SCIENCE
Thursday, November 28, 2024 9:49 PM
ELECTRONIC STRUCTURE OF MATTER
Definition of Terms:
- Atom: The basic unit of a chemical element.
- Electron: A subatomic particle with a negative charge.
- Proton: A subatomic particle with a positive charge found in the nucleus.
- Neutron: A subatomic particle with no charge found in the nucleus.
- Electron Configuration: The distribution of electrons of an atom or molecule in atomic or molecular orbitals.
- Orbital: A region around the nucleus where an electron is likely to be found.
- Energy Levels: The fixed energies an electron can have.
- Valence Electrons: Electrons in the outermost shell of an atom.
- Quantum Numbers: Numbers assigned to each electron in an atom to describe its state.
Models of the Atoms:
- Dalton's Model (1803): Atoms are indivisible particles that make up elements.
- Thomson's Model (1897): Known as the "plum pudding" model, electrons are embedded in a positively
charged sphere.
- Rutherford's Model (1911): Atoms consist of a small, dense, positively charged nucleus at the center, with
electrons orbiting around this nucleus.
- Bohr's Model (1913): Electrons travel in fixed orbits around the nucleus with fixed energy levels.
- Quantum Mechanical Model (1926-present): Electrons exist in probability clouds (orbitals) around the
nucleus, described by wave functions.
Summary:
Understanding the electronic structure of matter involves looking at how electrons are arranged in an atom.
Electrons exist in energy levels or shells around a nucleus made up of protons and neutrons. These electrons are
further arranged in orbitals, which are described using electron configurations. The electron configuration of an
atom provides insight into how electrons are arranged and distributed, influencing the atom's chemical properties.
Valence electrons play a crucial role in chemical bonding and reactions as they are the electrons in the outermost
shell.
Electron Configuration:
The arrangement of electrons in an atom's orbitals is given by its electron configuration, which follows the Aufbau
principle (electrons occupy the lowest energy orbitals first), Hund's rule (electrons fill degenerate orbitals singly before
pairing), and the Pauli exclusion principle (no two electrons can have the same set of four quantum numbers).
Example Problem:
1. Determine the electron configuration of a magnesium atom (Mg, atomic number 12):**
Solution: 1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s².
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CHEMICAL BONDS
Definition of Terms:
- Ionic Bond: A chemical bond that is formed when there is a complete transfer of electrons. (non-metals &
metals)
- Covalent Bond: A chemical bond that involves the sharing of electron pairs between atoms. (2 non-metals)
Polar Covalent Bond: unequal sharing of electrons resulting to 2 opposite poles (dipoles).
Nonpolar Covalent Bond: uniform distribution of electric charge
- Metallic Bond: A chemical bond formed in metallic substances. Gives metals their properties such as:
Luster: Metals have a shiny surface when freshly cut or polished, due to their ability to reflect light.
Malleability: Metals can be hammered or rolled into thin sheets without breaking, which is useful in
manufacturing.
Ductility: Metals can be stretched into thin wires. This property is essential for making electrical
wires.
Conductivity: Metals are good conductors of heat and electricity due to the presence of free electrons
that move easily through the metal.
Density: Metals generally have high density, meaning they have a high mass per unit volume.
Melting and Boiling Points: Metals typically have high melting and boiling points, allowing them to
remain solid at higher temperatures.
Hardness: Metals are generally hard, which means they resist deformation and scratching.
- Electronegativity: A measure of the tendency of an atom to attract a bonding pair of electrons.
- Polar Molecules: Molecules with a partial positive charge on one side and a partial negative charge on the other.
- Nonpolar Molecules: Molecules with no separation of charge, so no positive or negative poles are formed.
- Lewis Structures: Diagrams that show the bonding between atoms and the lone pairs of electrons in a molecule.
- Bond Energy: The amount of energy required to break one mole of bonds in gaseous molecules.
7 DIATOMIC ELEMENTS
-Hydrogen (H2) -Bromine (Br2)
-Nitrogen (N2) -Chlorine (Cl2)
-Oxygen (O2) -Iodine (I2)
-Fluorine (F2)
Summary:
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Summary:
Chemical bonds are essential for the formation of compounds. Ionic bonds result from the transfer of electrons from one
atom to another, typically between metals and nonmetals, creating ions. Covalent bonds involve the sharing of electron
pairs between atoms, generally between nonmetals. Metallic bonds are characterized by a sea of shared electrons around
a lattice of positive ions, common in metals. Electronegativity influences how electrons are shared in bonds, leading to
the formation of polar and nonpolar molecules. Lewis structures help visualize the bonding and electron pairs in a
molecule. The stability of a bond can be measured by its bond energy.
- Bond Length: Generally, single bonds are longer than double bonds, which are longer than triple bonds.
- Bond Strength: Triple bonds are stronger than double bonds, which are stronger than single bonds.
CARBON COMPOUNDS
Definition of Terms:
- Organic Chemistry: The study of carbon-containing compounds.
- Hydrocarbons: Compounds composed only of carbon and hydrogen.
- Alkanes: Hydrocarbons with single bonds.
- Alkenes: Hydrocarbons with one or more double bonds.
- Alkynes: Hydrocarbons with one or more triple bonds.
- Functional Groups: Specific groups of atoms within molecules that determine the characteristics and chemical
reactivity of those molecules.
- Isomers: Compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures.
- Polymers: Large molecules made up of repeating units called monomers.
- Conformations: When the structures differ only by one or more bond rotation.
-Allotropes: Different physical forms of the same element.
ALLOTROPES OF CARBON
-Diamond -Amorphous Carbon
-Buckminsterfullerene -Graphite
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Summary:
Carbon compounds, or organic compounds, are central to organic chemistry. Hydrocarbons are the simplest organic
compounds, consisting only of carbon and hydrogen atoms. They can be classified into alkanes (single bonds), alkenes
(one or more double bonds), and alkynes (one or more triple bonds). Functional groups define the structure and
reactivity of organic molecules. Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures,
leading to different properties. Polymers are large molecules composed of repeating units, vital in various
applications from plastics to biological molecules.
- Boiling Points: Generally increase with the length of the carbon chain in hydrocarbons.
- Reactivity: Alkenes and alkynes are more reactive than alkanes due to the presence of double and triple bonds.
MOLE CONCEPT
Definition of Terms:
- Mole: A chemist's unit of measurement (mol.) Can be defined in 3 ways:
Avogadro's Number: The number of atoms or particles (6.022 x 10²³) in one mole of a substance.
Molar Mass: The molar mass is the mass of one mole of a substance (typically expressed in grams per
mole, g/mol).
Molar Volume: Molar volume is the volume occupied by one mole of a substance. For gases at standard
temperature and pressure (STP, 0°C and 1 atm), it is 22.4 liters.
Example Problems:
1. Calculate the number of molecules in 1.5 moles of water (H₂O):
○ Solution:
. × molecules
1.5 mol. H2O × ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯= 9.0 × 10 molecules H2O
mol.
2. Determine the molar mass of 2 moles of carbon dioxide (CO₂):
○ Solution:
C (1) x 12 = 12 CO₂ = 44 g/mol.
O (2) x 16 = 32
44 g
2 mol. CO2 × ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯= 88 g CO2
1 mol.
3. Find the volume of 2 moles of nitrogen gas (N₂) at STP:
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3. Find the volume of 2 moles of nitrogen gas (N₂) at STP:
○ Solution:
22.4 L
2 mol. N2 × ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯≈ 40 L N2
1 mol.
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