BGS COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Mahalakshmi layout, Bengaluru- 560086

RENEWABLE ENERGY POWER PLANT

(BME654B)

MODULE - 05
 RENEWABLE ENERGY POWER PLANT (BME654B)

Syllabus: Module – 5
Biomass Power Plants: Biomass as a renewable energy source: types and characteristics,
Conversion technologies: combustion, gasification, and anaerobic digestion, biomass feedstock
selection and availability, Environmental impacts and sustainability of biomass power plants,
Integration of biomass power plants with other energy systems.
Hydrogen Energy: Properties of Hydrogen with respect to its utilization as a renewable form of
energy, sources of hydrogen, production of hydrogen, electrolysis of water, thermal
decomposition of water, thermochemical production, biochemical production.
..……………………………………………………………………………………………….
BIOMASS ENERGY
INTRODUCTION:
Biomass energy is energy generated or produced by living or once-living organisms. The most common
biomass materials used for energy are plants, such as corn and soy, and animal waste, agricultural
residues, food processing waste, and municipal solid waste. These are called biomass feedstocks.
Biomass contains energy first derived from the sun: Plants absorb the sun's energy through
photosynthesis, and convert carbon dioxide and water into nutrients (carbohydrates). The energy from
these organisms can be transformed into usable energy through direct and indirect means.
Biomass can be burned to create heat (direct), converted into electricity (direct), or processed into
biofuel (indirect). Biomass can be burned by thermal conversion and used for energy. Thermal
conversion involves heating the biomass feedstock in order to burn, dehydrate, or stabilize it. Different
types of energy are created through direct firing, co-firing, pyrolysis, gasification, and anaerobic
decomposition.
Before biomass can be burned, however, it must be dried. This chemical process is called torrefaction.
During torrefaction, biomass is heated to about 200° to 320° Celsius (390° to 610° Fahrenheit). The
biomass dries out so completely that it loses the ability to absorb moisture or rot. It loses about 20% of
its original mass, but retains 90% of its energy. During torrefaction, biomass becomes a dry, blackened
material. It is then compressed into briquettes. Biomass briquettes are very hydrophobic, meaning they
repel water. This makes it possible to store them in moist areas. The briquettes have high energy
density and are easy to burn during direct or co-firing.

PHOTOSYNTHESIS PROCESS
Photosynthesis is a biological process that converts light energy into chemical energy in the
form of organic compounds. Photosynthesis in plants takes place in chloroplasts found in
mesophyll cells of leaves.

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 Light energy is captured by the chlorophyll in the chloroplasts of the plant cells.
 The energy from sunlight is used to convert CO₂ and H₂O into glucose and Oxygen through a
series of chemical reactions.
 Glucose produced is used by the plant as a source of energy, and oxygen is released to the
atmosphere as a by-product.
 The process of photosynthesis can be summarized as
 Light energy + Carbon Dioxide + Water Glucose +Oxygen
 Biomass produced through photosynthesis is also an important source of biofuels.
 Crops such as corn, sugarcane, and algae are grown specifically for their ability to
photosynthesize and produce large amounts of biomass, which can then be processed and
converted into biofuels such as ethanol and biodiesel.

The necessary conditions for photosynthesis are

1) Light: Only a part of the solar radiation (40-45%) of 400 700 A wavelength is used in photosynthesis.
This range of light is called photo-synthetically active radiation (PAR).
2) CO2 concentration: Carbon dioxide is the primary raw material for photosynthesis. It is observed
that if the CO2 concentration is increased, increase in the yield of several crops up to a certain limit.
3) Temperature: Photosynthesis is restricted to the temperature range that can be tolerated by the
proteins, i.e., 0°C to 60°C.
The process of photosynthesis has two main steps:
1) Splitting of H2O molecules into H2 and O2 under the influence of chlorophyll and sunlight. This phase
reaction is called the light reaction. Where O2 escapes, and H2 is transformed into unknown compounds.

2) In the second phase, hydrogen is transformed from this unknown compound to CO2 to form starch
or sugar.

BIOFUELS
Biomass is the only renewable energy source that can be converted into liquid biofuels such as ethanol
and biodiesel. Biofuels are fuels that are produced from renewable biological sources, such as crops,
algae, and waste organic material.
Ethanol is made by fermenting biomass that is high in carbohydrates, such as sugar cane, wheat, or
corn. Ethanol has become a popular substitute for wood in residential fireplaces. When it is burned, it
gives off heat in the form of flames and water vapor instead of smoke. Biodiesel is made from combining
ethanol with animal fat, recycled cooking fat, or vegetable oil. Biofuels do not operate as efficiently as
gasoline. However, they can be blended with gasoline to efficiently power vehicles and machinery, and
do not release the emissions associated with fossil fuels.

Several types of biofuels, including:

Ethanol: Ethanol is a type of biofuel that is produced from crops such as corn, sugarcane, and wheat. It
is commonly blended with gasoline to create a fuel known as E10, which contains 10% ethanol and
90% gasoline.

Biodiesel: Biodiesel is a type of biofuel that is produced from vegetable oils, animal fats, or recycled
cooking oils. It can be used as a direct replacement for diesel fuel in vehicles.

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Bio-jet fuel: Bio-jet fuel is a type of biofuel that is specifically designed for use in aviation. It is produced
from crops such as algae and jatropha and can be used to power airplanes.

Bio methane: Bio methane is a type of biofuel that is produced by processing organic waste, such as
sewage, food waste, and agricultural waste. It can be used as a replacement for natural gas in heating
and cooking.

BIOMASS RESOURCES
Biomass resources are materials derived from living organisms or their waste products that can be
used as a source of energy. Biomass resources include:

Wood: Wood is one of the most commonly used biomass resources. It is produced from trees and other
woody plants and can be burned directly or converted into pellets or other forms of biofuel.

Agricultural waste: Agricultural waste, such as straw, corn stalks, and sugarcane bagasse, can be used
as a source of biomass energy.

Animal waste: Animal waste, such as manure, can be processed to produce biogas, a renewable source
of energy.

Algae: Algae are tiny aquatic plants that can be grown quickly and efficiently to produce large amounts
of biomass. They can be used to produce biofuels, such as bio-jet fuel, and other products.

Food waste: Food waste, such as kitchen scraps and uneaten food, can be processed to produce biogas,
a renewable source of energy.

Municipal waste: Municipal waste, such as paper, cardboard, and yard waste, can be burned or
converted into biofuels.

Plant-based crops: Crops such as corn, soybeans, and sugarcane can be used to produce biofuels, such
as ethanol and biodiesel.

BIOMASS CONVERSION TECHNOLOGIES

Biomass is converted to energy through various processes, including:
 Direct combustion (burning) to produce heat
Direct combustion is the most common method for converting biomass to useful energy. Direct
combustion requires biomass with a moisture content around 15 per cent or less, so it may require
drying prior to combustion for most of the crops. All biomass can be burned directly for heating
buildings and water, for industrial process heat, and for generating electricity in steam turbines. The
temperature of a biomass-fired gasifier can be higher than 900 degrees Celsius.

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Maintaining proper temperature during combustion is essential to prevent formation of pollutants

such as particulate matter, nitrogen oxides (Nox) and unburned hydrocarbons.

 Thermochemical conversion to produce solid, gaseous, and liquid fuels

Thermochemical conversion of biomass includes pyrolysis and gasification. Both are thermal
decomposition processes in which biomass feedstock materials are heated in closed, pressurized
vessels called gasifiers at high temperatures.
Gasification: A Thermal conversion process in which solid biomass in the presence of limited oxygen
at high temperatures (>700°C) to produce a mixture of gases, including carbon monoxide and
hydrogen, known as syngas. This syngas can be used as a fuel for heating, electricity generation and the
production of transportation fuels and chemicals.
Pyrolysis: It is a thermal decomposition process in which organic materials such as wood, agricultural
waste, plastics and tires in a sealed chamber is heated in the absence of oxygen to produce a syngas
(synthesis gas)-mixture of carbon monoxide (C0), hydrogen (H2) and methane (CH4) then liquid bio-oil
and finally a solid biochar.

 Anaerobic digestion or Biomethanation:

It is a biological process that involves breaking down organic matter such as agricultural waste, food
waste, or sewage in the absence of oxygen to produce biogas, which is primarily composed of methane
and carbon dioxide. This biogas can be used as a fuel for heating or electricity generation. During
anaerobic digestion, microorganisms break down the organic matter in the biomass into simpler
compounds such as carbon dioxide and methane. This process occurs in an oxygen-free environment,
typically in a sealed vessel called a digester. The biogas produced in the digester consists primarily of
methane (50% to 70%) and carbon dioxide (30 to 50%) with small amounts of hydrogen sulphide &
nitrogen.

This anaerobic digestion consists broadly of three phases:

(i) Enzymatic hydrolysis: Where the fats, starches, and proteins contained in cellulosic biomass are
broken down into simple compounds.
(ii) Acid formation: Where the microorganisms of the facultative and anaerobic groups, collectively
called acid farmers, hydrolyse and ferment, are broken down to simple

compounds into acids and volatile solids. As a result, complex organic compounds are broken down to
simple organic acids. This initial acid phase of digestion may last about two weeks and during this
period a large amount of carbon dioxide is given off.

(iii) Methane formation: Where organic acids as formed above are then converted into methane (CH)
and CO, by the bacteria which are strictly anaerobic. These bacteria are called methane fermentors.
Methane formers are sensitive to pH changes. A pH value between 6.5 to 8 is the best for fermentation
and normal gas production. Methane forming bacteria slowly, in about 14 days at 25°C, completes the
digestion to - 70% CH4, -30% CO2 with trace amounts of Ha and perhaps H2S.

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→ Chemical conversion to produce liquid fuels

A chemical conversion process known as transesterification is used for converting vegetable oils,
animal fats, and greases into fatty acid methyl esters (FAME). which are used to produce biodiesel.
Biological conversion includes fermentation to convert biomass into ethanol and anaerobic digestion
to produce renewable natural gas. Ethanol is used as a vehicle fuel.

Bio photolysis:

The process by which water dissociates into molecular hydrogen and oxygen in biological systems in
the presence of light.

Hydrolysis

The technology that converts cellulose to alcohols through fermentation. Ethyl alcohol can be produced
from a variety of sugars by fermentation with yeasts.

→ Cogeneration

Co-generation is producing two forms of energy from one fuel. One of the forms of energy must always
be heat, and the other may be electricity or mechanical energy. In a cogeneration plant, the low-
pressure exhaust steam coming out of the turbine is not condensed, but used for heating purposes in
factories or houses, and thus, very high-efficiency levels, in the range of 75%-90%, can be reached.
Since cogeneration can meet both power and heat needs, it has other advantages as well in the form of
significant cost savings for the plant and reduction in emissions of pollutants due to reduced fuel
consumption.

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TYPES OF BIOGAS PLANTS:

Biogas plants basically are two types
Floating dome type
Eg: KVIC-type (KVIC- Khadi Village Industries Commission)
Fixed dome type
Eg: Deenabandhu model, Janata model, Chinese model, CAMARTEC model etc.

Types of Fixed-dome Plants

Chinese fixed-dome plant: It is the archetype of all fixed dome plants. Several million have been
constructed in China. The digester consists of a cylinder with a round bottom and top.
Janata model: It was the first fixed-dome design in India, as a response to the Chinese fixed dome plant.
It is not constructed anymore. The mode of construction led to cracks in the gasholder very few of these
plants had been gas-tight.
Deenbandhu model: The successor of the Janata plant in India, with improved design, was more crack-
proof and consumed less building material than the Janata plant with a hemisphere digester.

Fixed-dome plant
A basic fixed-dome biogas plant consists of:
1. Mixing pit/Inlet
2. Digester
3. Gasholder
4. Displacement pit/compensation tank/outlet
5. Gas pipe

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 The dome is made from prefabricated ferrocement or reinforced concrete and attached to the
digester, which has a curved bottom in the bottom.
 The slurry is fed from a mixing tank through an inlet pipe connected to the digester.
 Inside the digester, it will undergo a process called anaerobic digestion and due to which gas
formation starts.
 When organic matter undergoes fermentation (process of chemical change in organic matter
brought about by living organisms) through anaerobic digestion, gas is generated. This gas is
known as bio-gas.
 After fermentation, the biogas collects in the space under the dome.
 Bio gas formed is taken out for use through a pipe connected to the top of the dome.
 The sludge, which is a by-product, comes out through an opening in the side of the digester.

Deenbandhu biogas plant:

a. Mixing tank
b. Dome
c. Digester
d. Outlet

 The dome is made from prefabricated ferrocement or reinforced concrete and attached to the
digester, which has a curved bottom in the shape of a hemisphere.
 The slurry is fed from a mixing tank through an inlet pipe connected to the digester.
 Inside the digester, it will undergo a process called anaerobic digestion and due to which gas
formation starts.
 When organic matter undergoes fermentation (process of chemical change in organic matter
brought about by living organisms) through anaerobic digestion, gas is generated. This gas is
known as bio-gas.
 After fermentation, the biogas collects in the space under the dome.

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 Bio gas formed is taken out for use through a pipe connected to the top of the dome.
 The sludge, which is a by-product, comes out through an opening in the side of the digester.
 About 90 percent of the biogas plants in India are of the Deenbandhu type.
Advantages:
 Low initial costs and long useful lifespan
 No moving or rusting parts involved
 Basic design is compact, saves space, and is well insulated.
 Construction creates local employment.
 The underground construction saves space and protects the digester from temperature
changes.
Disadvantages:
 Masonry gas-holders require special sealants and high technical skills for gas-tight
construction.
 Problems with the gas-tightness of the brickwork gas holder (a small crack in the upper
brickwork can cause heavy losses of biogas)
 Gas leaks occur quite frequently.
 Fluctuating gas pressure complicates gas utilization.
 Fixed-dome plants are, therefore, recommended only where construction can be supervised by
experienced biogas technicians.

BIOMASS GASIFICATION (DOWNDRAFT GASIFIER)

 Down-draft biomass gasifiers are systems used to convert biomass into a gaseous fuel that can
be burned for energy production.
 The process of gasification involves heating the biomass in the absence of oxygen to produce a
mixture of gases, including carbon monoxide, methane, and hydrogen.
 In a downdraft biomass gasifier, the biomass is fed into the top of the gasifier and is heated by a
flame, which is maintained in the lower part of the gasifier.

 The hot gasses generated by the combustion of the biomass rise and mix with the incoming air,
which acts as the oxidizing agent for the gasification reaction.
 The resulting producer gas is then collected at the bottom of the gasifier and can be burned to
generate heat or power.
 A downdraft biomass gasifier typically consists of several distinct zones, each of which serves a
specific purpose in the gasification process. The following are the main zones found in a
downdraft gasifier and their functions:
 Drying Zone: The biomass is first fed into the drying zone, where it is heated to remove any
moisture content. This helps to prevent the formation of steam, which can interfere with the
gasification reaction.

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 Pyrolysis Zone: In the pyrolysis zone, the biomass is subjected to high temperatures in the
absence of oxygen, causing it to break down into a mixture of gasses and char. The char acts as
a source of heat for the gasification reaction, while the gasses contribute to the production of
producer gas.
 Gasification Zone: In the gasification zone, the char produced in the pyrolysis
 zone reacts with air to produce the producer gas. The air is introduced through the bottom of
the gasifier and rises up through the char, providing the necessary oxygen for the gasification
reaction.
 Cooling Zone: The producer gas is then cooled in the cooling zone to prevent any damage to the
engine or other equipment that will be used to burn the gas.
 Ash Collection Zone: The ash that is produced during the gasification process is collected in the
ash collection zone, which is located at the bottom of the gasifier. The ash is removed
periodically to maintain the efficiency of the gasifier.
 Each of these zones works together to convert the biomass into a usable fuel that can be burned
to generate heat and power. The effectiveness of the gasification process depends on the design
and operation of each of these zones, and ensuring that they are optimized can lead to improved
performance and efficiency.

Biomass Feedstock Selection and Availability

a) Types of Biomass Feedstock

Biomass feedstocks are organic materials used for energy production. Common types include:

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 Agricultural Residues: Rice husk, wheat straw, corn stover, sugarcane bagasse.
 Forestry Residues: Wood chips, sawdust, bark, logging residues.
 Energy Crops: Switchgrass, miscanthus, willow, and poplar.
 Animal Waste: Manure, poultry litter.
 Industrial Waste: Paper mill sludge, food processing residues.
 Urban Waste: Municipal solid waste (MSW), biodegradable fraction.

b) Factors Affecting Feedstock Selection

 Availability and Accessibility: Proximity to source, seasonal availability.

 Moisture Content: Lower moisture preferred for combustion/gasification.
 Energy Content (Calorific Value): Higher energy content yields better efficiency.
 Ash and Impurity Content: High ash can cause fouling and reduce efficiency.
 Logistics and Transportation Cost: Should be economically viable.
 Sustainability of Source: Should not compete with food production or cause deforestation.

c) Feedstock Availability Assessment

 Regional Resource Mapping: Use of GIS and remote sensing to estimate local biomass
potential.
 Collection and Storage Infrastructure: Ensures continuous supply.
 Government Support: Availability of subsidies or feed-in tariffs for certain feedstocks.

Environmental Impacts and Sustainability of Biomass Power Plants

a) Positive Environmental Impacts

 Carbon Neutrality: Biomass absorbs CO₂ during growth and releases it when burned,
maintaining a closed carbon cycle.
 Waste Utilization: Converts agricultural and municipal waste into energy.
 Reduction in Landfill Use: Reduces methane emissions from organic landfill waste.
 Soil Enrichment: Ash by-products can be used as fertilizer.

b) Negative Environmental Impacts

 Air Pollution: Emission of particulate matter, NOx, SOx if not properly controlled.
 Deforestation Risk: Unsustainable harvesting of biomass can lead to deforestation.
 Water Usage: Water is required for cooling and feedstock processing.
 Loss of Biodiversity: Conversion of land for energy crops can threaten natural habitats.

c) Sustainability Practices

 Sustainable Harvesting: Avoid overexploitation of forests or agricultural residues.

 Emission Control Systems: Use of scrubbers, filters, and ESPs to reduce pollutants.
 Lifecycle Assessment (LCA): Evaluate environmental impact from source to end-use.
 Policy and Certification: Adherence to sustainability certification schemes (e.g., FSC, RSPO).

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Integration of Biomass Power Plants with Other Energy Systems

a) Hybrid Systems

 Biomass + Solar: Solar PV or thermal can complement biomass during daytime; reduces
biomass consumption.
 Biomass + Wind: Wind energy adds variability, but biomass can provide stable backup power.
 Biomass + Biogas: Dual fuel systems increase efficiency and flexibility.

b) Cogeneration (CHP)

 Combined Heat and Power: Biomass power plants can be used for producing both electricity
and process heat, increasing overall efficiency (up to 80%).

c) Grid Integration

 Base Load Supply: Unlike wind or solar, biomass can run continuously and act as base load.
 Flexibility: Can be ramped up or down to support grid demand.
 Smart Grids: Integration with digital systems allows efficient demand-response operations.

d) Challenges in Integration

 Technological Compatibility: Different energy systems may need separate controls and
inverters.
 Cost of Hybridization: The Initial capital cost for integration can be high.
 Grid Stability: Intermittent sources like solar/wind need balancing with biomass to maintain
frequency and voltage.

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GREEN ENERGY - Hydrogen energy

INTRODUCTION:
A fuel cell is capable of generating an electric current by converting the chemical energy of a fuel
directly into electrical energy. The fuel cell is similar to other electric cells in the respect that it consists
of positive and negative electrodes with an electrolyte between them. Fuel in a suitable form is supplied
to the negative electrode, and oxygen, often from air, to the positive electrode. When the cell operates,
the fuel is oxidized, and the chemical reaction provides the energy that is converted into electricity.
Fuel cells differ from conventional electric cells in the respect that the active material (i.e. fuel and
oxygen) are not contained within the cell but are supplied from outside.

But for its costs, pure (or fairly pure) hydrogen gas would be a preferred fuel for fuel cells. Alternatively,
impure hydrogen obtained from hydrocarbon fuels, such as natural gas or substitute natural gas
(methane), liquefied petroleum gas (propane and butane), or liquid petroleum products, can be used
in fuel cells. Efforts are being made to develop cells that can use carbon monoxide as the fuel; if they
are successful, it should be possible to utilize coal as the primary energy source. Main uses of fuel cells
are in power production, in automobile vehicles and in special military use.

CLASSIFICATION OF FUEL CELLS

Fuel cells can be classified into several types based on different criteria, such as the type of electrolyte
used, the operating temperature, the type of fuel used, and the method of fuel delivery. Here are some
of the most common classifications:

1. Based on the type of electrolyte:

 Polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells (PEMFC)
 Phosphoric acid fuel cells (PAFC)
 Molten carbonate fuel cells (MCFC)
 Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFC)
 Alkaline fuel cells (AFC): AFCs use an alkaline electrolyte and operate at relatively low
temperatures (between 60°C and 250°C). They can use a variety of fuels, including hydrogen
and methanol. AFCs are highly efficient and can achieve efficiencies of up to 70%, making them
ideal for space applications. However, they are relatively expensive and require high-purity
fuels.

2. Based on operating temperature:

 Low-temperature fuel cells (PEMFC and AFC) -(25-100C)
 Intermediate-temperature fuel cells (PAFC and MCFC) -(100-500)
 High-temperature fuel cells (SOFC)- (500-100 & above 1000)

3. Based on the type of fuel:

 Hydrogen fuel cells: Hydrogen fuel cells use hydrogen as the fuel and produce only water and
electricity as byproducts.
 Methanol fuel cells
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 Ethanol fuel cells

 Proton exchange membrane fuel cells
 Direct methanol fuel cells
4. Based on the method of fuel delivery:
 Direct fuel cells
 Indirect fuel cells
Each type of fuel cell has its advantages and disadvantages, and the choice of the appropriate fuel cell
depends on the specific application and operating conditions.

PRINCIPLE OF HYDROGEN FUEL CELL

Fuel cells generate electricity through an electrochemical process that converts the chemical energy of
a fuel directly into electrical energy.

The main components of a fuel cell are:

(i) A fuel electrode (anode),
(ii) An oxidant or air electrode (cathode), and
(iii) An electrolyte.
In most fuel cells, hydrogen (pure or impure) is the active material at the negative electrode and oxygen
(from the oxygen or air) is active at the positive electrode.

Fuel delivery: Hydrogen gas is delivered to the anode (negative electrode) of the fuel cell.

Electrolyte membrane: The electrolyte membrane allows only positively charged protons to pass
through it and separates the anode from the cathode. The two electrodes are separated by a porous
matrix saturated with an aqueous alkaline solution, such as potassium hydroxide (KOH).

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The KOH in the electrolyte dissociates:

Anode reaction: Neutral hydrogen at the anode combines with the hydroxyl ion to form water,
releasing the electrons that circulate through the external load. At anode:

Oxygen delivery: Oxygen gas is delivered to the cathode (positive electrode) of the fuel cell.

Cathode reaction: At the cathode, the electrons regenerate the hydroxyl ion:

At the cathode:

Electrical power: The flow of electrons through the external circuit generates electrical power that
can be used to power various devices or stored in a battery.

Overall reaction:

Overall, hydrogen fuel cells operate through the conversion of hydrogen and oxygen into electrical
energy, with water vapor and heat as the only byproducts.

BENEFITS OF HYDROGEN ENERGY:

One of the most attractive features of hydrogen as an energy carrier is that it can be produced from
water which is abundantly available in nature.

 Clean energy: Hydrogen is a clean energy source that does not produce greenhouse gas
emissions when used to generate electricity or power vehicles. This makes it an important tool
in the fight against climate change.

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 Efficiency: Hydrogen fuel cells are more efficient than traditional combustion-based engines,
which means they can produce more power from the same amount of fuel. This can result in
lower costs and reduced emissions.
 Reduced dependence on fossil fuels: The use of hydrogen as an energy source can help reduce
our dependence on finite fossil fuels, which are a finite and non-renewable resource.

 Versatility: Hydrogen can be produced from a wide variety of feedstocks, including renewable
energy sources such as solar, wind, and hydropower, as well as fossil fuels.
 Energy storage: Hydrogen can be used as a means of storing excess energy generated from
intermittent renewable energy sources, such as wind and solar, and then used later to generate
electricity when needed.

Production

Although hydrogen is the third most abundant element on the earth, it does not exist in free state,
except for small quantities in the upper atmosphere. It is, therefore, not a primary energy source.
However, large amounts of combined hydrogen are present in compounds such as water, fossil fuels
and biomass. It can therefore, be produced through two routes:

(a) Fossil fuels, such as natural gas, coal, methanol, gasoline etc., and biomass are decomposed by
thermo-chemical (steam reforming or partial oxidation) methods to obtain hydrogen. The CO
produced in the process is eliminated by water gas shift reaction. This route of hydrogen production
causes CO₂ emission. The energy content of the produced hydrogen is less than the energy content
of the original fuel, some of it being lost as excessive heat during production.

(b) Hydrogen can also be produced by splitting water into hydrogen and oxygen by using energy
from nuclear or renewable sources such as solar, wind, geothermal, etc., through electrical or
thermal means (i.e. electrolysis and Thermolysis respectively). Water splitting is also possible
through bio-photolysis process using solar radiation.

Splitting of water is thus possible at the expense of renewable energy to produce secondary fuel H₂.
On use, H₂ and O, recombine to produce water again and energy is released. This route is therefore
a clean and sustainable route of energy supply.

Thermo-chemical Methods

Steam reforming of methane is the most energy efficient, commercialized technology currently
available and most cost effective when applied to large, constant loads. The method accounts for 95
per cent of the hydrogen production in USA. The steam reforming method has been described in the
previous section on fuel cell. Partial oxidation (thermal gasification) method of biomass has been
described in Chapter 8 on biomass.

HYDROGEN PRODUCTION (ELECTROLYSIS METHOD)

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The process of splitting water into hydrogen and oxygen by means of a direct electric current is
known as electrolysis.

Electrolysis is the simplest method of hydrogen production. Currently, this method is not as efficient
or cost-effective as thermo-chemical method using fossil fuels or biomass. But it would allow for
more distributed hydrogen generation and open the possibilities for use of electricity generated
from renewable and nuclear resources for hydrogen production.

An electrolysis cell essentially consists of two electrodes, commonly flat metal or carbon plates,
immersed in an aqueous conducting solution called electrolyte, as shown in Fig. 12.10. A direct
current decomposes water into H, and O₂, which are released at cathode (-ve electrode) and anode
(+ve electrode) respectively. As water itself is poor conductor of electricity, an electrolyte,
commonly aqueous KOH is used.

Ideally, a decomposition voltage of 1.23 V per cell should be sufficient at normal temperature and
pressure; however, due to various reasons a voltage of about 2 V per cell is applied in practice. The
energy required is 3.9-4.6 kWh per m³ of hydrogen produced. About 60-70 per cent of this energy
is actually utilized in electrolysis. Therefore, the efficiency of electrolysis process is about 60-70 per
cent, which can be improved up to 80 per cent by using catalyst such as porous platinum or nickel.
A diaphragm (usually woven asbestos) prevents electronic contact between the electrodes and
passage of gas or gas bubbles. Electrolysis method is most suitable when primary energy is available
as electrical energy, e.g. solar photovoltaic energy. It is also suitable where cheap electricity is
available from other sources such as wind, geothermal, etc.

Thermolysis of Water

When primary energy is available in the form of heat (e.g. solar thermal), it is more logical to
produce hydrogen by splitting water directly from heat energy using Thermolysis. This would be
more efficient than the conversion of heat, first to electricity (using heat engine-generator) and then
producing hydrogen through electrolysis. The efficiency of thermal plant is usually in range 32-38
per cent, and that of electrolysis is 80 per cent. The overall efficiency through thermal-electrical-
hydrogen route would thus be only 25-30 per cent.

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Direct thermal decomposition of water is possible but it requires a temperature of at least 2500 °C;
because of temperature limitations of conversion process equipment, direct single-step water
decomposition cannot be achieved. However, sequential chemical reactions at substantially lower
temperature can be devised to split water into H₂ and O2. In the reaction series, water is taken up
at one stage and H₂ and O2 are produced in different stages. The energy is supplied as heat at one
or more stages and partly released at some stage in the cycle. Apart from decomposition of water,
all other materials are recovered when the cycle is completed. Therefore, the method is known as
thermo-chemical cycle. The efficiency of conversion from heat energy to hydrogen is better than its
conversion through electrolysis route only when the upper temperature of thermo-chemical cycle
is above 700 °C. For the upper temperature of 950 °C the efficiency of conversion is about 50 per
cent. This is a marked improvement over what is possible through electrolysis route. Several
thermo-chemical cycles have been proposed and are under investigation. One such cycle is given
below:

At present, no commercial process for thermal splitting of water using a thermo-chemical cycle is
in operation.

Properties of Hydrogen as a Renewable Energy Source

Hydrogen is considered a highly promising energy carrier for a sustainable and renewable energy
future due to its unique physical and chemical properties. One of its most notable features is its high
energy content per unit mass, which is significantly greater than that of conventional fossil fuels.
This makes hydrogen especially useful in applications where weight is a critical factor, such as in
transportation and aerospace industries. When used as a fuel, either in combustion processes or
more efficiently through fuel cells, hydrogen produces only water vapor as a byproduct. This clean
combustion process means it does not emit greenhouse gases or air pollutants, thereby offering a
major advantage in addressing environmental concerns like climate change and air quality.

Although hydrogen is not naturally available in its pure molecular form on Earth, it can be produced
from a variety of sources. The most sustainable method involves the electrolysis of water using
electricity generated from renewable sources such as solar, wind, or hydropower. This approach
results in what is often referred to as “green hydrogen,” a completely carbon-free energy carrier
that plays a vital role in the decarburization of the energy sector. Furthermore, hydrogen is
extremely versatile; it can be used across multiple sectors, including electricity generation,
industrial processes, and transportation. It also allows for sector coupling, enabling the integration
of different energy systems and improving overall energy efficiency.

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Another key benefit of hydrogen lies in its excellent potential for energy storage. As renewable
energy sources like solar and wind are inherently variable and intermittent, hydrogen provides a
solution by storing surplus electricity in chemical form.

This stored hydrogen can then be converted back into electricity or used in other applications when
energy demand rises or renewable generation falls. In this way, hydrogen supports grid stability
and helps balance energy supply and demand over time.

Hydrogen can be transported and distributed through various methods, such as pipelines, high-
pressure containers, or in liquefied form. This makes it suitable for both local use and long-distance
trade, potentially establishing international hydrogen supply chains. It is also non-toxic and non-
corrosive, which makes it relatively safe in terms of environmental impact. However, due to its high
flammability and wide range of ignition, careful attention must be given to safety measures in its
storage, transport, and usage.

Overall, hydrogen’s properties—clean combustion, high energy content, storability, and versatility—
make it an ideal candidate for renewable energy integration. Its ability to connect different sectors and
store energy for later use positions it as a cornerstone of a future low-carbon energy system.

Thermochemical Production of Biomass Energy

Thermochemical production refers to the process of converting biomass into useful forms of energy
such as heat, fuel, and gases through the application of high temperature, pressure, and chemical
reactions. These methods are particularly effective for converting dry, lignocellulosic biomass (like
wood, crop residues, and sawdust) into energy. The key thermochemical processes include combustion,
gasification, pyrolysis, and hydrothermal liquefaction.

Combustion is the simplest and oldest form of thermochemical conversion, in which biomass is burned
in the presence of air to release heat energy. This heat can be used directly for cooking or space heating,
or to generate steam that powers turbines for electricity generation. However, combustion results in
emissions like carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, and particulate matter, requiring pollution control
measures.

Gasification involves the partial oxidation of biomass at high temperatures (700°C to 1000°C) using a
controlled amount of oxygen or steam. This process produces a combustible gas known as synthesis
gas or syngas, composed mainly of carbon monoxide (CO), hydrogen (H₂), and methane (CH₄). Syngas
can be used directly in internal combustion engines or further processed to produce synthetic fuels and
chemicals.

Pyrolysis is the thermal decomposition of biomass in the absence of oxygen, typically at temperatures
between 300°C and 600°C. It produces three main products: bio-oil (a liquid fuel), biochar (a solid
residue rich in carbon), and syngas. The proportion of these products depends on the operating
conditions. Pyrolysis is gaining attention due to the potential of bio-oil as a renewable substitute for
fossil fuels and biochar’s role in improving soil fertility and carbon sequestration.

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Hydrothermal liquefaction (HTL) is a relatively new technique that processes wet biomass under
high pressure (10–25 MPa) and moderate temperatures (250–350°C) in water, producing a crude-like
bio-oil. Unlike other thermochemical methods, HTL can treat high-moisture biomass without the need
for drying, making it energy efficient for handling waste sludges and algae.

In summary, thermochemical conversion offers fast processing and high energy efficiency, making it
ideal for large-scale applications. However, it requires advanced technology, high energy input, and
appropriate handling of emissions and byproducts.

Biochemical Production of Biomass Energy

Biochemical production involves converting biomass into energy or fuels using natural biological
processes such as microbial digestion or enzymatic breakdown. It is best suited for wet biomass like
animal manure, food waste, sewage sludge, and agricultural residues with high moisture content. The
most commonly used biochemical processes are anaerobic digestion, fermentation, and enzymatic
hydrolysis.

Anaerobic digestion is a biological process in which microorganisms decompose organic matter in

the absence of oxygen, producing biogas—a mixture of methane (CH₄) and carbon dioxide (CO₂). This
process occurs in several stages: hydrolysis, acidogenesis, acetogenesis, and methanogenesis. The
biogas generated can be used for cooking, heating, or electricity generation. The remaining solid
residue, called digestate, can be used as a fertilizer. Anaerobic digestion is environmentally friendly and
useful for managing organic waste.

Fermentation is another important biochemical process that uses microbes like yeast or bacteria to
convert sugars or starches into ethanol and carbon dioxide. It is widely used for producing bioethanol
from sugarcane, corn, or other carbohydrate-rich crops. The ethanol produced is a renewable fuel that
can be blended with petrol or used as a standalone fuel. Lignocellulosic biomass can also be converted
to ethanol, but it requires pre-treatment and enzymatic hydrolysis before fermentation.

Enzymatic hydrolysis involves the use of enzymes to break down complex carbohydrates (mainly
cellulose) in biomass into simple sugars that can be fermented into bioethanol. This process is essential
in the production of second-generation biofuels, which use non-food biomass sources. Enzymatic
hydrolysis is efficient but costly due to the use of specialized enzymes.

Biochemical methods operate under mild conditions (low temperature and pressure), making them
energy-efficient and suitable for decentralized applications. However, they generally have slower
conversion rates compared to thermochemical methods and require careful process control to
maintain microbial health and avoid contamination.

In conclusion, biochemical production is a sustainable and eco-friendly approach to energy generation

from biomass, especially suited for handling moist and organic-rich feedstocks. It plays a significant
role in waste management and reducing greenhouse gas emissions while producing clean energy.

HYDROGEN ENERGY- APPLICATION

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Hydrogen energy has a wide range of potential applications, including:

Transportation: Hydrogen fuel cell vehicles are an increasingly popular option for clean
transportation, as they emit only water vapor and do not produce harmful pollutants or greenhouse
gasses.

Aircraft Applications: The earliest application of liquid hydrogen fuel is expected to be in a jet aircraft

Power generation: Hydrogen can be used as a fuel for power generation, either through combustion
or fuel cells. Fuel cells are commonly used and a more efficient and cleaner method of hydrogen-
powered electricity generation. Fuel cells can be used in stationary applications, such as backup power
for buildings, or in mobile applications, such as auxiliary power units for trucks or ships.

Industrial processes: Hydrogen is used in a variety of industrial processes, such as ammonia

production, oil refining, and chemical manufacturing. Hydrogen can also be used as a reducing agent in
metallurgical processes.

Energy storage: Hydrogen has the potential to be an important energy storage medium, as it can be
produced from renewable energy sources and stored for later use as an energy source.

Residential and commercial heating: Hydrogen can be used as a fuel for heating systems in
residential and commercial buildings, either through combustion or fuel cells.

PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH HYDROGEN ENERGY

While hydrogen energy has many potential benefits, there are also several challenges and problems
associated with its use. Some of the major problems include:

High cost: Currently, hydrogen production and storage technologies are expensive, which makes
hydrogen energy less competitive with other energy sources.

Safety concerns: Hydrogen is highly flammable and requires careful handling to prevent leaks or
explosions. In addition, hydrogen gas is invisible and odorless, which can make it difficult to detect
leaks.

Infrastructure requirements: The widespread adoption of hydrogen energy would require

significant investments in new infrastructure, such as hydrogen production facilities, storage tanks, and
transportation systems.

Energy efficiency: Hydrogen production requires energy, and the efficiency of current hydrogen
production methods is relatively low. This means that a significant amount of energy is lost during the
production process, which reduces the overall energy efficiency of hydrogen energy.

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Carbon emissions: While hydrogen is a clean energy source when it is used, the production of
hydrogen can result in significant greenhouse gas emissions if fossil fuels are used as the primary
energy source for hydrogen production.

Limited availability: While hydrogen is abundant in the universe, it is rare on Earth in its pure form.
Most hydrogen is currently produced from fossil fuels, which means that the availability of hydrogen is
limited by the availability of fossil fuels.

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