MODULE 2

Solar Power Plants:

Measurement of Solar Radiation: Pyrometer, shading ring pyrheliometer, sunshine recorder,

schematic diagrams and principle of working. Solar Thermal Conversion: Collection and storage,
thermal collection devices.

Fundamentals of solar energy and photovoltaic (PV) technology: Types of solar power plants:
grid-tied, off-grid, and hybrid systems, Design considerations for solar power plants: site selection,
orientation, and shading analysis, PV system components and their functionalities, Operation,
maintenance, and performance monitoring of solar power plants.

MEASUREMENT OF SOLAR RADIATION:

• Measurements of solar radiation are important because:

➢ of the increasing number of solar heating and cooling applications
➢ need for accurate solar irradiation data to predict performance.
• Experimental determination of the energy transferred to a surface by solar radiation
required instruments which will measure the heating effect of direct solar radiation and
diffuse solar radiation.

Solar radiation data are measured mainly by following instruments:

1. Pyranometer: A pyranometer is designed to measure global radiation, usually on a

horizontal surface but can also be used on an inclined surface. When shaded from beam
radiation by using a shading ring, it measures diffuse radiation only.

2. Pyrheliometer: An instrument that measures beam or direct radiation by using a long

and narrow tube to collect only beam radiation from the sun at normal incidence.

3. Sunshine recorder: An instrument that measures the sunshine hours in a day.

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1. Pyranometer:

• A pyranometer is an instrument which measures total or global radiation over a

hemispherical field of view.
• A precision pyranometer is designed to respond to radiation of all wavelengths and hence
measures accurately the total power in the incident spectrum.
• It contains a thermopile whose sensitive surface consists of circular, blackened, hot
junctions, exposed to the sun and cold junctions are completely shaded.
• In most pyranometers, the sun's radiation is allowed to fall on a black surface to which the
hot junctions of a thermopile are attached.
• The cold junctions of the thermopile are located in such a way that they do not receive the
radiation.
• As a result, an e.m.f. proportional to the solar radiation is generated.
• This e.m.f. which is usually in the range of 0 to 10 mV can be read, recorded or integrated
over a period with regular calibration of about ± 2 percent can be obtained.
• Thermopile works on the principle of the thermoelectric effect, which is the direct
conversion of temperature differences to electric voltage and vice versa.
• The temperature difference between the hot and cold junctions is the function of radiation
falling on the sensitive surface.
• The sensing element is covered by two concentric hemispherical glass domes to shield it
from wind and rain. This also reduces the convection currents.
• A radiation shield surrounding the outer dome and coplanar with the sensing element,
prevents direct solar radiation from heating the base of the instrument.
• The instrument has a voltage output of approximately 9 μV/W/m2 and has an output
impedance of 650 W.

• Types of pyranometers:
➢ Eppley pyranometer
➢ Yellot solarimeter (photovoltaic solar cell
➢ Moll-Gorczyheski solarimeter
➢ Bimetallic Actiono-graphs of the Rabitzsch type
➢ Velochme pyranometer
➢ Thermoelectric pyranometer

(i) Eppley pyranometer:

• It is based on the principle that there is a difference between the temperature of black
surfaces (which absorb most solar radiation) and white surfaces (which reflect most solar
radiation).
• The detection of temperature difference is achieved by thermopile.

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• It uses concentric silver rings of 0.25 mm thick, wedges arranged in a circular pattern, with
alternate black and white coatings.
• The disks or wedges are enclosed in a hemispherical glass cover.
• Similar instruments are manufactured in Europe under the name Kipp.
• The Eppley pyranometers, and similar instruments are calibrated in a horizontal position.
Calibration of these instruments will vary to some degree if the instrument is inclined to
measure radiation on other than a horizontal surface.
• A precision spectral pyranometer (model: PSP) of Eppley laboratory is shown in Fig. 1.

Fig 1: Eppley pyranometer

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 Fig 1: Eppley pyranometer

• The pyranometer, when provided with a shadow band (or occulting disc) to prevent beam
radiation from reaching the sensing element, measures the diffuse radiation only.
• Such an arrangement of shadow bandstand (model: SBS) is shown in Fig. 2.
• Many inexpensive instruments are also available for measuring light intensity, including
instruments based on cadmium sulphide photocells and silicon photodiodes.
• These instruments give good indication of relative intensity, but their spectral response is
not linear and thus cannot be accurately calibrated.

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 Fig 2: Shadow bandstand pyranometer

(ii) Yellot Solarimeter (Photovoltaic solar cell):

• Pyranometers have also been used on photovoltaic (solar cell) detectors.
• Silicon cells are the most common for solar energy.
• Silicon solar cells have the property that their light current (approximately equal to the
short circuit current at normal radiation levels) is a linear function of the incident solar
radiation.
• They have the disadvantages that the spectral response is not linear, so instrument
calibration is a function of the spectral distribution of the incident radiation.

2. Pyrheliometer:
• A pyrheliometer is an instrument which measures beam radiation.
• In contrast to a pyranometer, the sensor disc is located at the base of a tube whose axis is
aligned with the direction of the sun's rays.
• Thus, diffuse radiation is essentially blocked from the sensor surface.
• Problems with pyrheliometer measurements are several fold: the aperture angle, the circum
solar contributions and imprecision in the tracking mechanism.
• The first two problems are almost impossible to eliminate because of the inability to define
the solar disk precisely and the finite dimensions of the instrument components.
• The direct solar component on a horizontal surface may also be obtained using a shading
ring, this is done by subtracting the shaded (diffuse) from the unshaded (global) reading.
• To measure the direct solar radiation, the receiving surface must be normal to direct solar
rays, i.e., a line joining the sun and receiver.

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 • Types of Pyrheliometers to measure normal incident beam radiation:
➢ Angstrom pyrheliometer
➢ Abbot silver disc pyrheliometer
➢ Eppley pyrheliometer.

(i) Angstrom compensation Pyrheliometer:

• In this pyrheliometer, a thin blackened shaded manganin strip (Size 20 x 2 x 0.1 mm) is
heated electrically until it is at the same temperature as a similar strip which is exposed to
solar radiation. It is shown schematically in Fig. 3.

Fig 3: Angstrom compensation Pyrheliometer

• Under steady state conditions (both strips at identical temperature) the energy used for
heating is equal to the absorbed solar energy.
• The thermocouples on the back of each strip, connected in opposition through a sensitive
galvanometer (or other null detector), are used to test for the equality of temperature.
• One junction of the thermocouple is connected to manganin strip(S2) and the other junction
is connected to the strip exposed to solar radiation(S1).
• A galvanometer is connected to the thermocouple.
• Manganin strip is connected to external electrical circuit.
• When both the strips are shielded from solar radiation, galvanometer shows zero deflection
as both strips are at the same temperature.
• Now, manganin strip(S2) is shielded with a cover and strip S1 is alone exposed to solar
radiation; The temperature of S1 rises and galvanometer shows deflection.
• Now, current is allowed to pass through strip S2 and adjusted to a value such that
galvanometer shows zero deflection.

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 • The energy H of direct radiation is calculated by means of the formula,

• Where, K is the instrument constant

• The heating current, i = R / Wα

• where, R is the resistance per unit length of the absorbing strip (2 cm). W is the mean
width of the absorbing strip, and α is the absorbing coefficient of the absorbing strip.

(ii) Abbot silver disc pyrheliometer:

• It uses a long collimator tube as shown in Fig. 4 to collect beam radiation whose field of
view is limited to a solid angle of 5.5° (generally) by appropriate diaphragms inside the
tube.
• The inside of the tube is blackened to absorb any radiation incident at angles outside the
collection solid angle.
• The sensing element is the silver disc – 28mm diameter; 7mm thickness
• At the base of the tube a wire wound thermopile having a sensitivity of approximately 8
mV/W/m2 and an output impedance of approximately 200 ohm is provided.

Fig 4: Angstrom compensation Pyrheliometer

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 • The tube is sealed with dry air to eliminate absorption of beam radiation within the tube by
water vapor.
• A mercury glass thermometer is used to measure the temperature at the disk; the silver disc
has a hole to allow the thermometer.
• The thermometer stem is bent through 90° so that it lies along the tube to minimize its
exposure to the sun.
• A shutter made of three polished metal leaves is provided at the upper end of the tube to
allow solar radiation to fall on the disk at regular intervals and the corresponding changes
in temperature of the disk are measured.
• A tracker is needed if continuous reading is desired.

(iii) Eppley Pyrheliometer:

• The sensitive element in an Eppley pyrheliometer is a temperature compensated 15
junction bismuth silver thermopiles mounted at the base of a brass tube, the limiting
diaphragms of which subtend an angle of 5.7°. [Fig. 5]
• A thermopile is basically a series arrangement of thermocouples used to develop a much
greater voltage than is possible using only one.
• The tube is filled with dry air and is sealed with a crystal quartz window which is
removable.

Fig 5: Eppley Pyrheliometer

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3. Sunshine Recorder:
• It measures the duration of bright sunshine during the day (in hours).
• It consists of a glass sphere (about 10 cm in diameter) mounted
on its axis parallel to that of earth, within a spherical section (bowl).
• The bowl and glass sphere are arranged in such a way that sun’s rays are focused sharply
at a spot on a card held in a groove in the bowl.
• The card is prepared from special paper bearing a time scale.
• As the sun moves, the focused bright sunshine burns a path along this paper.
• The length of the trace thus obtained on the paper is the measure of the duration of the
bright sunshine.
• Three overlapping pairs of grooves are provided in the spherical segment to take care of
the different seasons of the year.

Fig 6: Sunshine Recorder

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SOLAR THERMAL CONVERSION:

Principle:
• The fundamental process used for heat conversion is the greenhouse effect.
• Green houses - to grow exotic plants in cold climates through better utilization of the
available sunlight.
• Most of the energy we receive from the sun comes in the form of light, a shortwave
radiation, not all of which is visible to the human eye.
• When this radiation strikes a solid or liquid, it is absorbed and transformed into heat energy;
the material becomes warm and stores the heat, conducts it to surrounding materials (air
water, other solids or liquids) or reradiates it to other materials of lower temperature. This
re-radiation is a long wave radiation.
• Fig 7. shows how temperature on earth is affected by the green house effect.
• For example, visible sunlight absorbed on the ground at a temperature of 20 degrees, emits
infra-red light at a wavelength of about 10μm, but CO2 in the atmosphere absorbs light of
that wavelength and back radiates part of it to earth.
• Greenhouse effect brings an accumulation of energy on the ground.
• Glass easily transmits short-wave radiation, but it is a very poor transmitter of long- wave
radiation.
• Once the sun's energy has passed through the glass windows and has been absorbed by
some material inside, the heat will not be reradiated back outside.
• Glass, therefore, act as a heat trap, a phenomenon used in the construction of greenhouses.
• Solar collectors for home heating usually called flat plate collectors, almost have one or
more glass covers, although various plastic and other transparent materials are often used
instead of glass.

Fig 7: The Greenhouse effect radiated to the CO2 content of the atmosphere

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• In Fig. 8 a black-painted plate absorbs the incoming sunlight.
• Above it, is fixed a plate of ordinary window glass.
• When the temperature of the black plate increases, it emits an increment of thermal heat in
the form of infra- red light.
• The black absorber has the properties of a black body; ideal black bodies have not only the
highest absorption rate but also the highest emission coefficient for all wavelengths of light.
• Emission increases with temperature, following T4 law.
• The reemitted light will have progressively shorter wavelength and greater energy as the
temperature of the blackbody increases.
• This is expressed by Wien's law, written as:

• T is the surface temperature of the blackbody and λ is the wavelength

Fig 8: Principle of greenhouse effect

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SOLAR COLLECTORS:

• Solar power has low density per unit area (1 kW/sq. m. to 0.1 kW/sq. m.).
• Hence it is to be collected by covering large ground area by solar thermal collectors.
• Solar thermal collectors form the first unit in a solar thermal system.
• It absorbs solar energy as heat and then transfers it to heat transport fluid efficiently.
• The heat transport fluid delivers this heat to thermal storage tank / boiler / heat exchanger,
etc., to be utilized in the subsequent stages of the system.

Classification of Solar Collectors:

I. Non-concentrating type solar collectors:

• Non-concentrating (flat plate) collectors absorb both beam as well as diffuse radiation,
which is a distinct advantage of flat plate collectors.
• When temperatures below about 90°C are adequate (for space and service water heating),
flat plate collectors (non-concentrating type) are convenient.
• They are made in rectangular panels, about 1.7 to 2.9 sq. m. in area, and are relatively
simple to construct and erect.
• Flat plates can collect and absorb both direct and diffuse solar radiation, hence they are
partially effective even on cloudy days.

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II. Concentrating type solar collectors:
• Solar radiation is converged from large area into smaller area using optical means.
• Beam radiation, which has a unique direction and travels in a straight line, can be
converged by reflection or refraction techniques.
• Diffuse radiation, however, has no unique direction and so does not obey optical principles.
Therefore, diffuse component cannot be concentrated.
• Thus, concentrating type solar collectors mainly make use of beam radiation component.

I. Classification of Non-concentrating or Flat Plate Collector:

• Flat-plate solar collectors are divided into two main classifications based on the type of
heat transfer fluid used.
• The principal difference between the two types is the design of the passages for the heat
for the transfer fluid.

(1) Liquid heating collectors are used for heating water and non-freezing aqueous solutions and
occasionally for non-aqueous heat transfer fluids.
(2) Air or gas heating collectors are employed as solar air heaters.

Components of Flat Plate Collector:

➢ A transparent cover which may be one or more sheets of glass or radiation transmitting
plastic film or sheet.
➢ Tubes, fins, passages or channels are integral with the collector absorber plate or
connected to it, which carries the water, air or other fluid.
➢ The absorber plate, normally metallic or with a black surface, although a wide variety of
other materials can be used with air heaters.
➢ Insulation, which should be provided at the back and sides to minimize the heat losses.
Standard insulating materials such as fiber glass or styro-foam are used for this purpose.
➢ The casing or container which enclose the other components and protects them from the
weather.

(1) Liquid Flat Plate Collector:

• It is the plate and tube type collector. [Fig. 9(a)]
• It consists of a flat surface called as absorber plate with high absorptivity for solar radiation.
• The absorber plate is a metal sheet (copper, steel, aluminium) 1 to 2 mm thick.
• Copper tubes with diameter ranging from 1 to 1.5 cm are in thermal contact with the plates.
• They are soldered, brazed or clamped to the bottom (in some cases, to the top) of the
absorber plate with the pitch ranging from 5 to 15 cm.
• In some designs, the tubes are also in line and integral with the absorber plate. Fig. 10(a)
and (b) show two ways in which it has been used.

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 • Fig. 10(c) is the "tube in strip" or roll bond design, in which the tubes are formed in the
sheet, ensuring a good thermal bond between the sheet and the tube.
• Thermal insulation of 5 to 10 cm thickness is placed behind the absorber plate to prevent
the heat loss from the rear surface.
• Insulation materials is generally mineral wool or glass wool or fiberglass.
• The front covers are generally glass (one or more layers) that is transparent to incoming
solar radiation and opaque to the infra-red reradiation from the absorber.
• As a result, heat remains trapped in the airspace between the absorber plate and glass cover
in a manner like green house.
• The glass cover also prevents heat loss due to convection by keeping the air stagnant.
• Glass is generally used for the transparent covers, but certain plastic films may be
satisfactory; Thickness of glass is usually 3 and 4 mm.
• The usual practice is to have 1 or 2 covers with a thickness ranging from 1.5 to 3 cm.
• The surface finish of the absorber plate may be a flat black paint with an appropriate primer.
• Black painted absorbers are preferred because they are considerably cheaper.
• The coatings applied on absorber plate are called selective coatings (black chrome –
Chromium sesquioxide) which reduces the amount of energy emitted by thermal infra-red
radiation.
• Typical collector dimensions are 2 m x 1 mx 15 cm.

Fig 9 (a): Liquid Flat plate collector

Heat Transport System:

• Heat is transferred from the absorber plate to a point of use by circulation of fluid (water)
through tubes across the solar heated surface.
• The tubes are connected to common headers at each end of the collector.
• Header pipes of slightly larger diameter, typically 2 to 2.5 cm, lead the water in and out of
the collector and distributed to tubes. [Fig. 9(b)].
• To maximise the exposure to solar radiation, collectors are almost invariably sloped.

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• Cooler water then enters at the bottom header, flows upward through the tubes where it is
warmed by the absorber, and leaves by way of the top header.
• Mixture of water and ethylene glycol (antifreeze mixture) are also used if the ambient
temperatures are likely to drop below 0°C during nights.
• Corrosion can be minimized by using copper tubing; Aluminium is a less expensive
alternative; periodic chemical treatment of water is desirable.
• leaks in water circulation system require immediate attention.

Fig 9 (b): Water flow in a Flat plate collector

Fig 10: Cross-section through liquid collector plates

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(2) Air or Gas Collector or Solar Air heater:
• The air stream is heated by the back side of the collector plate.
• Fins attached to the plate increase the contact surface.
• The back side of the collector is heavily insulated with mineral wool or some other material.
• Orientation of a collector for heating - facing due south at an inclination angle to the
horizontal equal to the latitude plus 15°.

Fig 11: Air Collector

• To decrease the power required to pump the necessary volume of air through the tubes,
wider flow channels are used.
• Example - air is passed through a space between the absorber plate and insulator with
baffles arranged to provide a long (zig-zag) flow path. [Fig. 12]

Fig 12: Zig-zag air flow path in Air Collector

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 • Advantages of Air as the heat-transport medium:
➢ eliminates both freezing and corrosion problems.
➢ small air leaks are of less concern than water leaks.
➢ heated air can be used directly (or by way of heat storage) for space heating.
• Drawbacks of Air as the heat-transport medium:
➢ larger duct sizes and higher flow rates.
➢ increased pumping power.
➢ transfer of heat from air to water in a hot water supply system is inefficient.
• Applications of Air collector:
➢ drying or curing of agricultural products, curing of industrial products such
as plastics.
➢ space heating for comfort, regeneration of dehumidifying agents.
➢ seasoning of timber.

• Variations in the design of collectors:

➢ Air can be passed in contact with black solar absorbing surface such as finned plates,
ducts, corrugated or roughened plates of various materials, several layer of metal
screening and overlapped glass plates.
➢ Flow may be straight through, serpentine, above or below or on both sides of the
absorber plate, or through a porous absorber material.

• Classified into two categories:

➢ Non-porous absorber - air stream does not flow through the absorber plate;
air may flow above and or behind the absorber plate.
➢ Porous absorber - slit and expanded metal, transpired honey comb and overlapped
glass plate absorber.

Non-porous absorber plate type collectors:

• A non-porous absorber may be cooled by the air stream flowing over both sides of the plate
as shown in Fig 13.
• Transmission of the solar radiation through the transparent cover system and its absorption
is identical to that of a liquid type flat-plate collector.
• Due to low heat transfer rates, efficiencies are lower than liquid solar heaters under the
same radiation intensity and temperature conditions.
• Performance of air heaters is improved by:
➢ Roughening the rear of the plate to promote turbulence and improve the convective
heat transfer coefficient.
➢ Adding fins to increase the heat transfer surface; turbulence is also increased which
enhances the convective heat transfer.

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Fig 13: Non-porous type Air heaters

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Porous absorber plate type collectors:
• The main drawback of the non-porous absorber plate is the necessity of absorbing all
incoming radiation over the projected area from a thin layer over the surface.
• Unless selective coatings are used, radiative losses from the absorber plate are excessive,
therefore the collection efficiency cannot be improved.
• Too many surfaces and too much restriction to air flow will require a larger fan and a larger
amount of energy to push the air through.
• The energy required for this cancel out saving from using solar energy.
• These defects are eliminated in a porous absorber type collectors in two ways:
➢ The solar radiation penetrates to greater depths and is absorbed gradually depending on
the matrix density; The cool air stream introduced from the upper surface of the matrix
is first heated by the upper layers which are cooler than the bottom layers; The air
stream warm up, while traversing the matrix layers; The lower matrix layers are hotter
than the upper ones, therefore, the air stream can effectively transfer heat from the
matrix.
➢ The pressure drop for the matrix is usually lower than the non-porous absorber with
flow behind the plate since flow per unit cross-section would be much lower. The solar
air heating utilizing a transpired honeycomb [Fig. 14(b)] is also very favourable from
the pressure drop standpoint since the flow cross-section is much larger.
• The overlapped glass plate air heater [Fig. 14(d)] is a form of porous matrix, although
overall flow direction is along the absorber glass plates instead of being across the matrix.

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 Fig 14: Porous type Air heaters

• Applications of Solar Air Heaters:

➢ Heating buildings.
➢ Drying agricultural produce and lumber.
➢ Heating green houses.
➢ Air conditioning buildings
➢ air heaters as the heat sources for a heat engine such as a Brayton or Stirling cycle.
• Advantages of Flat-plate Collectors:
➢ They have the advantages of using both beam and diffuse solar radiation.
➢ They do not require orientation towards the sun.
➢ They require little maintenance.
➢ They are mechanically simpler than the concentrating reflectors, absorbing surfaces
and orientation devices of focusing collectors.

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II. Classification of Concentrating type collector:

1. Focusing collector
(i) Line focus type (One axis tracking) - line is a collector pipe through which the heat
transport fluid flows
(a) Parabolic trough collector
(b) Mirror strip solar collector
(c) Fresnel lens collector
(ii) Point focus type (Two axis tracking) - point is a small volume through which the heat
transport fluid flows
(a) Paraboloidal dish collector
(b) Hemispherical bowl mirror concentrator
(c) Circular Fresnel lens concentrator
(d) Central Tower Receiver
2. Non-focusing collector
(a) Modified Flat plate collector or Flat plate collector with adjustable mirrors
(b) Compound Parabolic Concentrator (CPC)

1. Focusing collector:
• Focusing collector is a device to collect solar energy with high intensity of solar radiation
on the energy absorbing surface.
• It uses optical system in the form of reflectors or refractors.
• It is a special form of flat-plate collector modified by introducing a reflecting (or refracting)
surface (concentrator) between the solar radiations and the absorber.
• It can have radiation increase from low value of 1.5 to 2 to high values of the order of
10,000.
• In these collectors radiation falling on a relatively large area is focused on to a receiver (or
absorber) of considerably smaller area.
• As a result of the energy concentration, fluids can be heated to temperatures 500°C or more.
• It concentrates only on direct radiation coming from a specific direction, since diffuse
radiation arrives from all directions, only a very small proportion is from the direction for
which focusing occurs.
• The optical system directs the solar radiation on-to an absorber of smaller area which is
usually surrounded by a transparent cover.
• Because of the optical system, reflection or absorption losses in the mirrors or lenses and
losses due to geometrical imperfections in the optical system occurs.
• collection efficiency is usually higher.

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(i) Line focussing collector
(a) Parabolic trough collector:
• It is a reflection type of focusing collector.
• concentrators are used, in which absorber is placed along focus axis.
• The collector pipe with a selective absorber coating, is used as an absorber.
• Dimension: length of a reflector unit - 3 to 5 m; width - 1.5 to 2.4 m.
• Ten or more such units are often connected end to end in a row, several rows may also be
connected in parallel.
• Parabolic trough reflectors - made of highly polished aluminium, silvered glass or a thin
film of aluminized plastic on a firm base.
• Instead of having a continuous form, the reflector may be constructed from a number of
long flat strips on a parabolic base.
• For the solar radiation to be brought to a focus by parabolic trough reflector, the sun must
be in such a direction that it lies on the plane passing through the focal line and the vertex
(i.e., the base) of the parabola.
• Since the elevation of the sun is always changing, either the reflector trough or the collector
pipe (absorber) must be turned continuously about its long axis to maintain the required
orientation. Both schemes are used in different practical designs.
• Either the trough/cylindrical reflector or the pipe is turned by partial rotation around a
single axis parallel to the trough length.
• Trough type collectors are generally oriented in the east-west or north-south directions.
• For the east-west orientation, the collectors are laid flat on (or parallel to) the ground.
• For the north-south orientation, the north end of the trough is raised so that the collectors
are sloped facing south-just like flat-plate collectors.
• slope angle should be changed periodically; it is simpler but less efficient to use a fixed
angle design.

Fig 15: Cross-section of Parabolic trough collector

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 Fig 16: Cylindrical parabolic system

• The increased separation distance between rows of collectors also results in increased
pipeline costs and greater pumping and thermal losses.
• Finally, the sun set position of an east-west reflector is essentially the same as the sunrise
position, and little or no overnight adjustment is required.
• For the north- south orientation, however the trough (or receiver) must be turned through
a large angle from sunset to sunrise.
• The choice of orientation in any instance depends on the foregoing and other
considerations.
Receiver pipe of Parabolic trough collector:
• has the same general characteristics as a flat-plate collector.
• The solar radiation absorber is a central steel pipe with a treated surface.
• A selective absorber surface such as the black chrome can be used.
• A hollow steel plug within the absorber pipe restricts the flow of the heat-transfer fluid to
a narrow annular region.
• This results in a high flow velocity of the fluid and consequently a high rate of heat transfer
from the absorber.
• The absorber pipe is usually enclosed in a glass (Pyrex) jacket to decrease thermal losses
by convection and radiation.
• The space between the pipe and the jacket is sometimes evacuated to reduce convection
losses.
• The diameter of the glass jacket is about 5 cm and that of the absorber pipe about 3 cm.
• The annulus between this pipe and the plug may be as little as 2.5 mm wide.

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 Fig 17: Cross-section of the Receiver pipe of parabolic collector

(b) Mirror strip solar collector:

• Due to practical difficulty in manufacturing a large mirror in a single piece, several plane
or slightly curved (concave) mirror strips are mounted on a flat base -
• The angles of the individual mirrors are such that they reflect solar radiation from a specific
direction on to the same focal line (Fig. 18).
• The angles of the mirrors must be adjusted to allow for changes in the sun's elevation, while
the focal line (for collector pipe) remains in a fixed position.
• The mirror strips may be fixed and the collector pipe moved continuously to remain on the
focal line (rotate about the center of curvature of reflector module to track the sun).

Fig 18: Mirror strip solar collector

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(c) Fresnel lens collector:
• It is a refraction type of focusing collectors.
• It utilizes the focusing effect of a Fresnel lens as represented in Fig. 19.
• For a trough-type collector, the lens is rectangle - 4.7 m overall length, 0.95 m in width.
• It is made in sections from cost acrylic plastic and can be produced in quantity at low cost.
• The rounded triangular trough serves only as a container and plays no role in concentrating
the solar energy.
• To be fully effective, the Fresnel lens must be continuously aligned with the sun in two
directions - both along and perpendicular to its length.
• Concentration ratio of 10 to 30 obtained which yields temperatures between 150 to 300 °C.

Fig 19: Fresnel lens collector

Receiver pipe for Fresnel lens collector:

• Solar radiation is focused into the absorber from the top (unlike from bottom in the
parabolic type).
• Insulation at the bottom and sides of the absorber pipe and a flat plate over the top reduce
thermal losses.
• A stainless-steel reflector adjacent to the pipe reflects back emitted thermal radiation.

Fig 20: Receiver for Fresnel lens collector

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(ii) Point Focusing Collector

(a) Paraboloidal dish collector:

• A paraboloidal dish collector brings solar radiation to a focus at a point (a small central
volume).
• Beam radiation is focused at a point in the paraboloid; This requires two-axis tracking.
• A dish 6.6 m in diameter has been made from about 200 curved mirror segments forming
a paraboloidal surface.
• The absorber, located at the focus, is a cavity made of a zirconium-copper alloy with a
black chrome selective coating.

Fig 21: Paraboloidal dish collector

• The heat-transport fluid flows into and out of the absorber cavity through pipes bonded to
the interior.
• The dish can be turned automatically about two axes (up-down and left-right).
• The concentration ratios (concentration ratio is the ratio of the area of the concentrator
aperture to the energy absorbing area of the receiver) are very high in the case of parabolic
system and therefore can be used where high temperatures are required.
• Concentration ratios of about 30 to 100 or higher would be needed to achieve temperatures
in the range 300 to 500°C or higher.

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(b) Hemispherical bowl mirror concentrator:
• It consists of hemispherical fixed mirror, a tracking absorber and supporting structure as
shown in Fig. 22.
• All rays entering the hemisphere after reflection cross the paraxial line at some point
between the focus and the mirror surface.
• Therefore, a linear absorber pivoted about the center of curvature of the hemisphere
intercepts all reflected rays.
• The absorber is to be moved so that its axis is always aligned with solar rays passing
through the centre of the sphere. This requires two-axis tracking.
• The absorber is either driven around a polar axis at a constant angular speed of 15 degrees
/hour or adjusted periodically during the day.
• This type of concentrator gives lesser concentration, owing to spherical aberration, than
that obtained in paraboloidal concentrator.

Fig 22: Hemispherical bowl mirror concentrator

(c) Circular Fresnel lens concentrator:

• These lenses are generally used where high flux is desired, such as with silicon solar cells
or with gallium arsenide solar cells as receiver.
• Fig. 23. shows the construction of a circular Fresnel lens.
• It is divided into number of thin circular zones.
• The tilt of each zone is adjusted such that the lens approximates a thin spherical lens.
• The concentration ratio is 2000 (high) but is less than that obtained from a paraboloidal
reflector.
• In solar cell applications, tracking is required to keep the small solar image centered on the
receiver.

27
 Fig 23: Circular Fresnel lens concentrator

(d) Central Tower Receiver Collector:

• In the central tower receiver collector, the receiver is located at the top of a tower.
• It is equivalent to a very large paraboloidal reflector consisting of a considerable number
of mirrors distributed over an area on the ground (Fig. 24).
• Each mirror, called a heliostat, can be steered independently about two axes so that the
reflected solar radiation is always directed towards an absorber mounted on a tower.
• Concentration ratio as high as 3000 can be obtained.
• The absorbed energy can be extracted from the receiver and delivered at a temperature and
pressure suitable for driving turbines for power generation.
• This is mostly used in tower power plants for generation of electrical energy.

Fig 24: Central Tower Receiver Collector

28
2. Non-focusing collector:

(a) Modified Flat plate collector or Flat plate collector with adjustable mirrors:
• By providing plane reflectors at the edges of flat plate collector to reflect additional
radiation into the receiver the concentration of solar radiation can be increased. [Fig 25]
• It consists of a flat plate facing south with mirrors attached to its north and south edges.
• These mirrors are also called booster mirrors.
• If the mirrors are set at the proper angle, they reflect solar radiation on to the absorber plate.
• Thus, the latter receives reflected radiation in addition to that normally falling on it
• For the mirrors to be effective, the angles should be adjusted continuously as the sun's
altitude changes.
• The concentration ratio of these concentrators has a maximum value of 4.
• V-trough design is aligned in the East-West direction and requires periodic tilt adjustment.
• Different optimum depth-to-base width ratio and cone angles are possible depending on
the frequency of seasonal tilt adjustment.

Fig 25: Modified Flat plate collector

29
(b) Compound Parabolic Concentrator (CPC):
• It consists of two parabolic mirror segments, attached to a flat receiver.
• The segments are oriented such that the focus of one is located at the bottom end point of
the other in contact with receiver.
• It has a large acceptance angle and needs to be adjusted intermittently.
• In addition to collecting both direct and diffuse radiations, an advantage of the CPC is that
it provides moderately good concentration (less than a focussing collector) in an east-west
direction without (or only seasonal) adjustment for sun tracking.
• Rays in the central region of the aperture reach the absorber directly whereas those near
the edges undergo one or more reflections before reaching the absorber.
• The concentration ratio achieved from this collector is around 10.
• CPC reflectors can be designed for any absorber shapes: Flat one-sided absorber, Flat two-
sided absorbers (fin), Wedge-like absorbers and Tubular absorbers.
• For economic and thermal reasons the fin and the tubular type of absorbers are preferable.
• With a concentric tubular absorber with an evacuated jacket, temperatures of about 200°C
are achievable with CPC collectors.
• They are suitable for the temperature range of 100-150°C even if the absorber is not
surrounded by a vacuum.

Fig 26: Compound Parabolic Concentrator (CPC)

Advantages:
(i) There is no need for tracking, as it has high acceptance angle, only seasonal adjustments are
required; For concentration ratios of 3, even seasonal adjustments may not be required.
(ii) The efficiency for accepting diffuse radiation is much larger than conventional concentrators.
(iii) Its concentration ratio is equal to the maximum value possible for a given acceptance angle.

30
SOLAR ENERGY STORAGE:

Need for Energy Storage:

• Solar energy is a time dependent and intermittent energy resource.
• Energy demands are time dependent (in an entirely different manner from the solar energy
supply).
• Thus, need for the storage of energy is important, if the solar energy is to meet the energy
needs (e.g., low availability of solar energy when it is used for heating in winter).
• An optimally designed solar-electric system will collect and convert when the insolation is
available during the day.
• The problem of clouds with photovoltaic plants, lowers electrical output compared to high
insolation cloud-free days.
• During such days energy previously stored during high insolation times could be used to
provide a continuous electrical output or thermal output.
• Storage increases the reliability of delivering power at an arbitrary needed time.

Storage of solar energy in a solar system may:

• Permit solar energy to be captured when insolation is highest and later used when the need
is greatest.
• Make it possible to deliver electrical load power demand during times when insolation is
below, normal or non-existent.
• Storage also makes it possible to deliver short peaks of power exceeding the rated power
capacity of the plant.
• Be located close to load, minimizing the need for transmission and distribution facilities.
• Improve the reliability of the solar thermal as well as solar electric system.
• Permit a better match between the solar energy input and the load demand output than
would be the case without storage.

The optimum capacity of an energy storage system depends on the following factors:
• The expected time dependence of solar radiation availability.
• The nature of loads to be expected on the process.
• The degree of reliability needed for the process.
• The way auxiliary energy is supplied.
• The size of the solar thermal power system or solar-electric generator.
• The cost per Kwhr of the stored energy.
• The permissible capital cost allocated to storage.
• Environmental and safety considerations.
• An economic analysis that determines how much of the total usually annual loads should
be carried by solar and how much by auxiliary energy sources.

31
Classification:
• Energy storage may be in the form of sensible heat of solid/liquid medium, heat of fusion
in chemical systems or as chemical energy of products in the reversible chemical reaction.
• Mechanical energy can be converted to potential energy and stored in elevated fluids.
• The choice of media for energy storage depends on the nature of the process.
• For water heating - energy is stored as sensible heat of stored water.
• For air heating - storage is sensible or latent heat effects in particular storage units such as
sensible heat in a pebble bed heat exchanger.
• For photovoltaic or photo chemical processes - storage in the form of chemical energy or
energy is stored in the batteries.
• Energy stored in different forms - heat, electrical, chemical, mechanical and magnetic.

1. Thermal Storage:
• Energy stored by heating, melting or vaporization of material; and the energy becomes
available as heat, when the process is reversed.
• Storage by causing a material to rise in temperature is called sensible heat storage.
• Storage by phase change, the transition from solid to liquid or from liquid to vapour is
called latent heat storage.
• Applications of thermal energy storage:
➢ domestic water and space heating applications
➢ thermal power applications
➢ process industries and horticultural

32
 • For many domestic applications, water and/or rock storage systems is used.
• Water and rock - stores energy as specific heat (sensible heat) - use is limited by their
comparatively low specific heats.
• Glauber's salt (Na2, SO4.10H2O) – stores energy as heat of fusion (latent heat) - stores a
given amount of heat within a much smaller volume, least expensive, most readily available
salt hydrate.
• For high temperature storage in the order of 200 to 300°C - other salts are used and the
heat of hydration of inorganic oxides principally MgO and CaO.

(a) Sensible heat storage:

• Sensible heat storage involves a material that undergoes no change in phase over the
temperature domain encountered in the storage process.
• Basic equation for an energy storage unit, operating over a finite temperature difference is:

• where Qs is the total thermal energy capacity for a cycle operating between temperature
limits T1 and T2 with m kg of storage medium of specific heat Cp.
• The temperature range is limited at the lower extreme by the requirements of the process,
and the upper limit by the process of the vapour pressure of the liquid.
• The ability of store thermal energy in a given container of volume V is,

where ρ is the density of the storage medium.

• Materials used for sensible heat storage: Water, Rock, Gravel or Crushed stone, Iron, red
iron oxide or iron core, Concrete, Refractory materials like magnesium oxide, aluminium
oxide and silicon oxide.

(i) Water storage:

• The most common heat transfer fluid for a solar system is water.
• Thermal energy is stored by storing water directly in a well-insulated tank.
• Energy is added by circulating water through collector and is removed by circulating water
through load.
• The optimum tank size for flat-plate collector system - 70 kg/m2 (2 gal/ft2).
• Water has the following characteristics for storage medium:
➢ It is an inexpensive, readily available and useful material to store sensible heat.
➢ It has high thermal storage capacity.
➢ Energy addition and removal from this type of storage is done by medium itself,
thus eliminating any temperature drop between transport fluid and storage medium.
➢ pumping cost is small.

33
 Fig 27: Water tank storage unit

(ii) Packed Bed Exchanger Storage:

• For sensible heat storage with air as the energy transport mechanism, rock, gravel, or
crushed stone in a bin has the advantage of providing a large, cheap heat transfer surface.
• Its thermal capacity is only about half that of water, and the bin volume will be about 3
times the volume of a water tank, that is heated over the same temperature interval.
• Water is superior due to its low material cost and lower volume required per unit of energy
stored.
• Rock does have the following advantages over water:
➢ Rock is more easily contained than water.
➢ Rock acts as its own heat exchanger, which reduces total system cost.
➢ used for thermal storage at high temperatures (>100°C); storage at high temperature
where water cannot be used in liquid form without pressurized storage tank.
➢ The heat transfer coefficient between the air and solid is high.
➢ The cost of storage material is low.
➢ The conductivity of the bed is low when air flow is not present.
• A packed bed storage unit [Fig. 28] uses the heat capacity of a bed of loosely packed
material through which a fluid (air) is circulated to add or remove heat from the bed.
• Consists of - container, porous structure to support the bed and air distributors.
• The flow is maintained through the bed in one direction during addition of heat and in the
opposite direction during removal of heat.
• heat addition and removal from the storage cannot be carried out simultaneously.
• Insulation requirements at the outer surface of the packed bed are minimal, for short term
storage, as the thermal conductivity in the radial direction is low.
• Pebble bed exchanger has good heat transfer characteristics between air and the solids of
the bed.

34
 Fig 28: Schematic of a Packed Bed Exchanger Storage unit

(b) Latent heat storage (phase change energy storage):

• In this system, heat is stored in a material when it melts and extracted from the material
when it freezes.
• Materials that undergo a change of phase in a suitable temperature range will be useful
for energy storage if the following criteria can be satisfied:
➢ The phase change must be accompanied by high latent heat effect, i.e.., it must store
large quantities of heat.
➢ The phase change must be reversible over a very large number of cycles without
degradation.
➢ The phase change must occur with limited super cooling.
➢ Means must be available to contain the material and transfer heat into it and out of
it.
➢ The cost of materials and its containers must be reasonable.
➢ Its phase change must occur close to its actual melting temperature.
➢ The material must be available in large quantities.
➢ The preparation of the phase changing material for use must be relatively simple.
➢ The material must be harmless (non-toxic, non-inflammable, non- combustible,
non-corrosive).
➢ A small volume change during the phase change.
➢ The material should have high thermal conductivity in both the phases.
• If these criteria can be met, phase change energy storage systems can be of high capacities.
• Materials for phase change energy storage: Glauber's salt (Na2SO4. 10H2O), water,
Fe(NO3)2 6H2O, Salt Eutectics.
• Glauber's (Na2SO4.10H2O - sodium sulphate decahydrate) - phase changes from solid to
liquid, requires less energy than those from liquid to gas.

35
 • Phase change materials involving water of dehydration (eg, Glauber's salt) decomposes at
about 32°C to give a solution plus Na2SO4 with a heat of fusion of 243 kJ per kg (56
kcal/kg) and has been proposed mainly for storing domestic heat.
• The reaction is:

• Energy storage is accomplished by the reaction proceeding from left to right on addition of
heat.
• Energy extraction from storage is the reverse procedure, with the reaction proceeding from
right to left and thermal effects reversed.
• In latent heat storage arrangement [Fig 29] the storage material is placed in long thin
containers, e.g., cylinders, and the gas is passed through narrow spaces between the tubes.

Fig 29: A typical latent heat storage arrangement

• Organic compounds - Paraffin and fatty acids - good phase change thermal energy storage
materials with a major drawback of higher cost.
• Paraffins - possess high heats of fusion, available in large temperature ranges, freezes
without supercooling.
• Fatty acids - possess a reproducible melting and freezing behaviour, freezes with little or
no supercooling.

2. Electrical Storage:
(a) Capacitor storage:
• Capacitors store large amounts of electrical energy for long periods.
• The total energy stored is

• where, V is the volume of the dielectric; ε is constant; E is the electric field strength.
• E is limited by the breakdown strength of the dielectric; Therefore, the electrical energy
storable in a dielectric is limited; there will always be leakage losses in dielectric.
• best dielectric material available is mica.

36
(b) Inductor storage:
• Capacitive storage is economical for times no longer than 12 hours.
• Inductor storage increases this time.
• Energy stored in inductor is:

• where, μ is the permeability of the material; Hm is the magnetic flux density.

• For Hind to be large, both μ and Hm should be large - high magnetic fields are required;
This will create large mechanical forces which should be supported by strong structures.
• The reverse operation of discharging the stored energy is a major problem, since it involves
the opening of circuit carrying large currents.

(c) Battery Storage:

• A battery is a combination of individual cells.
• A cell is the elemental combination of materials and electrolyte constituting the basic
electrochemical energy storer.
• A battery is a black box into which electrical energy is put, stored electrochemically, and
later regained as electrical energy.
• Secondary batteries - rechargeable, primary batteries - non-rechargeable.
• Examples of secondary batteries - lead acid, nickel cadmium, iron air, Nickel-hydrogen,
zinc- air, sodium sulphur, sodium-chlorine etc.
• A cell consists of two electrodes - anode and cathode immersed in a suitable electrolyte.
• When an electrical load is connected between the electrodes charge separation occurs at
the interface between electrode and the electrolyte, freezing both an electron and an ion.
• The electron flows through the external load and ion through the electrolyte, recombining
at the other electrode.
• Energy efficiency (watt hour efficiency) of a battery is defined as

I1 = Battery discharge current; E1 = Battery discharge terminal voltage

I2 = Battery charging current; E2 = Battery charging terminal voltage
t1 = Battery discharging time; t2 = Battery charging time.

• If the discharge and charge occur at constant voltages, then:

37
 • If the discharge and charge occur at constant currents, then:

• Cycle life is the number of times the battery can be charged and discharged under specified
conditions.
• The cycle life of a battery may vary greatly with the depth of the discharge, deep discharge
(e.g., electric vehicle) tending to result in short cycle life.

3. Chemical Storage:
(a) Storage in the form of fuel:
• The reactant in a storage battery is generated by a photochemical reaction due to solar
radiation.
• In this case the converter itself acts as a storage battery.
• The battery is charged photochemically and discharged electrically whenever needed.
• Some of the reactions are useful for the storage of solar energy:

• It is also possible to electrolyze water with solar generated electrical energy, store O, and
H, and recombine in a fuel cell to regain electrical energy.
• Hydrogen is one of the most efficient and practical fuel.
• Solar energy can be used by the anaerobic fermentation of algae to produce methane CH4.
• Methane is an excellent fuel which is stable at room temperature, and which reacts with
oxygen to provide high temperatures, releasing the solar energy in thermal form.

• Solar energy can be converted into chemical energy of methane with about 2% efficiency.
• One square kilometre of algae fields can produce an amount of methane storing 4 MW of
converted solar energy.
• Algae could be grown in nutrient-loaded municipal sewage to produce methane.
• The grown algae should be harvested first, then treated to yield about 5% of solids, the rest
being water.
• The solid material would then be subjected to anaerobic fermentation and after three weeks,
half the organic material could be converted into methane.

38
 • Photosynthesis is also a method of solar energy conversion.
• The products of reaction are oxygen and H2CO which is a fraction of carbohydrates, in the
presence of light and chlorophyll.
CO2 + H2O ---------- → H2CO + O2

(b) Thermo-chemical energy storage (Reversible chemical reactions):

• Thermochemical storage systems (uses reversible chemical reactions) are suitable for
medium or high temperature applications only.
• Advantages: high energy density storage at ambient temperatures for long periods without
thermal losses and potential for heat pumping and energy transport over long distances.
• This type of storage is illustrated by a hypothetical reaction.

• The forward reaction takes place with absorption of heat from solar energy and the heat is
stored in the form of products, when heat is desired, the products are to be remixed to allow
the reversible reaction to take place with liberation of heat.
• The original reactant is regenerated completing the cycle.
• Both forward and reverse reactions take place at constant but different temperatures, the
forward reaction occurring at a higher temperature than the reverse reaction.
• Examples of chemical reactions suitable for use in solar applications:

• First reaction is methane-syngas reaction, which occurs in the presence of a nickel

catalyst; The reverse reaction (the methanation process) is commercially used for the
manufacture of methane on a large scale.
• Second reaction is decomposition of sulphur trioxide to sulphur dioxide and oxygen in the
forward direction and recombination of sulphur dioxide and oxygen to form sulphur
trioxide in the reverse direction, in the presence of a catalyst.

39
(c) Hydrogen storage:
• Energy can be both stored and transported as hydrogen, which serves as a secondary fuel.
• From wind-electric or photovoltaic systems, power can be fed directly into an electrolyser
tank which produces hydrogen and oxygen from ordinary water.
• The gases may be produced either under pressure or near atmospheric pressure and then
through external pumps compressed to the desired pressure.
• Hydrogen and oxygen gases can be stored in gas or liquid forms for a long time.
• It can be easily converted again directly into electrical energy through fuel cell.
• The system effectively stores solar sun's energy as hydrogen and oxygen, from this storage
a reliable power output can be taken for a limited time set by the hydrogen storage capacity.
• Hydrogen - fuel to drive automobiles and other useful engines.
• Chemical energy in hydrogen (and oxygen) can be converted into thermal, mechanical, or
electrical energy.

4. Mechanical Energy Storage:

(a) Pumped hydroelectric storage:
• Electric power more than the immediate demand is used to pump water from a supply (e.g.,
river, reservoir) at a lower level to a reservoir at a higher level.
• When the power demand exceeds the supply, the water is allowed to flow back down
through a hydraulic turbine which drives an electric generator.
• The overall efficiency of the pumped storage, that is, the percentage of the electrical energy
used to pump the water recovered as electrical energy is about 70%.
• Use of natural or excavated underground caverns or excavated underground caverns as
lower reservoirs greatly increases the number of possible sites.
• In this scheme, water acts only as the working fluid, once the initial volume of water is
secured, the only flow needed would be that necessary to make up for the loss of water by
evaporation (and seepage).
• Therefore, the scheme does not have to be near large bodies of water.

Fig 30: Storage of solar energy by pumping water behind a dam

40
(b) Compressed Air Storage:
• Stores the energy in a volume of compressed air.
• For e.g., a wind turbine would directly pump air into a suitable pressurized storage tank.
• Later when the wind is not blowing the energy stored in air can be utilized to drive an air
turbine, whose shaft then drives a generator, thus supplying the needed electric power.
• Compressed air storage is applicable to other solar-electric conversion systems.

(c) Flywheel Storage:

• A flywheel driven by an electric motor during off peak hours stores mechanical energy as
its speed is increased.
• The rotation of the flywheel can operate a generator to produce electricity when required.
• The same machine serves as motor when electricity is supplied and as generator when the
armature is rotated by the flywheel.
• The energy recovery efficiency is estimated to be up to 90 percent.
• The energy is stored as kinetic energy, most of which can be electrically regained when the
flywheel is run as a generator.

5. Electromagnetic energy storage:

• It requires the use of superconducting materials; these materials (metals and alloys)
suddenly lose essentially all resistance to the flow of electricity when cooled below a
certain very low temperature.
• If maintained below this temperature a superconducting metal (or alloy) can carry strong
electric currents with little or no loss.
• Super conducting materials available commercially are a niobium titanium (N-T) alloy at
temperatures below -263°C and a compound of niobium and tin (Nb,Sn) below -255°C.
• An electromagnetic field produced by current flowing through a wire can store energy.
• Under ordinary conditions, losses result from the resistance of the wire, and energy must
be supplied continuously to maintain the current.
• If the wire coil is made of a superconducting material and kept at the required low
temperature, resistance losses will be very small, and current will remain almost constant.
• By attaching the coil to a load, the stored energy could be recovered as electrical energy.
• This is the basis of the Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES) system.
• Problems:
➢ operation and maintenance of a cryogenic (i.e., low temperature refrigeration) plant for
producing the liquid helium is required for the very low superconductivity
temperatures.
➢ special structures needed to withstand the strong magnetic field of an SMES unit.
➢ economical only in large installations.

41
SOLAR POND:

Introduction:
• A natural or artificial body of water for collecting and absorbing solar energy and storing
it as heat.
• A solar pond combines solar energy collection and sensible heat storage.
• The simplest type of solar pond is very shallow, about 5 to 10 cm deep, with a radiation
absorbing (e.g., black plastic) bottom.
• A bed of insulating material under the pond minimizes loss of heat to the ground.
• A curved cover made of transparent fiber glass over the pond permits entry of solar
radiation but reduces losses by radiation and convection.
• In a suitable climate, all the pond water can become hot enough for use in space heating
and agricultural applications.
• In a shallow pond, water soon acquires a uniform temperature; usually heats up only a few
degrees because of the natural convection currents which are set into motion as soon as
heat is absorbed at the bottom.
• In a deeper pond, temperature variations generally exist.
• Loss of heat from the surface, especially at night, results in circulation of water by
convection.
• The situation is changed if the pond contains salt water at the bottom with a layer of fresh
water above it.
• Because of its salt content, the solar pond bottom water is denser than the cooler fresh water
at the top, and hence it does not tend to rise.
• A relatively stable layer of heated salt water is thus produced at the bottom of the pond
with a lighter layer of cooler fresh water, which acts as a heat insulator, above it.
• A 'solar pond' is defined as an artificially constructed pond in which significant temperature
rises are caused to occur in the lower regions by preventing convection.
• The terms 'salt-gradient solar pond’ or 'non-convecting solar pond' are used to distinguish
these ponds from 'shallow solar pond'.
• Solar ponds promise an economical way over flat-plate collectors and energy storage by
employing a mass of water for both collection and storage of solar energy.
• The energy is stored in low grade (60 to 100°C) thermal form which is suitable for
applications such as space heating, industrial process heat and to obtain mechanical and/or
electrical energy.

Principle of operation and description of non-convective solar pond:

• A solar pond is a mass of shallow water about 1 or 2 meters deep with a large collection
area, which acts like a heat trap.
• It contains dissolved salts to generate a stable density gradient.

42
• Part of the incident solar radiation entering the pond’s surface is absorbed throughout the
depth and the remaining which penetrates the pond is absorbed at the black bottom.
• If the pond were initially filled with fresh water, the lower layers would heat up, expand
and rise to the surface; due to convective mixing and heat loss at the surface, only a small
temperature rise in the pond could be realized.
• Convection is eliminated by creating a sufficiently strong salt concentration gradient;
thermal expansion in the hotter lower layers is insufficient to destabilize the pond; With
convection suppressed, the heat is lost from the lower layers only by conduction.
• Because of the relatively low conductivity, the water acts as an insulator and permits high
temperature (over 90°C) to develop in the bottom layers.
• At the bottom of the pond, a thick durable plastic liner is laid.
• Materials used for the liner include butyl rubber, black polyethylene and Hypalon
reinforced with nylon mesh.
• Salts like magnesium chloride, sodium chloride or sodium nitrate are dissolved in the
water.
• The concentration of the salt at the surface is low - usually less than 5 percent by weight
and thus the water is relatively light.
• The salt concentration steadily increases at depth until at the bottom where it is very high,
around 20 percent.
• Solar pond of depth 2 m has three zones with the following salinity with depth:
(i) Surface convective zone or upper convective zone (0.3 - 0.5 m), salinity < 5%.
(ii) Non-convective zone 1 to 1.5 m, salinity increases with depth.
(iii) Storage zone or lower convective zone 1.5 to 2 m, salinity ~ 20%.

➢ Surface convective zone - usually has a small thickness, around 10 to 20 cm; it has a low,
uniform concentration which is close to zero, as well as a uniform temperature, which is
close to the ambient air temperature.
➢ Non-convective zone - much thicker and occupies more than half the depth of the pond;
both concentration and temperature increase with depth in it; serves mainly as an insulating
layer and reduces heat loss in the upward direction; This part acts as thermal storage as
some of the heat collection also takes place in this zone.
➢ Storage zone - lower zone acts as the main heat collection and thermal storage medium;
both concentration and temperature are nearly constant in this zone; the deeper the zone,
the more heat is stored; lowest zone traps heats for long periods, damping the effects of
daily and even seasonal change.
• The highest temperature ever recorded in a solar pond is 108°C.
• Depending on location, water clarity and temperature, the solar pond can capture 10 to 20
percent of the solar energy hitting its surface.

43
 Fig 31: Temperature and Concentration profile for a typical Solar Pond

Advantages:
• low-cost storage
• They can be tapped for energy at night as well as during the day; Even during long periods
of cloud cover or even ice cover the stored energy is still available.
• As salty water near the bottom heats up, it expands; but it cannot rise because it is denser
than the less salty water above.
• Thus, the solar pond is 'non-convecting', the warm water stays trapped below.
• Heat lost by conduction to the surface is much less than convection loss.
• Lower water may even warm up to and above the boiling point of pure water.

44
Extraction of thermal energy:
• Energy is stored in low grade thermal form of the lower convective zone.
• Convection in the zone is due to the process of heat extraction, accomplished by hot brine
withdrawal and a cool brine return.
• It is not practical to cover the bottom of the pond with an array of pipes acting as a heat
exchanger due to two reasons.
• cost will increase sharply in the case of large ponds of the size of about a square km.
• unless there is convection around the pipes heat transfer from the stationary hot brine to
the fluid in the pipes will be very poor.
• Thermal energy stored in the lower layers of the pond can be easily extracted without
disturbing the non-convecting salt gradient zone above.
• Hot water can be extracted from a solar pond without disturbing the concentration gradient.
• This is achieved by installing the water outlet at the same height as the water inlet.

Fig 32: Solar pond electric power plant with cooling tower

• Hot brine can be withdrawn and cool brine returned in a laminar flow pattern because of
the presence of density gradient.
• Thermal energy from the solar pond is used to drive a Rankine cycle heat engine.

45
 • Hot water from the bottom level of the pond is pumped to the evaporator where the organic
working fluid is vaporized (Fig. 32).
• Organic fluid has low boiling points. e.g., halo-carbons (Freons - chlorofluorocarbons
CFCs, hydrochlorofluorocarbons HCFCs) or hydrocarbons (propane).
• The vapor flows under high pressure to the turbine and thereby expanding through the
turbine wheel and the electric generator linked to it.
• The vapor then travels to the condenser where cold water from the cooling tower condenses
the vapor back to a liquid.
• The liquid is pumped back to the evaporator where the cycle is repeated.

Applications of Solar Ponds:

(1) Heating and Cooling of Buildings:

Because of the large heat storage capability in the lower convective zone of the solar pond, it is
used for heating even at high latitude stations and for several cloudy days.

(2) Production of Power:

A solar pond can be used to generate electricity by driving a thermo-electric device or an organic
Rankine cycle engine - a turbine powered by evaporating an organic fluid with a low boiling point.

(3) Industrial Process Heat:

Industrial process heat is the thermal energy used directly in the preparation and of treatment of
materials and goods manufactured by industry (e.g., crop drying, paper industry); saves oil, natural
gas, electricity, and coal.

(4) Desalination:
The low-cost thermal energy can be used to desalt or purify water for drinking or irrigation.
Multi-flash desalination units along with a solar pond is an attractive proposition for getting
distilled water.

(5) Heating animal housing and drying crops on farms:

Low grade heat can be used in several ways in farms which have enough land for solar ponds.

(6) Heat for biomass conversion:

Site built solar ponds could provide heat to convert biomass to alcohol or methane.

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FUNDAMENTALS OF SOLAR ENERGY AND PV TECHNOLOGY:

• Solar photovoltaic (PV) systems convert solar energy directly into electrical energy.
• The photovoltaic effect is defined as the generation of an electromotive force because of
the absorption of ionizing radiation.
• Energy conversion devices which convert sunlight to electricity using the photovoltaic
effect are called solar cells.
• A single converter cell is called a solar cell or a photovoltaic cell, and combination of such
cells designed to increase the electric power output is called a solar module or solar array.
• Photovoltaic cells are made of semiconductors that generate electricity when they absorb
light.
• As photons are received, free electrical charges are generated that can be collected on
contacts applied to the surfaces of the semiconductors.
• Commercial photocells have efficiencies in the range of 10–20 per cent and can
approximately produce an electrical energy of about 1 kWh per sq. m per day in ordinary
sunshine.
• It produces a potential difference of about 0.5 V and a current density of about 200 A per
sq. m. of cell area in full solar radiation of 1 kW per sq. m.
• A typical commercial cell of 100 sq-cm area thus produces a current of 2A.

• Applications:
➢ space satellites
➢ remote radio communication booster stations
➢ marine warning lights
➢ lighting
➢ water pumping
➢ medical refrigeration in remote areas especially in developing countries
➢ Solar powered vehicles
➢ battery charging

• Advantages of solar PV systems over conventional power systems:

➢ It converts solar energy directly into electrical energy without going through
thermal-mechanical link.
➢ It has no moving parts hence it gives almost maintenance free service for long
periods and can be used unattended at inaccessible locations.
➢ reliable, modular, durable and generally maintenance free.
➢ quiet, compatible with almost all environments, respond instantaneously to solar
radiation and have an expected life span of 20 years or more.
➢ It can be located at the place of use and hence no or minimum distribution network
is required, as it is universally available.

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 • Disadvantages:
➢ At present the costs of solar cells are high (about 60 % of the total system cost),
making them economically uncompetitive with other conventional power sources.
➢ The efficiency of solar cells is low (10 – 20 %).
➢ As solar radiation density is also low, large area of solar cell modules are required
to generate sufficient useful power.
➢ As solar energy is intermittent, electrical energy storage should ensure the
availability of power in absence of sun. This makes the system more expensive.

SOLAR CELL, MODULE AND ARRAY CONSTRUCTION:

Solar Cell:
• The basic cell structure of a typical N-on-P, bulk silicon cell is shown in Fig. 33.
• The bulk material is P-type silicon with thickness 100 to 350 microns, depending on the
technology used.
• A thin layer of N-type silicon is formed at the top surface by diffusing an impurity from
Vth group (phosphorus most common) to get a PN junction.

Fig 33: Construction of a silicon cell

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 • The top active surface of the N layer has an ohmic contact with metallic grid structure to
collect the current produced by impinging photons.
• The metallic grid covers minimum possible top surface area (less than 10 per cent of the
total area) to leave enough uncovered surface area for incoming photons.
• The bottom inactive surface also has an ohmic metallic contact over the entire area.
• These two metallic contacts on P and N layers respectively form the positive and negative
terminals of the solar cell.
• In addition to basic elements, several enhancement features are also included in the
construction. e.g., providing antireflective coating, textured finish of the top surface and
reflective, textured rear surface to capture maximum photons and direct them toward the
junction.

Solar PV Module:
• A bare single cell cannot be used for outdoor energy generation by itself because the output
of a single cell is very small, and it requires protection (encapsulation) against dust,
moisture, mechanical shocks and outdoor harsh conditions.
• Workable voltage and reasonable power are obtained by interconnecting an appropriate
number of cells.
• Cells from same batch are used to make PV module; This is done to ensure that mismatch
losses are minimal in the module.
• The electrically connected cells are encapsulated using two sheets of Ethylene Vinyl
Acetate (EVA) at either side.
• EVA is a good electrical insulator, transparent material and has very low water absorption.

Fig 34: PV Module

• The encapsulant cannot provide rigidity to the module, for which glass is provided at the
front side of the module.
• At the rear side of the module a hard polymer material (Poly Vinyl Fluoride - PVF, also
known as tedlar) is used.

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 • These layers are arranged as shown in Fig. 34 and hermetically sealed to make it suitable
for outside applications for 20-30 years without environmental degradation.
• This assembly is known as solar module – a basic building block of a PV system.
• Most common commercial modules have a series connection of 32 or 36 silicon cells to
make it capable of charging a 12 V storage battery.

Solar PV panel:
• Several solar modules are connected in series/parallel to increase the voltage/current
ratings.
• Fig. 35 shows the construction of module and panel.

Fig 35: PV cell, Module and Panel

• Fig. 36 shows a series-parallel connection of modules in a panel.

• In parallel connection, blocking diodes are connected in series with each series string of
modules, so that if any string should fail, the power output of the remaining series strings
will not be absorbed by the failed string.
• Bypass diodes are installed across each module, so that if one module should fail, the output
of the remaining modules in a string will bypass the failed module.
• Some modern PV modules come with such internally embedded bypass diodes.

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 Fig 36: A typical panel: Series-parallel connection of modules

Solar PV Array:
• Many interconnected solar panels, known as solar PV array, are installed in an array field.
• These panels may be installed as stationary or with sun tracking mechanism.
• It is important to ensure that an installed panel does not cast its shadow on the surface of
its neighbouring panels during a whole year.
• The layout and mechanical design of the array such as tilt angle of panels, height of panels,
clearance among the panels is carried out taking into consideration the local climatic
conditions, ease of maintenance, etc.

TYPES OF SOLAR POWER PLANTS: GRID-TIED, OFF-GRID & HYBRID

SYSTEMS:

GRID-TIED OR GRID-INTERACTIVE SYSTEMS:

• This system is connected to the utility grid with two-way metering system.
• It may be a small rooftop system owned and operated by the house owner, or a relatively
bigger (rack mounted) system meant for the whole village or a community.
• It meets daytime requirements of the house owner without any battery backup and surplus
power is fed to the grid.
• During peak hours and during nights the energy shortage may be met from grid.
• The grid serves as infinite source or sink of energy.
• Grid-connected PV systems usually employ two stages, to appropriately condition the
available solar power for feeding into the grid as shown in Fig. 37.

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 • While the first stage is used to track the maximum solar power, the second stage inverts
this DC power into high quality AC power.

Fig 37: A typical grid connected solar PV system

OFF-GRID OR STANDALONE SYSTEMS:

• It is located at the load centre and dedicated to meet all the electrical loads of a
village/community or a specific set of loads.
• Energy storage is generally essential.
• It is most relevant and successful in remote and rural areas having no access to grid supply;
capacity of such a system is 10 W – 100 kW.
• Various types of configurations for stand-alone PV system are shown in Fig. 38.
Configuration 1:
• A dc load is directly connected to PV panel.
• This is the simplest possible configuration.
• Power is available only during sunshine hours and no arrangement is made for power
storage.
• Such type of arrangement may be used for supplying raw dc load such as minor irrigation.
Configuration 2:
• A regulated power is supplied to the load.
• A DC-DC converter is inserted between panel and load.
• The converter can be controlled using MPPT algorithm to extract maximum power from
the PV panel.
• Usually when MPPT is implemented a battery is used to absorb excess power, which the
load cannot consume.

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 Fig 38: Various off-grid or standalone system configurations

Configuration 3:
• It is used for loads such as lighting for which battery storage is required.
• For safe charging and discharging operation a charge controller is also required.
• The use of battery ensures uninterrupted and smooth power availability.
• In the charge controller operation, MPPT may also be implemented to optimize the use of
solar power.
Configuration 4:
• It also includes ac loads for which an inverter is required.
• Since most of the commonly available loads are ac type, this configuration is suitable for
most domestic and commercial applications.

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HYBRID SYSTEMS:
• Sometimes, it is not economical or practical to provide all energy from PV system.
• In such cases, it may be more economical to provide some of the system energy needs by
another means, such as diesel/gasoline generator or any other non-conventional source like
wind or fuel cell. Such a system is called hybrid system.
• The best cost-effectiveness is obtained when none of the PV generated energy is wasted.
• The integrated system provides auxiliary support and better reliability. Such a system is
known as hybrid system.
• A hybrid system requires lesser amount of battery storage.
• Two typical hybrid configurations, known as series and parallel are shown in Fig. 39.

Fig 39: Solar PV hybrid configurations

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Series configuration:
• PV array is connected to DC bus through charge controller and DC-DC converter to extract
maximum PV power and raise its voltage to required level.
• The power generated by diesel source is first rectified to DC and then again converted to
AC to feed the AC load.
• Battery is used to manage the balance of power.
• The configuration is known as series configuration because the two ac sources, diesel
generator and inverter are connected in series.
• The generator supplies the load through series of rectifier and inverter.
• Therefore, the inverter supplies the total ac load current.
Parallel configuration:
• Two sources, the diesel generator and the inverter are connected in parallel to AC load.
• As a result, the rating of the inverter is less, and the efficiency is higher.
• Proper synchronization is required between the output of diesel generator and inverter.

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR SOLAR POWER PLANTS:

Site Selection:
Selecting the optimal site ensures maximum solar energy capture and minimizes installation and
maintenance challenges. Key factors in site selection are:
Solar Irradiance:
• Areas with high solar radiation (kWh/m²/day) are preferred.
• Global Horizontal Irradiance (GHI) and Direct Normal Irradiance (DNI) data help assess
to optimal sunlight exposure.
Climate Conditions:
• High temperature can reduce panel efficiency due to increased resistance.
• Humidity and dust can cause panel degradation and require frequent cleaning.
• Strong winds may damage panels, requiring robust mounting structures.
Land Availability and Terrain:
• Flat or gently sloping land reduces construction costs.
• Stable soil prevents structural issues with panel mounting.
• Flood-prone or landslide-prone areas should be avoided.
Accessibility and Infrastructure:
• Closer proximity to substations and transmission lines reduces energy losses.
• Road Accessibility facilitates transport, installation, and maintenance.
• Water Supply is important for cleaning panels, especially in dusty regions.
Environmental and Regulatory Constraints:
• Avoid ecologically sensitive areas and ensure compliance with environmental impact
regulations; Necessary permits and approvals should be taken from local authorities.

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Orientation:
Proper orientation and tilt angle maximize solar panel efficiency by optimizing sunlight capture.
Optimal Tilt Angle:
• In Fixed-Tilt Systems, the tilt angle should be approximately equal to the latitude of the
location.
• Seasonal Adjustments: During winter - steeper tilt to capture lower-angle sunlight.
During summer - shallower tilt for higher sun position.
Panel Orientation:
• For the Northern Hemisphere: South-facing panels maximize sunlight exposure.
• For the Southern Hemisphere: North-facing panels are preferred.
• For equatorial regions: Minimal tilt with an east-west axis may be optimal.
Tracking Systems:
• Single-axis tracking: Adjusts panel angle to follow the sun from east to west, improving
efficiency by 15-25%.
• Dual-axis tracking: Adjusts both tilt and orientation for maximum sunlight capture but
increases costs.

Shading Analysis:
Shading reduces solar panel efficiency.
Identifying Potential Obstructions
• Natural obstructions: Trees, hills, mountains.
• Man-made obstructions: Buildings, poles, nearby structures.
Tools for Shading Analysis
• Solar pathfinder and shading analysis software (e.g., PVsyst, Helioscope, SAM) help
model shading impacts.
• Sun path diagrams help predict shading over different seasons.
Panel Spacing Considerations
• Row-to-row spacing should prevent inter-row shading, especially in winter months.
• Shadow length calculation ensures minimal losses due to nearby structures.
Bypass Diodes and Microinverters
• Bypass diodes in PV modules minimize energy loss from shaded cells.
• Microinverters or optimizers help mitigate shading effects by maximizing energy output
from each panel.

Effect of Shading/Shadowing:
(i) partial shadowing of a cell in an open circuited, series string of cells:
• Partial shadowing may have serious consequences and may completely damage a module
due to creation of hot spot.
• When a cell is partially shadowed, the shadowed portion will not produce any power, but
the remaining portion will remain active and produce power.

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 • The generated voltage by illuminated portion will forward bias the parallel rectifier
corresponding to shadowed portion as shown in Fig. 40.
• If shadowed area is relatively small, the large circulating current through it will result in
excessive heating of the shadowed portion.
• The phenomenon is known as hot spot effect and may completely damage the module for
prolonged partial shadowing.

Fig 40: Partial shadowing of a cell

(ii) complete shadowing of one cell in a short circuited, series string of cells.
• A short-circuited, series string of (n + 1) cells with one cell completely shadowed is shown
in Fig. 41.
• Here the voltages produced by ‘n’ illuminated cells add up and appears as reverse bias
voltage of nV volts across the shadowed cell.
• As long as peak inverse voltage (PIV) of the shadowed cell is more than the reverse bias,
no current will flow.
• If the PIV is less than total reverse voltage appearing across the shadowed cell, current will
flow through the string, dissipating large power in the shadowed cell, leading to possible
damage of the module.
• The chances of damage to the shadowed cell, due to excessive heating, increase with the
number of cells in the string.
• The damage due to shadowing can be avoided by connecting a bypass diode across the
affected cell.
• The bypass diode would allow an alternative path for the load current.
• During healthy operation, the bypass diode has no role as the cell voltage would keep it
reverse biased.
• It is neither practical, nor required to incorporate a bypass diode across each cell in a
module.
• Bypass diode is provided for every 18 crystalline silicon solar cells in a series string.
• Thus, the internationally standard module with 34–36 cells would contain two bypass
diodes placed inside its terminal box.

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 Fig 41: Shadowed cell and bypass diode connection

PV system components and their functionalities:

1. Photovoltaic cell:
• Thin squares, discs, or films of semiconductor material that generate voltage and current
when exposed to sunlight.

2. Solar Panels (PV Modules):

• Photovoltaic cells wired together and laminated between a clear strait glazing and
encapsulating substrate.
• Function: Convert sunlight into direct current (DC) electricity.
• Made of silicon solar cells (monocrystalline, polycrystalline, or thin film).
• Performance is measured in watts (W) based on efficiency and sunlight exposure.
• Types of PV Modules:
➢ Monocrystalline: High efficiency, long lifespan, best for limited space.
➢ Polycrystalline: Lower cost, slightly less efficient than monocrystalline.
➢ Thin-film: Flexible, lightweight, but lower efficiency.

3. Array:
• One or more modules with mounting hardware and wired together at specific voltage.

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4. Solar Inverter
• Function: Converts DC electricity from solar panels into alternating current (AC), which
is used by most electrical appliances.
• Types of Inverters:
➢ String Inverter: Single inverter for multiple panels, cost-effective but less efficient
under shading.
➢ Microinverter: Individual inverter for each panel, improves efficiency in shaded
conditions.
➢ Hybrid Inverter: Works with batteries, allowing energy storage and grid interaction.
➢ Central Inverter: Used in large-scale solar farms for high power capacity.

5. Mounting Structures
• Function: hold the PV panels at an optimal angle and direction for maximum sunlight
exposure.
• Types:
➢ Fixed Tilt Mounts: Static structures with a set tilt angle.
➢ Adjustable Tilt Mounts: Can be manually adjusted seasonally.
➢ Tracking Systems: Move with the sun to maximize solar energy capture (single-
axis or dual-axis tracking).

6. Charge Controller (for Off-Grid or Hybrid Systems)

• Function: Regulates voltage and current from solar panels to prevent battery overcharging
and deep discharging.
• Types:
➢ PWM (Pulse Width Modulation): Cost-effective but less efficient.
➢ MPPT (Maximum Power Point Tracking): More efficient, adjusts voltage to maximize
power output.

7. Battery Storage (for Off-Grid and Hybrid Systems)

• Function: Stores excess electricity for use when sunlight is unavailable.
• Types of Batteries:
➢ Lead-Acid: Affordable but lower lifespan and efficiency.
➢ Lithium-Ion: Higher efficiency, longer lifespan, lightweight, but more expensive.
➢ Flow Batteries: Suitable for large-scale storage with longer cycles.

6. Balance of System (BOS) Components

• Function: Additional components necessary for system functionality and safety.
• Key BOS components are:
➢ DC/AC Disconnects: Safety switches to isolate components for maintenance.
➢ Wiring & Connectors: Carry electrical current between components.

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 ➢ Fuses & Circuit Breakers: Protect against overcurrent and short circuits.
➢ Grounding System: Prevents electrical faults and enhances safety.

7. Monitoring System
• Function: Tracks system performance and identifies faults in real-time.
• Types:
➢ On-Site Monitors: Display energy production on an LCD screen.
➢ Cloud-Based Monitoring: Provides remote access via mobile apps or web platforms.

8. Grid Connection (for Grid-Tied Systems)

• Function: Allows excess electricity to be exported to the utility grid and enables net
metering.
• Key components:
➢ Net Meter: Measures energy sent to and drawn from the grid.
➢ Grid-Tie Inverter: Synchronizes the solar system’s output with grid voltage and
frequency.

9. DC loads:
• Appliances, motors, and equipment powered by DC.

10. AC loads:
• Appliances, motors, and equipment powered by AC.

Operation, Maintenance and Performance Monitoring of Solar Power Plants:

Operation of Solar Power Plants:

• Solar panels convert sunlight into DC electricity.
• Inverters convert DC into AC electricity for grid or consumption.
• Grid connection or battery storage manages energy distribution.
• The key operational aspects are:
➢ Load Management - Balancing energy generation with demand.
➢ Power Conditioning - Ensuring stable voltage and frequency output.
➢ Grid Synchronization

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Maintenance of Solar Power Plants:
Regular maintenance is required to prevent efficiency losses and ensure the plant operates at peak
performance.
Preventive Maintenance (Scheduled Checks)
• Solar Panel Cleaning: Dust, dirt, and bird droppings reduce efficiency. Cleaning is done
periodically based on site conditions.
• Electrical Component Inspection: Regular checks on inverters, wiring, fuses, and
connectors to prevent failures.
• Structural Inspection: Checking mounting structures for corrosion, misalignment, or
mechanical stress.
• Grounding and Safety Measures: Ensuring proper earthing and lightning protection.
Corrective Maintenance (Fault Repairs)
• Inverter Failures: Replacing or repairing faulty inverters as they are critical for energy
conversion.
• Module Replacement: Damaged or degraded panels may need replacement.
• Cable and Connector Issues: Checking loose connections, overheating, or electrical faults.
Predictive Maintenance (Using Data Analytics)
• Thermal Imaging Drones: Detecting hot spots in solar panels.
• AI-based Monitoring: Using predictive analytics to detect anomalies before failures occur.

Performance Monitoring of Solar Power Plants:

Key Performance Indicators
• Energy Yield (kWh/kWp): Measures system efficiency.
• Performance Ratio (PR): PR = (Actual Energy Output) / (Theoretical Energy Output);
PR of 80-90% is ideal.
• Capacity Utilization Factor (CUF): Measures plant efficiency over time.
• Inverter Efficiency: Ensuring inverters operate at optimal efficiency (typically 95-98%).
• Module Degradation Rate: Tracking panel efficiency losses over time.
Monitoring Systems
• SCADA (Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition): Provides real-time data on energy
production and system health.
• IoT-Based monitoring: Remote monitoring via cloud-based dashboards and mobile apps.
• Weather stations: Measure solar irradiance, temperature, wind speed, and humidity for
performance analysis.

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