLESTEROL :-
- More in upper layer
- Only in Eukaryotes
- Maintains membrane stability, fluidity

 FLUID-MOSAIC MODEL :-
 Given by Singer and Nicolson (1972)
 Described the membrane as ‘Protein icebergs floating in a sea of
phospholipids’
 The quasi-fluid nature of lipids enable the lateral movement of
lipids
 The fluid nature of the membrane helps in cell division, cell
growth, secretion, endocytosis, intercellular junctions.

 CYTOPLASM :
 Term given by Strasburger
 Semi-fluid matrix
 Main arena for cellular activities. Excludes nucleus
 Chemical reactions take place in it to keep the cell in the living
state.

 CYTOSOL/ GROUND PLASM/ HYALOPLASM :-

 Cytoplasm minus cell organelles and nucleus

 TROPHOPLASM :-
 Part of cytoplasm containing organelles and non-living
inclusions (Deutoplasm)
 TRANSPORT ACROSS MEMBRANE

ACTIVE PASSIV
E
 Uphill movement  Downhill movement
 Against  Along concentration gradient
concentration  Move across the membrane
2gradient without any requirement of
 E.g. Na+ and K+ energy

DIFFUSION

SIMPLE FACILITAT OSMOSI

DIFFUSIO E S
N DIFFUSION

Polar molecules like ions Solvents like water

Neutra cannot pass through the through semi-
l non-polar lipid bilayer permeable
Solute with the help of carrier membrane
proteins
 ENDOMEMBRANE SYSTEM :- Function in a coordinated
manner
 Comprises ER, GB, Lysosomes, Vacuoles
 Each of the membranous organelle of the endomembrane system
is distinct in terms of structure and function.

 ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM :-
 Transport of substances, synthesis of proteins, lipoproteins and
glycogen.
 Also helps in protein folding and carbohydrate processing.
 Can be observed only under electron microscope
 Consists of Cisternae, vesicles and tubule
 Divides the cell into
 SER RER
 Synthesis of lipids, steroid-  Synthesis of proteins
like hormones and glycogen
metabolism
 No ribosomes present on the  Ribosomes present on the
surface, giving it a smooth surface of the ER
appearance
 Detoxification of drugs 40
60 Ribophorin
Cisternae
 Ca2+ storage in muscles  Provides precursor of
(Sarcoplasmic Reticulum). enzymes for formation of
Release and uptake calcium ions lysosome and GB.
for muscle contractions.
 Materials transported from  Give rise to SER. Produces
RER to GB pass through SER. nuclear membrane in telophase.
 Major Component – Vesicles  Major Component -
and Tubules Cisternae
 Extensive and continuous
with the outer-nuclear
membrane.
 GOLGI APPARATUS :-
 Discovered by Camillo Golgi (1898)
 ALSO CALLED:
 Lipochondria (rich in
lipids) OCCURENCE
 Dalton Complex
 Baker’s Body
 Traffic Police of Cell PROKAROYES
EUKARYOTES
 Middlemen of Cell
(Absent)
 Dictyosomes (in plants - (Present)  Absent in
as they have  Mature RBCs
unconnected units:  Mature Sieve
cisternae) Tube
 Sperms of
 DISCOVERED IN: Bryophytes
 Nerve cells of cat and and
 Membrane- bound organelles that consists of many flat, disc-
shaped sac called cisternae arranged parallelly.
 The cisternae are arranged concentrically around the nucleus
and have a diameter of 0.5-1.0 μm.
 Associated with post translation protein modification.
 Remain in close association with the ER as the materials to be
packed in the form of vesicles fuse with the cis face of the GB and
move towards the maturing face.
 Package substances for export or intracellular targets. The
secretions of cell are packed in Golgi bodies and transported from
the cell.
 Comprised of cisternae, tubules, vesicles and Golgian vacuoles.
 Zone of exclusion around GB.
 Uni-cisternal in fungus. Cis-face
Convex face
Formative
 Consists of two faces face Proximal
The two faces are
face
(It is structurally and completely
different but
Chemically polarized) interconnected
Trans-face
Concave face
Maturing
face Distal
 FUNCTIONS :- face
- P : Processing
- P : Packaging
- G : Formation of
- T : Transportation
Glycoproteins
(Glycosylation) and
glycolipids (Glycosidation)
- A : Formation of acrosome
of sperm
- P : Plasma Membrane
formation during
cytokinesis
- S : Secretion (E.g. mucilage
in root hair cells which
helps in lubrication)
 LYSOSOMES :-
 Single- membrane bound
vesicular structures
 Formed by processing
and packaging in Golgi
bodies.
 Discovered by De Duve
 Show polymorphism/
pleomorphism
 Maintain acidic
environment
 Have hydrolytic enzymes for digestion of all types of
macromolecules. E.g. Lipases, carbohydrases, nucleases,
proteases, cathepsin, etc.
 Lysosomes originate from GERL (Golgian Associated ER).
 AUTOPHAGIC LYSOSOME/ AUTOPHAGOSOME/ SUICIDAL
BAGS :-
 Digest dead or old cell organelles (Autophagy)
 Formed during starvation
 E.g. Metamorphosis of frog (disappearance of tail)

HETEROPHAGY : Digestion of foreign substances (Ephagy/ Cell

Vomiting)

Protolysosome
 VACUOLES :-
 Contain water, sap and excretory substances not useful for the
cell
 Membrane bound organelles.
 Membrane known as Tonoplast.
 Tonoplast helps in movement of ions and other materials
against the concentration gradient (active transport) into the
vacuole.
 Vacuoles may occupy upto 90% of the cell volume and In
 known as Sap Vacuoles.
 May have water-soluble pigments called Anthocyanins.
 Contractile Vacuole: Help in excretion and osmoregulation
 Food Vacuole: Formed on engulfing food particles

 MITOCHONDRIA :-
 Cell within cell
 Double membrane bound
 Power house of cell
 Divide by fission from pre-existing mitochondria (Not de novo)
 Have enzymes for oxidative phosphorylation and ATP synthesis
 Site of aerobic respiration
 Semi-autonomous organelle The two membranes
 Synthesize their own proteins of mitochondria have
 Show endosymbiotic origin their own specific
 Sausage/ Cylinder shaped enzymes associated
 Dimensions: with the
Diameter: 0.2 - 1.0 μm mitochondrial
Length: 2.0 - 4.1 μm
 Not easily visible under microscope unless specifically stained
 Stain by Janus Green (a vital stain)
 The number of mitochondria per cell varies depending on the
physiological activity of the cell
 Show considerable variability in terms of shape and size too.

MITOCHONDRIA
 Semi- autonomous
 Double membrane
bound
 Powerhouse of cell
 Divide by fission
 Site of aerobic
respiration
 Synthesize their own

OUTER Both the INNER MEMBRANE

MEMBRANE membranes of  Forms a number of
 Forms mitochondria infoldings called
continuous are structurally Cristae which
OXYSOMES/ ELEMENTARY PARTICLES / F1- F0
PARTICLES/
PARTICLES OF FERNANDEZ AND MORAN

 Enzymatic
 ATP Synthesis (Acts as ATP
synthase complex)

 Channel Protein (passive

transport)
 Creates H+ gradient
 Embedded in inner-
mitochondrial membrane

 Found in all plants and euglenoides

 Easily observed under microscope as they
 PLASTIDS: are large
 Colourless plastids
 Granum absent
LEUCOPLAS  Located near the nucleus in
TS non-green cells

 Store starch
AMYLOPLAS
 Eg. In Potato, Rice
T

 Store proteins
ALEUROPLAS  Eg. In Aleurones of
T maize
 Store oils and fats
ELAIOPLAS
 CHLOROPLAST: -
 Contain chlorophyll and carotenoids
 Double membrane bound
 Permeability : Outer Membrane > Inner Membrane
 Vary in shape, size and number
 Trap light energy essential for photosynthesis.
 Semi – autonomous + Endosymbiotic

 They have their own nucleic acids (circular ds DNA

and RNA) and 70S Ribosomes
 Their membrane resembles with that of bacteria
(having proteins called porins)
 ETS and ATP forming machinery is present.

 SHAPE:
 DIMENSIONS:
- Width: 2- 4 μm
- Length: 5- 10 μm

 NUMBER:
- 1 per cell: Chlamydomonas
- 20 – 40 per cell: Mesophyll Cell
Majority of the chloroplasts are found
in the mesophyll cells of the leaves

Stacks of
thylakoids
Also called
Intergranal
thylakoids

Organized
flattened
membranou
s sacs
Site for light
reaction
Have
 Space limited by the inner chlorophyll
(Fret pigments
membrane of the
channel/
chloroplast The
Intergranal
 Site for dark reaction thylakoid
lamellae)
 Contain enzymes for membrane
carbohydrate and protein Membranous encloses a
synthesis tubules that space called
 Contain small, circular ds connects lumen
Thylakoids
  RIBOSOMES :- Discovered by George Palade in 1953.
Also known as Palade Particles. Observed under electron
microscope.  Organelle within organelle
 Membraneless
80  Composed of ribonucleoprotein
S 70 S – RNP: Protein = 60: 40
80 S – RNP: Protein = 40: 60
 Occur freely in the cytoplasm
40S 60S
Mg2+ (Synthesize non-secretory
18S RNA 5S RNA proteins) or are associated with
(Dimer 5.8S RNA
33 Protein ER (Synthesize secretory proteins)
) 28S RNA  Newly synthesized proteins are
molecules
40 Protein processed with the help of
Small Chaperons proteins
Molecules
Subunit:  Mitochondria and chloroplast in
Occurs Large eukaryotes have 70S ribosomes
above Subunit:
large Dome-like
subunit

 CYTOSKELETON:-
 An elaborate network of filamentous proteinaceous structures
 Functions:
Mechanical Support
Motility
Maintenance of shape of cell

1) MICROTUBULES
 Found in cytoplasm
 Hollow, cylindrical
 Diameter: 25 nm
Hollow Core: 15 nm
 Absent in prokaryotes
 Boundary composed of 13 protofilaments
 Composed of tubulin proteins (non-contractile) which consists of
α & β subunits
 The assembly & disassembly of microtubules require GTP and
Ca2+

 FUNCTIONS:-
- Formation of Spindle fibres and astral rays
- Form the cytoskeleton of cilia and flagella
 - Anaphasic movement of chromosomes
- Cell Plate formation
- Intracellular transport of nutrients and ions

2) MICROFILAMENTS:-
 Solid, unbranched
 Composed of a single monomer- Actin (Contractile Protein).
May have myosin too

 FUNCTIONS:-
- Cleavage formation
- Support Plasma Membrane
- Cytoplasmic streaming/ Cyclosis

- Cell Motility (Pseudopodia formation)

3) INTERMEDIATE FILAMENTS:-
- Hollow
- Made of acidic proteins
- Non-contractile
- Involved in formation of
o Scaffolds for chromatin
o Nuclear fibrous lamina

 CENTRIOLE (MICROCENTRUM) AND CENTROSOME:-

9+0
Arrangeme MTG/
nt MTOC

40
°
 Centrosome includes a pair of centriole
surrounded by amorphous pericentriolar
material called Cytocentrum/
Centrosphere/ Kinoplasm.
 The two centrioles (Diplosome)are at right
angles to each other.
 Absent in higher plants (Present in animals,
algae and fungi).
 Centrosome = Diplosome + Kinoplasm

90
°

 A centriole possesses a whorl of nine evenly spaced

∴
peripheral fibrils of tubulin. It is absent in the center.
The arrangement is called 9+0

∴ It is called triplet fibril consisting of sub fibrils A, B, C

 Each fibril is made of three subfibrils.

 The adjacent triplet fibrils are connected by C-A Proteinaceous

linkers
 The centre of the centriole possesses a rod-shaped
proteinaceous mass known as the Hub.
 From the hub, nine proteinaceous strands are developed
towards the triplet fibrils called Radial Spokes.
 Due to presence of radial spokes and peripheral fibrils, the
centriole gives a Cartwheel appearance.
  CILIA AND FLAGELLA:-

Axoneme
Shaft
/
Filament
(9+2)

Basal Plate
(Transition zone
where 9+0 changes
to 9+2)
/
Blapheroplast
 Cilia and flagella are membrane bound extensions of the Plasma
Membrane
 They arise from centriole like basal bodies (9+0)
 Their core is called Axoneme which is made up of nine
microtubule doublets arranged radially along the periphery and
a pair of microtubules present singly in the centre (9+2)
 NOTE: Cilia work like oars causing the movement of either the
cell or the surrounding fluid.
 Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic flagella are structurally
different
 PROKARYOTIC FLAGELLA EUKARYOTIC FLAGELLA
Not covered by plasma Covered by Plasma Membrane
membrane
9+2 Arrangement absent; 9+2 Arrangement Present;
Monofibrilar 11 Stranded
Made entirely of flagellin (hollow) Made of nexin, dynein and
tubulin
360° (Rotatory) Movement 180° (Lashing) Movement
Moves by H+ gradient Movement is bought about by
ATPase Tubuli
action
Extend from cell wall Basal body embedded
nProteiin outer
part of cytoplasm
n

Arms:
Dynein
Nexin
Protein
Protein

 NUCLEUS:-
 Discovered by Robert Brown in 1831
 Nucleus is acidic in nature and is hence stained by basic dyes
like methylene blue.
 The material of nucleus stained by basic dyes was given the
name chromatin by Flemming.
 The importance of nucleus in control of heredity, metabolism
and growth was proven by Hammerling through an experiment
done on Acetabularia.

NO. OF NUCLEUS PER CELL

BINUCLEATE MULTINUCLEATE: ANUCLEATE:

: Paramecium Rhizopus, Giant Amoeba Mature
(Pelomyxa, Chaos Mammalian
Chaos), Opalina, Slime RBCs, and Mature
Moulds Sieve Tube Cells
 STRUCTURE:
 The interphase nucleus (nucleus of a
cell when it is not dividing) has highly
extended and elaborate
nucleoprotein fibres called chromatin,
nuclear matrix and one or more
spherical bodies called nucleoli

I. NUCLEAR MEMBRANE/
KARYOTHECA/ NUCLEOLEMMA:-
o Consists of two parallel
Membranes 10-50
Outer Membrane - Ectokaryotheca
Inner Membrane - Endokaryotheca
o Outer Membrane is continuous
with ER.
o Has ribosomes on outer/
cytosolic face.
o At a number of places the nuclear
envelope is interrupted by
minute pores, which are formed
by the fusion of its two
membranes.
o Nuclear Pore Complex (NPC) =
Pore + Annulus
o These nuclear pores are the
passages through which
movement of RNA and protein
molecules takes place in both
directions between the nucleus
and the cytoplasm. Bi-directional transport.

Made of
Intermediate
Filaments

II. NUCLEOPLASM/ KARYOLYMPH/ NUCLEAR SAP/ NUCLEAR

MATRIX :-
 o Transparent, semi-fluid (jelly-like) and colloidal
o Has enzymes for DNA (DNA Polymerase) and RNA (RNA Polymerase)
synthesis.
o It contains nucleolus and chromatin.

III. NUCLEOLUS:-
o Spherical
o Found in Nucleoplasm
o It is continuous with the rest of the nucleoplasm as it is not a
membrane bound structure.
o It is a site for active rRNA synthesis. Has rDNA for rRNA synthesis.
o Larger and more numerous nucleoli are present in cells actively
carrying out protein synthesis.
o It consists of
- Granular Region (Pars Granulosa): Made of RNP granules which
are precursors of 40 s and 60 S subunits.
- Fibrillar Region (Pars Fibrillosa): Consists of long proteinaceous
fibrils called Nucleonema.
- Amorphous Part (Pars Amorphia): Matrix
- Chromatin Part (Pars Chromosoma): Part of chromatin
associated with nucleolus.
Nucleolus consists of two types of fibrils: Perinucleolar chromatin
fibres and intranucleolar chromatin fibres.

IV. CHROMATIN :-
o Network of extended and elaborate loose nucleoprotein fibres
present in interphasic nucleus.
o Coloured Magenta by basic dye Fuschin.
o Composition:
Main Component: DNA, Histone Protein Basic
Minor Component: RNA, Non-Histone Protein Acidic
o Eukaryotes: Have definite no. of chromosomes for a species
o Prokaryotes: Chromatin does not condense into chromosomes and is
considered equivalent to 1 chromosome.

o Single human cell 2 m long DNA distributed among its 46

chromosomes
o CHROMOSOMES:

In humans, 5 pairs of SAT

Chromosomes are present (13, 14,
15, 21,22)

- It was observed that when chromosomes are stained with basic dyes
like acetocarmine or fuelgen, then two types of regions can be
observed:
EUCHROMATIN HETEROCHROMATIN
Ligh-stained Dark stained
Loosely packed Densely packed
Has codes for protein synthesis No information/ codes
Transcriptionally active Transcriptionally inactive
2% of total chromatin 98% of total chromatin
 META- SUB- ACRO- TELO-
CENTRIC METACENTRI CENTRIC CENTRIC
C
Shape V-shaped L-Shaped J-Shaped I-Shaped
Centrome Median Sub-Median Sub-Terminal Terminal
re (Middle) (Slightly away(Close to
from centre) end)
Arm Equal Arms One shorter One Absent in
Length arm (p) and extremely humans
one longer armshort (p) and
(q) one
extremely
long arm (q)
Hetero/ Heterobrachial Isobrachial/
Isobrachia Homobrachi
l al
 MICROBODIES/ CYTOSOMES:- Bound by Single
Membrane

[Link]/ URICOSOMES:-
 Has enzymes (oxidative enzymes) for peroxide biosynthesis
Peroxide producing – Glycolate oxidase
Peroxide destroying - Catalase
 Found in both animals and plants
 Perform photorespiration in plants. For this, they are associated
with mitochondria and chloroplasts
 Involved in metabolism of purines, extra amino acids, oxidation
of toxins

[Link]:-
 Storage & synthesis of lipids
 Abundant in endosperm cells of oil seeds
 Found only in plants. Absent in animals
 Contain hydrolytic enzymes and are called plant lysosomes
 Produced from SER
 Temporary Structures

[Link]:-
 Contain enzymes for Glyoxylate cycle (Fats Carbohydrates)

Gluconeogenes
is
 Found in fatty germinating seeds (like castor seeds)
 Absent in animals
 Originate from ER
 Temporary structure