Dr.
Shaza Wagiealla Shantier
•Associate Professor
•Faculty of Pharmacy, University
of Khartoum
Analytical Chemistry
Chemical Analysis
Pharmaceutical analysis
Contents
Introduction
Volumetric Analysis
Acid-base Titrations
Precipitation Titrations
Oxidation Reduction Titrations
Compleximetric Titrations
Electrochemistry
Analytical Chemistry
What is analytical chemistry?
Analytical chemistry is often
described as the area of chemistry
responsible for characterizing the
composition of matter, both qualitatively
(what is present) and quantitatively (how
much is present).
Ingeneral, the analysis of any
material is divided into quantitative
and qualitative analysis. The two
parts are subdivided to classical
methods (volumetric analysis,
gravimetric analysis,) and non-
classical methods
(spectrophotometric: UV, IR….etc).
Qualitative analysis is concerned
with the description of chemical
composition in terms of elements,
compounds, subunits i.e. nature or
identity of the mixture components.
Quantitative analysis is a chemical
analysis performed to find the
amount of each component present
in a mixture. It is done by either a
classical or instrumental procedure
Quantitative classical methods
are procedures in which a
suitable chemical regent is
reacted with some unknown
either by titration (volumetric)
or precipitate formation
(gravimetric).
Volumetric analysis
is
classical quantitative technique in
which a solution of known
concentration is reacted exactly with an
unknown and a calculation is
performed to find the amount of the
unknown present.
Gravimetric analysis:
A classical quantitative technique
in which a chemical added to an
unknown material forming an
insoluble precipitate with some part
of the unknown. The precipitate is
then collected and weighed .
Non-classical, advanced or
instrumental methods:
These are the quantitative techniques in
which some physical or
physicochemical property of the
unknown material (electrical, optical,
thermal, etc.) is measured and related to
the amount of the unknown present.
Electrochemical methods:
Potentiometry: Many chemical reactions
produce electric energy, a battery for
example. The amount of chemical to
produce a measured potential is calculated.
Coulometry: The amount of electrical
current and the duration over which it flows
is a measure of the amount of chemical
substance producing the current
Conductimetry: The number of
charged chemical components in a solution
determine the resistance or conductance of a
solution to the passage of electrical current.
Voltammetry: The magnitude of
electric potential necessary to cause the
breakdown of a chemical substance and the
current resulting from that breakdown are
related to the amount of chemical present
Spectroscopical methods:
These methods depend on interaction between
light (electromagnetic radiation) and material
to be measured.
Ultraviolet, visible, infrared, and x-ray
spectrometry: The extent to which these
rays are absorbed by a sample depends upon
the amount of sample present.
Nuclear magnetic resonance: For
chemicals showing magnetic properties the
strength of the magnetism is related to the
amount of substance present.
Mass spectrometry: The intensity of
each component fraction present as a
chemical is broken apart relates to the
amount initially present.
Chromatographic methods
These depend on separation of materials due
to their difference in interaction with two
phases e.g gas chromatography (GC) and
high performance liquid chromatography
(HPLC).
Concentration expressions
1. Percent
Parts (weight or volume) of solute in 100 parts
(weight or volume) of solution.
A. Percent w/v
Example: How many grams of NaOH is
required to prepare 100ml 5% solution.
Solution:
Five grams of NaOH were weighed,
transferred to 100ml volumetric flask and
volume is made up to 100ml using water.
The concentration of this solution is 5%w/v.
B. Percent w/w
Example:
How many grams of boric acid required to
prepare 500grams 10% solution of boric acid
in dextrose.
Solution:
Grams of boric acid (50 grams) and dextrose
(450 grams) were weighed, The two powder
were mixed .The concentration of this
solution is 10%w/w.
C. Percent v/v
Example: Calculate the volume of alcohol
necessary to prepare 1000ml 25% solution.
Solution:
A volume of alcohol(250 ml) were measured,
transferred to 1000 ml volumetric flask ,
water (500ml ) were add, the solution is
well-mixed and volume is made up to 1000
ml using water. The concentration of this
solution is 25%v/v.
2. Molar or normal
Morality (M) is number of moles of
solute in 1000 ml of solution.
Normality (N) is number of
equivalents of solute in 1000 ml of
solution.
(Equivalent wt = [Link] / valence)
* The two concentration expressions are
interconvertable i.e one can be converted
into the other (M=N/n; N=M/n or N= M
x n???)
Example:
Calculate the weight of NaCl necessary to
prepare 1000 ml 0.1M solution.
Solution:
A weight of NaCL(5.85g) were measured,
transferred to 1000 ml volumetric flask ,
dissolved in 500ml water and volume is
made up to 1000 ml using water. The
concentration of this solution is 0.1M
Another example:
How many grams of sulfuric acid are
required to prepare 500 ml 0.5Nsolution.
Solution:
A weight of sulfuric acid (12.25g) were
weighed, transferred to 500 ml volumetric
flask and volume is made up to 500 ml
using water. The concentration of this
solution is 0.5N
3. Parts per Million and Parts per Billion
Sometimes composition is expressed as parts
per million (ppm) or parts per billion (ppb),
which mean grams of substance per million or
billion grams of total solution or mixture.
Because the density of a dilute aqueous solution
is close to 1.00 g/mL, we frequently equate 1 g
of water with 1 mL of water, although this
equivalence is only approximate. Therefore, 1
ppm corresponds to 1 µg/mL ( 1 mg/L) and 1
ppb is 1 ng/mL ( 1 µg/L).
Practice (Converting between units)
1. Convert the following percent
concentrations to molar or normal
a. 5% NaOH to molar.
b. 10% H2C2O4 to normal
2. Convert the following molar or normal
concentrations to percent.
a. 0.5M ammonia .
b. 0.1N H2SO4