✅ Topic 13.

1: Introduction

• In the previous chapter, it was shown that positive charge and mass in an atom are
concentrated at the center, forming the nucleus.

• The nucleus is much smaller in size than the atom.

• Experiments (like α-particle scattering) showed that:

◦ Radius of nucleus is smaller than atomic radius by a factor of 10⁴.

◦ Volume of nucleus ≈ 10⁻¹² times the volume of the atom → Atom is mostly empty
space.

◦ If an atom was enlarged to the size of a classroom, the nucleus would be the size of
a pinhead.

• Despite the small size, the nucleus contains more than 99.9% of the mass of the atom.

Central Questions Raised:

• Does the nucleus have a structure, like the atom?

• What are its constituents?

• How are these particles held together?

📘 This chapter explores:

• Properties of nuclei: size, mass, stability

• Nuclear phenomena: radioactivity, ssion, and fusion

✅ Topic 13.2: Atomic Masses and Composition of Nucleus

⚛ Atomic Mass & Units:

• The mass of an atom is extremely small compared to 1 kilogram.

◦ Example: mass of a carbon atom (¹²C) = 1.992647 × 10⁻²⁶ kg

• Therefore, kilogram is not a convenient unit to express atomic masses.

📏 De nition of Atomic Mass Unit (u):

• 1 atomic mass unit (u) = 1/12 of the mass of a ¹²C atom

•
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⚗ Atomic Mass Patterns:

• Atomic masses of elements in u are close to integral multiples of the hydrogen atom’s
mass, BUT:

◦ There are exceptions, e.g., Chlorine’s atomic mass = 35.46 u (not a whole
number).

⚙ Mass Spectrometer:

• Used for accurate measurement of atomic masses.

• Revealed that elements exist as a mixture of isotopes.

🧪 Isotopes:

• Isotopes: Atoms of the same element with same atomic number Z but different masses.

◦ Same chemical properties, different mass

• Example: Chlorine has two isotopes:

◦ Masses = 34.98 u and 36.98 u

◦ Abundance: 75.4% and 24.6% respectively

◦ Average atomic mass:

🔬 Hydrogen Isotopes:

• Hydrogen has 3 isotopes:

◦ Masses: 1.0078 u, 2.0141 u, 3.0160 u

◦ Lightest isotope’s nucleus is called a proton

• Mass of proton:

1.00727 u = 1.67262×10^−27 kg (Eq. 13.2)

• Proton’s mass ≈ Hydrogen atom’s mass − Electron’s mass (0.00055 u)

• Other isotopes: Deuterium, Tritium

 ◦ Tritium is unstable, produced arti cially

⚡ Charge in the Nucleus:

• The positive charge in the nucleus comes from protons.

• Protons carry +1 fundamental charge and are stable.

• Earlier it was believed nucleus might contain electrons → later ruled out using quantum
theory.

• All electrons are located outside the nucleus.

🧮 Atomic Number and Charge:

• Let Z = number of electrons outside the nucleus

• So, atomic electron charge = –Ze

• Since atom is neutral, nucleus must have charge = +Ze

◦ Number of protons in nucleus = Z

🧪 Discovery of the Neutron

• Deuterium and Tritium (isotopes of Hydrogen) have more mass than Hydrogen, though they
all have 1 proton.

• Extra mass must be from some neutral particles.

• Deuterium = 1 proton + 1 neutral mass

• Tritium = 1 proton + 2 neutral masses

🧬 In 1932, James Chadwick con rmed this by:

• Bombarding beryllium nuclei with α-particles

• Detected neutral radiation knocking out protons from light elements (e.g., helium, carbon,
nitrogen)

❗ If the neutral radiation were photons, energy would be too high.

✅ Chadwick assumed the radiation consisted of neutral particles → neutrons.

🧲 Properties of Neutron:
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 • Mass of neutron:
mn = 1.00866 u=1.6749×10^−27 kg. (Eq. 13.3)

• Chadwick won the 1935 Nobel Prize in Physics.

• Free neutrons are unstable:

◦ Decay into: proton + electron + antineutrino

◦ Mean life ≈ 1000 seconds

◦ But neutrons are stable inside nuclei

⚛ Notation and Terminology:

• Z = Atomic number = Number of protons → Equation 13.4(a)

• N = Neutron number = Number of neutrons → Equation 13.4(b)

• A = Mass number = Z + N → Total number of nucleons → Equation 13.4(c)

• Nucleon = Generic name for proton or neutron

• Mass number (A) = Total number of nucleons

🧬 Nuclear Notation (Nuclide Symbol):

• General form:

• X = Chemical symbol

◦ A = Mass number

◦ Z = Atomic number

• Example:

◦ Gold has 197 nucleons: 79 protons and 118 neutrons

🔄 More De nitions:
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 • Isotopes: Same Z, different N
e.g.,

• Isobars: Same A, different Z

e.g.,

• Isotones: Same N, different Z

e.g.,

✅ Topic 13.3: Size of the Nucleus

🧪 Rutherford's Contribution:

• Ernest Rutherford was the rst to propose and con rm the existence of the atomic
nucleus.

• At his suggestion, Geiger and Marsden carried out the gold foil experiment using α-
particles (helium nuclei).

🟡 Observation:

• An α-particle with 5.5 MeV kinetic energy approaches a gold nucleus as close as:

distance of closest approach ≈ 4.0×10−14 m

🟡 Rutherford’s Explanation:

• The α-particles are repelled due to Coulomb’s law (positive charges repelling).

• Since the repulsion is electrostatic, the entire positive charge must be inside a very small
region → the nucleus.

• So, actual size of the nucleus < 4.0 × 10⁻¹⁴ m

⚛ How to Get Actual Nuclear Size?

• Use α-particles with higher energy → they get closer to the nucleus before de ecting.

• At a certain point, short-range nuclear forces start affecting the de ection.

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 • The point of deviation from Coulomb’s prediction gives an estimate of nuclear size.

🧲 Electron Scattering Experiments:

• Using high-speed electrons instead of α-particles gives precise measurements.

• These help determine the radii of nuclei across elements.

📏 General Formula for Nuclear Radius:

(Equation 13.5)
Where:

• R = Radius of the nucleus

• A = Mass number (total nucleons)

• R₀ = 1.2 × 10⁻¹⁵ m = 1.2 femtometres (fm)

🌐 Implications of the Formula:

• Volume of nucleus ∝ R3 ∝ A

• Hence, density of nucleus is constant, independent of A.

• Nuclei are like drops of liquid with uniform density.

💠 Nuclear Matter Density:

• Approximate value:
ρnucleus ≈2.3×10^17 kg/m3

• This is vastly higher than regular matter (e.g. water = 10³ kg/m³)

👉 This high density is understandable because atoms are mostly empty, but nuclei are very
dense.

🌀 Extra Insight:

• This density is similar to that of neutron stars, which are like giant atomic nuclei formed
after the collapse of massive stars.
✅ Topic 13.4: Mass-Energy and Nuclear Binding Energy

🔁 13.4.1 Mass–Energy Equivalence

• Einstein's theory of special relativity introduced a revolutionary idea:

◦ Mass is another form of energy.

• Earlier, mass and energy were believed to be conserved separately.

• Einstein showed:

◦ Mass can be converted into energy, and vice-versa.

🧠 Famous Formula:

E=mc^2. (Equation 13.6)

Where:

• E = Energy equivalent of mass

m = Mass
• c = Speed of light in vacuum ≈ 3×10^8m/s

🧪 Implications:

• 1 gram of mass can be converted into a huge amount of energy.

• This formula has been experimentally veri ed using:

◦ Nuclear reactions

◦ Particle collisions

◦ Beta decay, etc.

🧠 In nuclear physics:

• Conservation of energy includes the mass-energy term.

• This concept is crucial for:

◦ Understanding nuclear mass

◦ Interactions between nuclei

🧲 13.4.2 Nuclear Binding Energy

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🧱 Nucleus Composition:

• A nucleus is made of protons and neutrons.

• One may expect its mass to equal the sum of individual proton and neutron masses, but
this is not true.

📉 Mass Defect:

• Actual mass of a nucleus is less than the sum of masses of:

◦ Its protons

◦ Its neutrons

This difference is called the:

Mass defect (ΔM)

📐 Formula for Mass Defect:

Where:

• Z = Number of protons
• A = Mass number = protons + neutrons
• mp = Mass of a proton
• mn = Mass of a neutron
• M = Actual mass of the nucleus

💥 What Does This Mean?

• According to Einstein’s
E = mc^2 this mass defect corresponds to energy.

Energy required to break the nucleus into its individual protons and neutrons =

Binding Energy (Eb)

• This is the energy needed to break the nucleus apart.

• Alternatively, it’s the energy released when a nucleus is formed from protons and neutrons.
⚖ Binding Energy per Nucleon:

• A better measure of stability is:

Binding Energy per Nucleon

(Equation 13.9)
Where:

• Eb = Total binding energy

• A = Number of nucleons (protons + neutrons)
It tells:

• How tightly bound each nucleon is within the nucleus.

📊 Binding Energy vs Mass Number Graph (Fig. 13.1):

• A graph of binding energy per nucleon Ebn vs mass number A shows important trends:

🔍 Observations:

1. Middle-range nuclei (A = 30 to 170):

◦ Have nearly constant Ebn ≈8.5MeV

◦ Most stable

2. Heaviest nuclei (A > 170):

◦ Ebn decreases slightly
3. Light nuclei (A < 30):

◦ Ebn is lower
◦ Less stable

🔑 Important Conclusions:

1. Strong Nuclear Force:

◦ Attractive and strong enough to give binding energy of a few MeV per nucleon

2. Saturation Property:
 ◦ Nuclear force is short-range

◦ A nucleon only interacts with a limited number of nearby nucleons

◦ Explains why E bn stays constant in middle A range

3. Heavy Nuclei (e.g., A = 240):

◦ Have lower E bn than mid-sized ones

◦ If such a nucleus splits into smaller ones, the products are more tightly bound

◦ Energy is released → Basis of Nuclear Fission

4. Light Nuclei (e.g., A ≤ 10):

◦ When they fuse into heavier ones, binding energy per nucleon increases

◦ Energy is released → Basis of Nuclear Fusion

✅ Topic 13.5: Nuclear Force

🔐 What Holds the Nucleus Together?

• The motion of atomic electrons is governed by the Coulomb (electrostatic) force.

• But inside the nucleus:

◦ We nd positive protons close together.

◦ They should repel due to Coulomb’s force, yet they stay bound.

🧲 This implies the existence of a strong, attractive force that:

• Acts between protons and neutrons

• Is much stronger than the electrostatic force

• Is of a different nature

⚡ Properties of the Nuclear Binding Force

(Discovered through various experiments between 1930–1950)

(i) Much Stronger Than Coulomb Force

• The nuclear force is:

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 ◦ Far stronger than Coulomb repulsion between protons

◦ Also much stronger than the gravitational force

• This immense strength is needed to:

◦ Overcome the repulsion among protons

◦ Bind nucleons tightly inside the nucleus

(ii) Very Short-Range

• Nuclear force drops rapidly to zero beyond a few femtometres (fm)

◦ 1 fm = 10⁻¹⁵ m

• This short range causes:

◦ The saturation effect:

▪ Each nucleon interacts only with its close neighbors

▪ Explains why binding energy per nucleon remains constant for medium
and large nuclei

(iii) Equal for All Nucleon Pairs

• The nuclear force is:

◦ Approximately the same for:

▪ neutron–neutron

▪ proton–neutron

▪ proton–proton

• Conclusion: It does not depend on the electric charge

📉 Potential Energy Curve for Nucleons

(Described in Fig. 13.2)

• The potential energy between two nucleons changes with distance:

◦ At r₀ ≈ 0.8 fm: Potential energy is minimum

▪ Indicates a stable, bound state

◦ For distances greater than r₀:

 ▪ Force is attractive

◦ For distances less than r₀:

▪ Force becomes strongly repulsive

🔄 Meaning:

• If nucleons get too close, they repel strongly.

• If they are within 1–2 fm, they attract each other strongly.

• No simple mathematical formula (like Coulomb's law) exists for nuclear force.

This force explains:

• The stability of nuclei

• The short range of the nuclear interaction

• Why atoms are not collapsed into a single dense clump

✅ Topic 13.6: Radioactivity

🔬 Discovery of Radioactivity

• Discovered by A.H. Becquerel in 1896 — purely by accident.

• He was studying uorescence and phosphorescence of compounds exposed to visible

light.

🔦 The Key Experiment:

1. He illuminated uranium-potassium sulphate with visible light.

2. Wrapped the sample in black paper and placed it next to a photographic plate, separated
by silver foil.

3. After several hours:

◦ The photographic plate showed blackening, indicating it had been exposed.

◦ Something from the compound penetrated both the black paper and silver.

☢ What Was Found?

• The emission was due to the uranium compound itself, not the visible light.
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 • The emission was identi ed as a new phenomenon:

◦ Radioactivity: A nuclear phenomenon.

💥 De nition of Radioactivity:

Radioactivity is a natural process where unstable nuclei decay spontaneously, emitting particles
or energy.

⚠ Types of Radioactive Decay:

There are three major types of decay observed in nature:

(i) Alpha (α) Decay

• The nucleus emits a helium nucleus:

• An α-particle has:

◦ 2 protons

◦ 2 neutrons

• So, the atomic number decreases by 2, and mass number decreases by 4

(ii) Beta (β) Decay

• The nucleus emits a beta particle, which can be:

◦ An electron (β⁻)

◦ Or a positron (β⁺: like an electron, but with positive charge)

• Beta decay changes:

◦ A neutron into a proton (in β⁻ decay)

◦ A proton into a neutron (in β⁺ decay)

(iii) Gamma (γ) Decay

• The nucleus emits high-energy electromagnetic radiation (photons)

• No change in mass number or atomic number

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 • Happens when the nucleus is in an excited state and needs to lose energy

🧠 Summary:

• Radioactivity is a spontaneous nuclear process.

• It does not depend on external factors like:

◦ Temperature

◦ Pressure

◦ Chemical environment

• The emitted radiations can:

◦ Penetrate matter

◦ Affect photographic plates

◦ Ionize gases

✅ Topic 13.7: Nuclear Energy

🔥 Why is Nuclear Energy Important?

• In Section 13.4, we studied binding energy per nucleon (E₍bn₎).

• The binding energy curve (see Fig. 13.1) shows:

◦ For A = 30 to A = 170: E₍bn₎ ≈ constant ≈ 8 MeV

◦ For A < 30 or A > 170: E₍bn₎ is less than 8 MeV

• This gives rise to energy-releasing reactions.

⚖ Energy Considerations:

• A nucleus with greater binding energy is more tightly bound.

• If less tightly bound nuclei transform into more tightly bound nuclei, the difference in
energy is released.

There are two main nuclear processes that release energy:

⚛ 13.7.1 Fission

(Splitting of a heavy nucleus)

 🔨 What is Fission?

• A heavy nucleus splits into two smaller fragments.

• Each fragment is more tightly bound than the original.

💡 How is it done?

• A nucleus like Uranium-235 (²³⁵U) is bombarded by a neutron.

• This produces:

◦ Two intermediate-mass nuclei

◦ Free neutrons

◦ Enormous energy

🧪 Fission fragments are radioactive — they emit β-particles until they reach stability.

💥 Energy Released:

• About 200 MeV per ssion event

• Most of it appears as:

◦ Kinetic energy of the fragments

◦ Kinetic energy of neutrons

◦ Then as heat

🔌 Applications:

• Controlled ssion: Used in nuclear reactors (for electricity)

• Uncontrolled ssion: Used in atomic bombs

☀ 13.7.2 Fusion

(Combining of light nuclei)

🔧 What is Fusion?

• Two light nuclei combine to form a heavier nucleus

• The resulting nucleus has higher binding energy per nucleon

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 • So, energy is released

🔋 Fusion Reactions:

• Examples include:

◦ Proton + Proton → Deuteron

◦ Deuteron + Deuteron → Helium-3

◦ Deuteron + Deuteron → Tritium + Proton

💥 Energy Release:

• Reaction energies range from 0.4 to 4 MeV and more.

• Requires very high kinetic energy to overcome Coulomb repulsion between positively
charged nuclei.

🔥 Thermonuclear Fusion:

• Fusion triggered by high temperature

• Particles gain enough energy to overcome Coulomb barrier

• Example: For two protons to fuse, temperature ≈ 3 × 10⁹ K

🌞 Fusion in the Sun:

• Core temperature: ≈ 1.5 × 10⁷ K (less than expected)

• Fusion still occurs because some protons have higher-than-average energy

• Sun uses a chain called the proton–proton (p–p) cycle to fuse hydrogen into helium

🧪 Overall p–p Cycle Result:

🔁 What Happens After Hydrogen Runs Out?

• The sun will:

◦ Begin to cool

◦ Collapse under gravity

 ◦ Form a red giant

• If the core reaches ≈ 10⁸ K, helium fusion occurs, forming carbon

🚀 13.7.3 Controlled Thermonuclear Fusion

🌐 Goal:

• Reproduce fusion reactions on Earth for energy generation

• Heat nuclear fuel to ≈ 10⁸ K

⚠ The Challenge:

• At this temperature, fuel becomes plasma (ions + electrons)

• No physical container can hold it → it must be magnetically con ned

🛠 Research Status:

• Countries including India are developing technologies for:

◦ Plasma con nement

◦ Sustained fusion reactions

🔮 If Successful:

• Fusion reactors can produce clean, limitless energy without radioactive waste like ssion.
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