1.
What are the main mechanical characteristics of
masonry and timber?
Masonry：抗压不抗拉，硬硬的很耐用但是压坏了就裂开了
·Compressive Strength: high compressive strength, making it ideal for load-bearing applications.
·Tensile Strength: it is less effective in resisting tension.
·Stiffness 刚性:providing stability under loads.
·Durability 耐用:Masonry is highly durable and resistant to environmental effects
·Ductility 延展性: Masonry is generally brittle 易碎的
Timber: 抗压也抗拉，灵活可延展，轻便又节能
·Compressive and Tensile Strength: Timber exhibits both high compressive and tensile strength,
though its properties can vary significantly between species.
·Flexibility and Ductility: Timber is more flexible compared to masonry and can deform without
immediate failure.
·Lightweight: Timber is significantly lighter than masonry, affecting structural design and
foundation requirements.
·Thermal Properties: Timber has better insulating properties, which can influence energy
efficiency.
How do these characteristics influence the structural
types commonly associated to these materials?
Masonry（延展有限）: Typically used in load-bearing walls, arches, and vaults due to its compressive
strength.
Timber（木头的柱子）: Commonly used for frameworks, beams, and trusses where flexibility and span
capability are needed. Its lightweight nature allows for more intricate and varying forms, such as
cantilevers or open spaces.
2. What is a structural masonry wall? Which structural
functions does it perform?
Definition: 承重墙 A structural masonry wall is a wall that is designed to carry loads from the roof,
floors, and its own weight, often comprising bricks, concrete blocks, or stone assembled with
mortar 砂浆.
Structural Functions:
Load Bearing: Transmits vertical loads to the foundation.
Lateral Stability 横向稳定: Provides resistance to lateral forces such as wind and seismic activity.
Partitioning Space: Divides interior space while contributing to overall stability.
Thermal and Sound Insulation: Offers thermal mass and insulation properties depending on
materials used.
3. Referring to a typical masonry building, what do we
mean by “functional integration”功能一体化?
Functional Integration refers to the way various building systems (such as structural, mechanical,
and aesthetic) work together harmoniously within the architecture of a masonry building. This
includes the configuration 构造布局 of walls, floors, and roofs to coordinate the structural loads with
functional needs like plumbing 管 道 工 程 , HVAC, and electrical systems, all while maintaining the
integrity and aesthetics of the masonry structure. It promotes efficient use of space while
ensuring different components support each other structurally and functionally.
[Link] is a load path? Can you exemplify this concept
on a typical façade of a masonry building, in relation
with the arrangement of the openings?
Definition: A load path is the path that loads take through a structure to the ground.
Example in a Masonry Building:
Above the Openings: Lintels or arches that carry the load from the masonry above the openings,
redistributing it to the adjacent wall sections.
Masonry Wall: The remaining wall sections transfer the loads down to the foundation.
Foundation: Finally, the foundation distributes the loads to the ground. This arrangement ensures
that structural elements around openings maintain their integrity while allowing for operational
and aesthetic functions.
5. What are the main differences between an arch and a
lintel? What do we mean by a form-active structure 形态活
性结构?
Arch：
Load Distribution: An arch distributes loads along a curved path, making it effective in spanning
larger openings.曲线使得跨越更大的开口
Material Usage: Typically made of wedge-shaped blocks 楔形块 (voussoirs), it relies on compression
and can support substantial weight.
Lintel 梁:
Load Distribution: A lintel is a horizontal support above openings like doors or windows that
carries the load directly across.
Material Usage: Can be made of timber, steel, or masonry, it relies on bending and shear
strength.弯曲和剪切强度。
Form-Active Structure 形式活动结构: 靠内力获得稳定 A form-active structure refers to a design that derives
its stability from its shape and internal forces, rather than relying on external supports. An arch is
a classic example, as its curved shape allows it to naturally redirect loads downwards and
outward, functioning effectively under compression
6. Draw an arch and show on it: crown, impost,
intrados, extrados, span, rise (or sag), voussoir,
keystone, abutments (or piers)
1. Crown: The highest point of the arch.
2. Impost: The horizontal surface at the top of the wall where the arch begins.
3. Intrados: The inner curve or surface of the arch.
4. Extrados: The outer curve or surface of the arch.
5. Span: The distance between the two supports (abutments) from one side of the arch to the
other.
6. Rise (or Sag): The vertical distance from the imposter to the crown.
7. Voussoir: The wedge-shaped stones that make up the arch; typically, the voussoirs on either
side of the keystone are referred to as "side voussoirs."
8. Keystone: The central stone at the top of the arch that locks the other stones in place.
9. Abutments (or Piers): The supports at either end of the arch that help transfer the loads to the
ground.
Visual Description
- Imagine a half-circle. Label the top point as Crown.
- At either end of the arch, label the points resting on the ground as Abutments.
- Draw vertical lines downward from each abutment to represent walls (if any) and label the
intersection of wall and arch as Impost.
- Draw curved lines inside the half-circle representing Intrados, and outside for Extrados.
- Measure the height from the impost to the crown to illustrate Rise and the total width for Span.
- In the center of the top stone/part of the arch (crown), label it Keystone, and each angular
stone on either side of it as Voussoirs.
7. What do we mean by “bracing function”?
The bracing function refers to structural elements that stabilize a frame or structure by
preventing lateral movement or deformation 变形. Bracing helps to resist horizontal forces such as
wind or seismic activity, ensuring the integrity and alignment of the overall structure. Common
forms of bracing include:
- Diagonal braces that connect at angles and transfer loads.对角线支架
- Shear walls that add stiffness and distribution of lateral forces.增加刚度和侧向力
-以成角连接和传递载荷的对角线支架。
-增加刚度和横向力分布的剪力墙。
8. Which types of horizontal actions do you know?
- Wind Loads: Forces exerted by wind that can cause lateral movement.
- Seismic Loads 地震: The effects of earthquakes, causing vibrations and lateral forces.
- Earth Pressure 土 地 压 力 : Forces exerted on retaining walls or basement walls from surrounding
soil.
- Live Loads: Moving loads from occupants, furniture, and temporary structures.
9. Referring to a masonry building subjected to
horizontal loads, what do we mean by a “box-like
behaviour”?
Box-like behavior refers to the design principle that structures behave as a unified 统一的系统 system
when subjected to horizontal loads. The idea is that when loads are applied (such as from wind or
earthquakes), the walls and floors act together to create a rigid "box" that can effectively resist
these forces.
How is this concept realized in the masonry
building examined at lesson? Can you identify
throughout the slides some devices capable of
effectively connect walls and floors?
- In masonry buildings, box-like behavior is achieved by connecting walls, floors, and roofs in such
a way that they can work together to redistribute and resist lateral loads. This can be done
through:
- Continuous ties or straps connecting floors to walls.
- Rigid connections at corners where walls meet.
- Reinforced concrete elements integrated within masonry walls.
10. Can you describe some foundation types recurrent
in masonry buildings?
1. Strip Foundation: A continuous strip of concrete under load-bearing walls, distributing the
weight over a larger area. Common for masonry walls.
[Link] Foundation: Isolated footing pads under columns or walls, effectively transferring their
loads to the ground.
3. Raft (or Mat) Foundation: A large concrete slab that supports multiple columns or walls,
appropriate for buildings with weak soil conditions.
4. Pier Foundation: Vertical columns (piers) that extend deep into the ground and support the
structure above, often used when the ground has varying soil conditions.
5. Basement Foundation: Often includes walls that provide structural support below ground level,
offering both stability and additional space.
11. Which types of vaults do you know? How would you
draw the load path for each type, under the action of a
uniform load applied on their extrados 拱的外延线?在其外部施加
均匀载荷的作用下
1. Barrel Vault: A series of continuous rounded arches forming a tunnel-like structure.
- **Load Path**: Loads applied on the extrados travel directly down through the vault's
curvature to the supports/abutments at each end.
2. **Groin Vault**: Formed by the intersection of two barrel vaults.
- **Load Path**: Loads on the extrados are directed down through both vaults to the
supporting columns or walls at the intersection points.
3. **Rib Vault**: Similar to groin vaults but with exposed ribs that support the vaulted structure.
- **Load Path**: The load is transmitted down the ribs to the walls, while the spaces between
are filled with lighter materials (like rubble or brick).
12. Can you identify, in the masonry building examined
at lesson, some examples
of barrel vaults whose longitudinal axis, instead of being
horizontal as usual, is
vertical? Which loads are these vaults resisting?
In masonry buildings, vertical barrel vaults (sometimes called "cylindrical vaults") can be found in
spaces like stairwells, where they might arch upwards rather than horizontally.
Such vaults resist:
- Vertical Loads: Typically from floors, ceilings, and roof structures above.
- Horizontal Loads: Depending on the design, lateral loads might also be managed through
additional structural elements or buttressing.
[Link] do we mean by “pushing structure”, when
referring to an arch or a vault? What is the relation
between the outward thrust and the rise (or sag) of
the arch or vault? What is the advantage of a pointed
arch over a circular arch?
pushing structure" refers to the tendency of arches and vaults to exert lateral thrust at their
supports as they carry loads.
Relationship between Thrust and Rise
- The greater the rise (or sag) of the arch/vault, the more significant the outward thrust will be
at the base. This thrust creates a force that needs to be countered by supporting structures or
foundations.
Advantage of a Pointed Arch
- A pointed arch concentrates forces more effectively than a circular arch, allowing for taller and
more stable structures with less outward thrust. It can adapt to varying spans and load
conditions, offering greater flexibility in thrust distribution.
14. Enumerate typical provisions for resisting the thrust
of an arch or vault, and give examples.
Typical provisions include:
1. Buttresses:
- Solid masonry or reinforced structures placed against the wall to counteract the lateral thrust.
- Example: Flying buttresses of Gothic cathedrals.
2. Thrust Walls:
- Thickened walls positioned to resist lateral forces.
- Example: Solid walls built into the structure where arches begin.
3. **Arched Bracing**:
- Curved supports that connect at angles and help redirect loads.
- **Example**: Internal arches supporting a grand hall.
4. **Counterforts**:
- Reinforcements or supports projecting from a wall to strengthen areas subject to high thrust.
- **Example**: Counterfort retaining walls.
15. Removing Arches and Lintels from
Structures
Each lintel bears its load and transfers it down to the posts, making it critical to the structural
integrity of the configuration.
In both cases, proper support and engineering analysis would be necessary to ensure safety and
stability if renovations or removals are considered.
16. Arch with a Tie and Raised Tie
Functioning of an Arch with a Tie:
- An arch with a tie (often referred to as a tied arch) is a structural system where the arch is
supported by a tensile element that resists the outward thrust created by the arch's curvilinear
form.
Functioning of an Arch with a Raised Tie:
-creating a different line of action for the forces.
- The raised tie may also introduce some additional bending moments 弯曲力矩 but improves the
aesthetics and can allow for greater clearance underneath the arch.
Pros and Cons:
Arch with a Tie:
- Pros:Effective force distribution, reduced lateral thrust, efficient with materials.
- Cons:Requires tension elements
- Arch with a Raised Tie:
- Pros: Enhanced aesthetics, improved clearance, strategic placement for loads.
- Cons: Potential increase in bending moments and complexity in calculation.
17. Masonry Vault 砌筑穹窿 vs Timber Floor
Masonry Vault:
Advantages:
- High compressive strength, durability, fire resistance, and ability to span large spaces without
support.
- less affected by water.
- Disadvantages:
- Heaviness which can require stronger supports and foundations, difficulty in modification once
built, longer construction time.
Timber Floor:
- Advantages:
- Lightweight, easier to construct, and can be modified after installation. Provides good
insulation and is aesthetically pleasing.
- May be more cost-effective, and timber is considered renewable.
- Disadvantages:
- Susceptible to pests, fire, and decay over time. Limited span capacity compared to masonry.
18. Structural Hierarchy
Structural hierarchy refers to the organization of a structure in layers or levels, emphasizing the
interrelationship between the various components. For example, in a building:
- The roof structures support the walls, the walls support the floors, and the floors support the
occupants and furnishings.
- Another example is a bridge: the deck is supported by girders, which in turn are supported by
piers and abutments, emphasizing the load distribution system from top to bottom.
19. How a Roof Truss Works
A roof truss works structurally by distributing loads through triangular formations, which are
inherently stable shapes. The design allows the truss to span large distances while keeping the
weight low.
- The loads are transferred from the roof to the truss joints, where they are distributed to the
supporting walls or columns. Each member of the truss experiences either tension or
compression, optimizing material usage while maintaining structural integrity.
20. Advantages and Disadvantages of Roof Truss vs. Conventional Double Pitched Roof
Advantages of Roof Truss:
- Efficient material use, can span larger distances and accommodate larger spaces without
interior supports.
- Versatility in design and configuration.
Disadvantages of Roof Truss:
- Can be more expensive due to the complexity of design and construction.
- Requires precise engineering to ensure stability and load distribution.
21. Roof Type of Chartres Cathedral
Looking at the 3D view of Chartres Cathedral, the roof type can be classified as a combination of
a masonry vault (over the central nave) and a timber roof (over the aisles).
- The central nave’s masonry vault provides structural integrity and a grand aesthetic, while the
timber roof may allow for lighter construction over the aisles, balancing weight distribution and
visual appeal.
- The two materials likely serve to complement each other—masonry for durability and
resistance, timber for warmth and simplicity.
1. Main Mechanical Characteristics of Reinforced Concrete (R.C.)
Reinforced concrete combines concrete's high compressive strength with steel's high tensile
strength. The main mechanical characteristics include:
- Compressive Strength: High resistance to axial loads.
- Tensile Strength: Much lower than compressive strength, typically improved through
reinforcement.
- Ductility: Enhanced through the proper design of reinforcement, allowing it to deform before
failure.
- Durability: Resistance to environmental impacts, such as moisture and chemicals.
- Fatigue Resistance: Performance under repeated loading over time.
These characteristics influence structural types, allowing for efficient spans, larger open spaces
(as in beams and slabs), and diverse architectural forms (like shells and frames) while maintaining
stability under various loads.
2. Definitions of Different R.C. Types
Cast-in-Place R.C.: Concrete is poured and cured at the project site, allowing for complex shapes
and exact dimensions tailored to the specific design requirements.
Precast (or Prefabricated) R.C.: Concrete elements are cast in a controlled factory environment
and then transported to the construction site for assembly. This method allows for faster
construction times and consistency in quality.
Pre-stressed R.C.: Concrete is pre-stressed using tendons before it bears loads, which enhances
its capacity to resist tension and reduces cracking. It is often used for long spans in beams and
slabs.
3. Morphological Features in the Villa Savoye
The use of reinforced concrete in Villa Savoye allowed for:
- Pilotis (Supports): Elevating the structure off the ground, providing an open space underneath.
- Free Floor Plan: Open layouts unencumbered by load-bearing walls, embodying the idea of
modern architecture.
- Horizontal Windows: Wider openings that improve light access and views.
- Flat Roof: Perception of openness against traditional pitched roofs in masonry designs.
4. Role of Masonry Cladding in R.C. Buildings
Masonry cladding serves both aesthetic and functional purposes in R.C. buildings. It provides
thermal insulation, weather protection, and contributes to the architectural expression. The
concept of “functional integration” remains valid, as the cladding often works in tandem with the
structural system, enhancing the overall performance and aesthetic of the building while allowing
for moisture control and energy efficiency.
5. Structural Hierarchy in a Typical R.C. Floor Under Vertical Loads
The typical structural hierarchy includes:
Slabs: The topmost element transferring loads to beams.
Beams: Transfer loads from slabs to columns.
Columns: Vertical elements that carry the loads down to the foundation.
Foundations: Distribute the loads to the ground.
This hierarchy ensures effective load transfer and stability throughout the structure.
6. Structural Types to Resist Horizontal Loads in R.C. Buildings
Typical structural types used to resist horizontal loads include:
Shear Walls: Vertical elements designed to resist lateral forces.
Braced Frames: Frameworks utilizing diagonal braces to provide stability.
Moment-Resisting Frames: Frames designed to withstand bending moments without relying
primarily on shear walls.
7. Rigid (or Monolithic 整体) Connection in R.C.
A rigid (or monolithic) connection is a structural connection where beams and columns intersect
and are cast together, allowing for moment transfer between elements.
Reinforced concrete readily facilitates monolithic connections due to the material properties that
enable continuous casting, ensuring composite action and reducing the risk of weak points that
could compromise structural integrity. This results in improved rigidity and overall stability of the
structural system.
8. Trilithic System vs. Monolithic Frame
- Trilithic System: Comprised of three distinct components (usually two upright stones supporting
a horizontal stone) that are connected. This results in individual elements that are not dependent
on each other for structural integrity.
- Monolithic Frame: Made of a single, continuous material (e.g., reinforced concrete) that resists
moments and forces as one entity. It is also known as a moment-resisting frame because it can
withstand bending (moment) forces. The design allows the structure to better handle lateral
loads and provide stability.
9. Definitions of Frame Types
- Plane Frame: A framework that is composed of members arranged in a single plane, capable of
resisting loads in that plane.
- Multi-bay Frame: A frame that has multiple bays (or sections) along its length, providing space
for various structural components.
- Multi-storey Frame: A frame that consists of multiple levels or storeys, allowing for vertical load
transfer.
- Spatial Frame: A three-dimensional structure formed by interconnected members, which can
carry loads in multiple directions.
10. Plane Frames in Spatial Frame Composition
To create a spatial frame that can resist horizontal loads from any direction, at least three
orthogonal 直 角 的 plane frames are necessary. This configuration 配 置 allows for load resistance
across various axes, providing structural stability.
11. Transversal 横向的 Steel Reinforcement in R.C. Elements
- Name: The transversal steel reinforcement is called stirrups.
-Arrangement: Stirrups are arranged perpendicular to the longitudinal reinforcement (main bars).
- Reason: This arrangement provides confinement to the longitudinal bars and enhances ductility,
preventing shear failure.
12. Function of Hollow Clay Blocks in R.C. Floor
Hollow clay blocks are used to light the structure while maintaining strength. They reduce the
overall dead load, provide thermal and acoustic insulation, and can be cost-effective.
13. Stratigraphy 地层学 of a Typical R.C. Floor
A typical reinforced concrete (R.C.) floor includes:
-Structural Components: Reinforced concrete slab, beams.
-Non-structural Components: Hollow clay blocks, insulation, plaster, and flooring materials.
14. Weight Calculation for Flooring
Given:
- Thickness: Plaster = 2 cm, Subfloor = 8 cm, Flooring = 2 cm.
- Using provided specific weights (γ):
1. **Weight of Floor Components**:
15. Examples of Slabs
- Hollowcore Slab: A precast concrete slab with hollow sections to reduce weight.
- Precast Beam: A beam designed to support a hollowcore slab, typically featuring a rectangular
or T-shaped cross-section.
16. Deep Beam vs. Shallow Beam
-Deep Beam: Good for resisting vertical loads with less deflection; can support larger spans but
may require more material.
- Shallow Beam: Usually lighter and easier to construct, but may have limitations on spans and
load-bearing capacity.
17. Increasing Strength Capacity 强度能力 in R.C. Beam
To enhance the bending strength of a reinforced concrete beam, you can:
- Increase the area of longitudinal reinforcement.
- Use higher strength concrete.
- Modify the beam’s cross-sectional shape (e.g., increasing depth).
18. Types of R.C. Foundations
- Spread Footing: Supports columns, distributing loads over a larger area.
- Mat Foundation: Used for heavy loads, covering a large area beneath multiple columns.
- Pier Foundation: Supports vertical loads and is often used in soil with low bearing capacity.
19. Spread Footing in Masonry
Yes, a typical spread footing can be made of masonry. In an R.C. spread footing, the steel
reinforcement is placed at the **top** to provide tensile strength where tensile forces are
highest.
20. Analogies 类推 between Staircase Core and Masonry Walls
Both the staircase core in an R.C. building and the grid of walls in a masonry building provide
structural stability and lateral load resistance. They serve as vertical elements that support gravity
loads and resist lateral forces.
21. Reinforcement in Staircase Core Walls
The R.C. walls of a staircase core are specifically reinforced within the spandrels 拱 肩 between
openings to counteract 抵 消 potential shear forces and flexural moments, ensuring stability and
safety in the structure, especially during seismic 地政的 events.