Introduction to Philosophy of the Human Person

Quarter 1 – Module 4: Methods of Philosophizing

Socratic Method, Rationalism, Systematic Doubt, Phenomenology

After going through this module, you are expected to

1. Realize that the methods of philosophy lead to wisdom and truth
2. Evaluate truth from opinions in different situations using methods of
philosophizing

Answer these questions in your mind.

1. What do you do when something is unknown to you?
a. Try to know it by immediately asking others.
b. Try to know it by doing personal research without asking for any
assistance.
2. When somebody tells you about school updates, what do you do?
a. Accept his/her updates as authentic news.
b. Always think that the updates are fake news.
c. Conduct further investigation to prove the updates.
3. How do you verify a statement?
a. Use all available references.
b. Find correspondence outside the real world.
c. Analyzing the statement.

Knowledge is something that humans accumulate based on their understanding

of the world. These are concrete experiences of development and achievements of
human societies. The path created by the sciences allows continuous flow of
information about human condition. One of the interesting thoughts about the
formation of knowledge is the method of its acquisition, one of the subjects many
philosophers attended to answer. Different ideas offer varying perspective; the early
Greeks debated on the basis of human reasoning and the senses; later philosophers
shifted their views towards human experience and subjective approach in forming
knowledge.
But how does information be accepted as knowledge? One consideration is the
presence of evidence that passes tests. Information is recognized as factual and
becomes part of the accepted knowledge, and most often seen as the truth.
Otherwise, it merely becomes an opinion.
How human knowledge is formed depends upon the type of information being
acquired. Critical in the progress of human thinking is the capacity to discriminate
truth from opinion. Without the benefit of truth there can be no significant
enlightenment and wisdom.

How do we acquire knowledge?

Stages of Knowledge Acquisition
1. Perception
External – happens when we perceive things using our senses. Percept is the
result of this process of perception. A percept is a mental concept that is developed
as a consequence of the process of perception.
 Internal – happens when you use your imagination and memory. Image is the
result of this process of perception. An image is a representation of the external form
of a person or thing.
2. Abstraction
Simple apprehension or conception. It is the act of perceiving the object
intellectually, without affirming or denying anything concerning it. To comprehend
is to take hold of the thing as if with the hand; an apprehension, as an act of the
mind is an intellectual grasp of an object. Concept is the result of this process of
abstraction. A concept is the abstract idea of something.

Example: A concept of a chair is held on by a person even if the physical presence of

the chair is no longer there. The abstract idea of a chair allows identifying other
chairs.

3. Judgment
Making a claim. It is an act of affirming or denying something about the concept.
Statement or Proposition is the result of this process. Here enters the claim whether
something is objective truth or subjective opinion.

Sources of Knowledge
The Faculty of Reason - an analytic faculty that can determine the truth in
statements. Claims made in the formal sciences e.g. Math, Physics, Chemistry, make
use of the faculty of reason following a given system like equations and calculations
of scientific laws (eg. triangle is a closed plane bounded by three sides)

The Faculty of Experience or Sense Perception – uses the five senses, including sensory
extending devices for purposes of verifying claim and statements thus, leading to
empirical knowledge. It follows the framework of correspondence.

The Faculty of Intuition – deals with the immediate or direct recognition of self-evident
truths (gut-feel or kutob)

Why do we philosophize?
Humans have moments of wonders and doubts. These experiences lead to
questions that pave the way towards knowledge. This human act is his pursuit of
wisdom. A lover of wisdom does not settle for anything other than what is true, a
person searches for the ultimate cause of everything that exists. Being wise has its
way from being ignorant. By accepting that one is in a state of ignorance, one begins
to learn and understand.
Socrates, considered as the father of Western philosophy, is firm in his idea that
one must in constant wonder and be critical of the world. For him, an unexamined
life is not worth living. The purpose of life is to seek virtue in knowledge. Philosophy
therefore exists because of this need.
According to Plato, when men confront a particular experience, they have the
tendency to wonder why and how things came to be. In other words, we humans
become conscious of the events that happen in our lives which drive us to think, ask
questions, and reflect. From a philosophical question, we then develop a
philosophical reflection.
 The French philosopher Rene Descartes traced this necessity of man to
philosophize to his sense of doubt. He doubts everything except his own existence.
His famous line: “Cogito ergo sum” or “I think therefore I exist” captures his
philosophy which is rooted in doubt. His starting point is to reject, to question, and
to doubt everything including his own ideas. This view is the basis of the concept of
“critical thinking” and analysis in the field of sciences. It gave birth to the scientific
method where a hypothesis must undergo testing and verification before it can be
claimed as true.
A 20th C. Swiss-German philosopher, Karl Jaspers, associated the need to
philosophize to human’s sense of experience. For him, man is always confronted with
a lot of experiences of different kinds, some are pleasant while others are challenging.
These experiences challenge his ideas and frameworks, which according to him, are
experiences that limit situations. These are often accompanied by feelings of
helplessness, anxiety, or dread. According to Jaspers, philosophy’s role enters
because it provides a means to understand adverse or challenging conditions, and
to rise above them and eventually gain new knowledge and perspectives.

Methods of Philosophizing

Socratic Method
Socratic method is a didactic dialogue of questioning that is
expressed in the cross-examination of statements of every
participant in the dialogue. It is neither a rhetoric (act of
persuading another individual) or a debate. The aim of this is to
generate a clear understanding of an idea. It accepts the fact that
every human being possesses subjective knowledge based on
personal encounters and these may contradict other
perspectives. To have a holistic view, an objective interpretation
must be made to clarify and settle the misunderstood issue.
This method is also called maieutic or “intellectual midwifery”.
Searching for truth is like assisting someone in giving birth, one cannot
force what is true or not but can help to clarify and recognize what must
be accepted as the truth.

This is the process in a Socratic Discourse /Dialogue:

1. DEFINITION of a thing or a concept.

Question 1: What is a HUMSS student?
Answer: A HUMSS student is a person enrolled in studying Humanities and the
Social Science.

2. SPECIFIC CHARACTERISTICS are identified.

Question 2: What does a HUMSS student study about the humanities and the social
science?
Answer: A HUMSS student is a person who has knowledge of the Humanities and
the society.
3. INTERPRETATION of the new meaning.
Question 3: What makes a person a HUMSS student?
Answer: A HUMSS student is a person who has knowledge of the humanities and
the social science and able to understand human behavior and social dynamics.

In following the process presented, one can provide a deeper understanding of

an idea not offered in the initial interpretation. The method is usually involved in
casual conversation about a certain issue or subject that the people who are involved
are trying to clarify.

Another example of the process of Socratic Method can be found in the following
dialogue. This time the idea of FREEDOM is given a new perspective.

Question: What is freedom?

Answer: Freedom is the ability of the human person to do whatever she wants to do.

Question: If I were to hurt another person because that is what I want to do, can it
be called freedom?
Answer: No, we cannot just kill anybody we want to kill. There are rules that human
beings follow in a civilized society.

Question: If I cannot hurt another person simply because I want to, then what is
freedom then?

Answer: Freedom is not the ability of a human person to do whatever he/she wants
to do. Freedom is doing things that can benefit you without causing harm to others.

With the use of the Socratic Method, one can improve understanding of something
and arrive at the truth.

According to Socrates, all of humanity desire happiness, the acquisition of what

is good, that is, of what one’s intellect perceives as truly good. What is considered as
good is useful, therefore knowing what is good is the ultimate aim of humans that
can bring happiness and satisfaction. There is a hierarchy of multiple elements
which make up human good and human happiness:

WISDOM (4) wisdom and virtue – the absolute and supreme

good. A good person makes an effort for others to be
SELF- good too.
CONTROL (3) self-control – it prepares the soul for the
possession of the supreme good.
PHYSICAL LEASURE (2) bodily and emotional pleasures – unless
regulated they easily lead to excess. Good can be
found in the middle, between excess and deficiency.
MATERIAL POSSESION (1) wealth, prestige (considered as the lowest in this
hierarchy) – one can live without them.
 Virtue is synonymous with knowledge. A virtuous man is a person who has
knowledge of moral goodness. Happiness is synonymous with virtue. One can
achieve happiness by leading a virtuous life.

Rationalism and Plato’s Theory of Forms and Ideas

Plato’s philosophy can be summed up with the idea that knowledge can be
acquired through thinking and the use of reason. According to Plato, knowledge is
wisdom and that virtue is knowledge. Repeatedly doing what is good will make
someone wise. It’s interesting to note that Plato’s concepts of soul and knowledge
have influenced our interpretation of what is true. His idea is the foundation of the
Metaphysical explanation of ideas. It means that knowledge can be achieved by
looking at it not only in physical experiences. Metaphysical means, beyond the
physical world.
First, Plato believes that human beings have two natures: material nature
(physical body) and the immaterial nature (soul). The material nature functions
through the senses and has limitations. The world is perceived by this physical body
and the experiences are created to define our knowledge of reality according to what
we see, hear, smell, taste and touch. But, apart from material nature, human beings
have a soul. The soul has a priori knowledge, meaning the soul possesses perfect
knowledge of everything even before the physical body experiences the material
world. Eventually, when a soul occupies the physical body, its knowledge becomes
limited by the senses, thus, it is put into the state where it must search for the truth
that is once available to the soul.
Second, he believed that the material world is not the basis for the attainment
of real knowledge since everything in this world is considered as appearance or
copies of the truth. Objects of real knowledge are ageless and eternal. Since the
things that are perceived through the senses are always changing and temporary,
humans cannot have true knowledge. Therefore, there must exist another world
where real objects of knowledge could be found. He called this, “the world of forms
and ideas”.
Plato’s idea can be best explained in the following
example; when one thinks of an apple, it is often associated
with something, some fruit. Plato believed that in the world
of forms and ideas, the soul recognizes the perfect or ideal
“apple” that enables us to recognize that something is an
apple when we see, taste or smell one. That the object may
be red/green, sweet/sour based on our knowledge of this
form and idea in the “world of forms and ideas”. Thus,
everything that the physical body experiences is merely a
secondary copy of the ideal (apple) found in the “world of
ideas and forms that only the soul can recognize.
How does one know what is real and true? Plato believes that the soul is
attached to the human mind. Whenever an individual thinks he/she is accessing
the world of ideas and can know the truth. Even in the absence of physical senses,
humans can still come up with an idea, because the human mind is eternal and
knows perfection. Human knowledge knows what is good and true even if these are
nowhere to be seen in society, because the human soul knows what is good. This is
only accessible if we reflect upon and use our logical reasoning. Knowledge is
acquired through introspection (deep thinking) and philosophical reflection. This is
the foundation of Rationalism, one of the foundational views in philosophy.
The easiest ideas recognized by the soul would be ideas about material objects,
followed by mathematical ideas, and then abstract ideas. The highest and the most
difficult idea to be recognized is the idea of good. The idea of good is the goal of
Plato’s philosophy, the attainment of a good life.

Descartes’ Method of Systematic Doubt

Rene Descartes introduced the method of systematic doubt which consists of
doubting everything that can be doubted until one can arrive at clear and distinct
ideas which are nonsensical to doubt. This philosophical system is called Skepticism.
For anything to be accepted as the starting point of knowledge, an idea must be clear
and distinct. Descartes believed that one of the logically certain premises is the
existence of the self, the starting point of knowledge. Even if you doubt everything
that can be doubted (i.e. you can doubt your parents, if they are really your parents,
or your brothers or sisters, if you really are related by blood; or even the existence of
things in the other room, if nobody is there to perceive them), you can still be sure
about one thing, that you are doubting. Doubting is a form of thinking. Thinking
could not happen in a vacuum. There must be an owner of these thoughts.
Therefore, thinking implies your existence.
Can a person doubt one’s existence? According to Descartes,
the answer is “no”. If yes, then that person is contradicting
him/herself. The self exists at the very act of doubt, which is a
form of thinking. Descartes put it as: “Cogito, ergo sum” or I
think, therefore I am or another translation is “I think, therefore
I know I exist. The important lesson from Descartes’ skepticism
is that never accept the truth of any statement or belief without
o . adequate evidence for it. It is also through this thinking that the
r c Scientific Method is set as a foundation of Scientific Knowledge.

Phenomenology and Knowledge from Experience

Phenomenology focuses on the significance of knowing and understanding what
happened to an individual and how the experience shaped one’s perspective.
Philosophers such as Edmund Husserl and Karl Jaspers are interested in evaluating
real-life experiences, that include the feelings and thoughts of a person in lived
situations. This approach involves a systematic study of experiences, focusing on
careful observation and description rather than searching for causal explanations.
It considers different types of experiences ranging from perception, thought, memory,
imagination, emotion, desire, and volition to bodily awareness, embodied action, and
social activity, including linguistic activity. The individual continuously shapes
knowledge according to one’s lived experiences. Social interactions are given
meanings and symbols that affirm one’s existence as well as recognizing the value of
these exchanges to the person who is actively engaged in.
Approaches in Doing Philosophy

Critical or Analytic Philosophy

Analyzing and establishing a definition or the meaning of the concept is the
fundamental task in evaluating knowledge. It identifies the use of Nuances (a subtle
differences in meaning, expression, or sound) in clarifying the meaning or the
intended interpretation of knowledge. Example:

Which came first, the chicken or the egg?

By understanding the verbal disagreement, “came first” is necessary to determine

the claim. In what sense is the phrase “came first” used?
A. From the reproductive standpoint: the answer is chicken
B. From a developmental standpoint: the answer is egg

Another characteristic of Analytic Philosophy is a critical examination of an idea or

a belief. Beliefs are often based on our prejudices or preconceived notions about
something which is not based on reason or experience. Example:
Ilocanos are “kuripot”
Bisaya are “socially awkward”
Ilonggos are “happy-go-lucky” people.

What do the words “kuripot” and “happy-go-lucky” mean? Does “kuripot” refer
to the negative aspect as not sharing one’s blessing to others or just being thrifty.
How about the term “happy-go-lucky”?

Philosophy provides an avenue wherein beliefs that may form biases and
prejudices can be evaluated and checked. Logic and Epistemology are the branches
of Philosophy that mainly utilize this approach.

Speculative or Metaphysical Philosophy

The focus of philosophizing is to find an underlying explanation or general
principle that could explain reality or an idea in its entirety. It aims to reach general
conclusions as to the nature of all things and human experiences. Early philosophers
analyzed the nature of man with respect to society and the world.

Abstraction is embodied through extracting a unifying explanation from the

complexity of knowledge derived from experience and philosophical reflection.
Example:

What is justice?
good, equality, fairness

What do we mean by love?

longing, physical/sexual attraction, desire, satisfaction
Ideas that are formed through different experiences that have subjective meanings
are simplified into concepts that are understandable and can be adapted to practical
usage.

Ethics, Metaphysics, Aesthetics are the branches of philosophy that discuss this
approach.

Theories of Truth
Coherence Theory – shows the quality of being logical and consistent based on the
well-formed formula. A set of knowledge can be assumed as truth if the facts cohere
with each other.

Correspondence Theory – assumes that there is something given outside, in the realm
of sense experience that we perceive as objective reality. Philosophers Alfred Jules
Ayer and Bertrand Russell are known proponents of this view. They claim that
knowledge must correspond to what is experienced in the material world and can be
verified by our reasoning.

Pragmatic Theory – holds that truth is based on the good or practical consequences
of an idea. Truth must have a successful application in the world. “If I do this, what
is it for me?”. According to William James, for knowledge to be considered as truth
it must work and must have practical use.

ACTIVITY 1
Comparative Analysis
Compare and contrast the methods of Socrates, Plato and Descartes in evaluating
knowledge.
Fill out the table with the necessary information.
Ways of Important What ideas Draw a
acquiring Ideas are significant symbol that
knowledge regarding to me as a represents the
knowledge student idea
and truth
Socrates

Plato

Descartes

Edmund
Husserl

Questions
1. Whose idea do you agree with? Why?
2. How do you create your own interpretation of the things you experience? Cite
examples.
ACTIVITY 2
Written Work: Check your understanding. Sentence Completion: Supply the word
or words to form a concept. Write your answers on a separate work sheet.
Didactic Ignorance Socratic Virtuous Truth Ideas
Skepticism Doubt Exist Evidence
1. Socratic method is a ________ dialogue of questioning that is expressed in the
critical examination and cross-examination of the positions of every participant
in the dialogue.
2. The first thing to do in the acquisition of knowledge is to accept one’s ______.
3. With the use of ______ Method, one can improve understanding of things through
conversations.
4. Repeatedly doing what is good will make someone _______.
5. Plato recognizes the human soul knows the __________.
6. There must exist another world where real objects of knowledge can be found.
Plato called this “the world of forms and ______”.
7. Rene Descartes introduced a philosophical method called ______ which means
doubting everything that can be doubted until one arrives at clear idea.
8. Descartes believed that one of the logically certain premises is the existence of
______, the starting point of knowledge.
9. “Cogito ergo sum” means I think therefore I _______.
10. The important lesson from Descartes’ method is that he never accepts the truth
of any statement or belief without adequate _________ for it.

ACTIVITY 3:
Watch and analyze the YouTube video
[Link]
The Nature of Truth - Epistemology | WIRELESS PHILOSOPHY

Write a short reflection in your journal. Guide questions while watching the video.
1. Which of these theories is agreeable to you? Why?
2. How do you evaluate the truthfulness of information you experience every day?
Cite a situation.