E NGINEERING M ATERIALS

C H A P T E R 7.0 T I M B E R

P r e p a r e d By:
Er. Bishnu Kumar Katwal
MSc. In Transportation Engineering
TIMBER
• Is one of the important construction materials.
• Used as structural elements in buildings, widely for
doors, windows and partitions and find large use through
secondary wood products like plywood, particle boards
and laminated boards, etc.
• Wood Which is useful for engineering or Other
structural Purpose is called “Timber”
• Mostly uses timber – plywood,Posts et. in Formwork in
R C C , R B C etc.
• Both hard as well as soft woods are in use.
 TIMBER
• When tree has been cut down and its stem and branches are
roughly converted into pieces of suitable length, then it is
known as Rough Timber.
• When roughly converted timber is further sawn and
converted into commercialized the planks,battens, posts etc is
called converted Timber.
(Planks – board,plyboard,woodboards),
(battens-Partition, Roofing, something to hold)
0 Mostly Timber used in load bearing
structure is called structural timber
Er. Pram
Engineeri
Er. Pramesh H ada, Asst. Professor, civil
Engineering D epartment,nec
P ROPERTIES OF T IMBER / WOOD
Physical Properties :
1. Density
- light — very light: density less than 550 kg/m3, eg.
bamboo
- moderately heavy: density 550 kg/m3 — 750 kg/m3, eg.
deodar
- heavy-very heavy: density greater than 750 kg/m3, eg. Sal

2. Bulk Density - D efined as the mass of many particles of the material

divided by the total volume they occupy.
- Depends on air voids present in wood.

3. Moisture Movement
- Wood is liable to shrink or swell with the movement of
moisture. (increase or decrease)
4. Shrinkage :
- Is a Reduction in linear and volumetric dimension due to
drying of moisture.
P ROPERTIES OF T IMBER / WOOD
5. Swelling (Increase in size)
- It is increase in linear and volumetric dimension on
absorbing moisture.
6. Sound conductivity
- Has high Sound Conductivity
- Sound velocity in wood is greater than others.

7. Thermal Conductivity
- Has very low thermal conductivity.
- so uses for maintain heat temperature in rooms.
Er. Pram
Engineeri
 M ECHANICAL AND THERMAL PROPERTIES OF
T IMBER / WOOD :
0 As wood is natural material there is different
mechanical properties for different wood
0 Mechanical properties are governed by soil type,
climate and other factors.
0 Properties affected by specific gravity, moisture
content, knots and other defects.
0 Wood can’t resist fire and burnt easily.
0 It will be better to take precautions to save timber
structure from thermal action
C H A R A C T E R I S T I C S O F G O O D T I M B E R ( PU 2010)
0 Uniform color, strong, durable and workable
0 Straight and compacted fibers
0 Fresh cut surface : sweet smelling
0 Struck: clear ringing sound
0 Relatively heavier
0 Free from all types of defects and disease of timber like
knots.
0 Planning surface: bright appearance with silky.
0 Sawing: Cut with a saw - not clogging (clogging -Become
or cause to become obstructed)
0 Firm adhesion of fibers and compacted medullary rays
0 Well seasoned
Fibers in timber

Defects of Timber

Sawing
A DVANTAGES O F TIMBER:
0 availability: source and transportation
0 strength: light weight and higher strength
0 easy to handle and planed easily
0 joining: simple
0 Repair and Modification: Easy

Engi
Er.
0 superior, thermal insulation, sound and electrical resistive
0 uses: furniture and decorative purpose

g D epartment,nec
h H ada, Asst. Professor, civil
0 strong and flexible
0 corrosion resistance: excellent
0 higher shock and impact strength .
0 Quick and easy to build.
0 Cheaper than other types of building materials.
0 Easy to heat and cool depending on the weather.
0 More eco-friendly than other materials
0 Can last many years if proper maintenance is carried out.
USES OF TIMBER
It is mainly used for following categories of works
(i) It is used for construction purposes including building
construction, houseposts, beams, rafters, bridges, piles,
poles etc.
(ii)It is used for furniture and cabinet making.
(iii)Used for door and window frames.
iv) Uses for Formwork, scaffolding etc,
iv) It is also used for heavy packing cases such as
machinery and similar stores.
(v) It is used for manufacturing agricultural implements
and tool handles.
(vii) It is used for manufacturing veneers, plywoods,
boards etc.
H OUSE P OSTS

S CAFFOLDING
Er
En
DISADVANTAGES O F TIMBER:
0 Defects in timber can reduce the life of wood.
0 Affected by relative humidity, fungi, insects.
0 Modification of general arrangement drawings if based
on masonry construction
0 Transportation and carriage access
0 Exposure to weather before enclosed
0 vulnerability to decay of timber when exposed to
excessive moisture.
0 If left untreated, timber become water logged and
crack or chip.
0 Timber is more susceptible to fire than other building
materials unless treated and maintained.
T YPES OF T IMBER /W OOD
0 Wood is a product obtained from the tree.
0 In simple classification of tree, it can be classified as:
1. Standing timber - if a tree is living then the timber is
termed as Standing Timber.
2. Rough timber - if a tree is fallen then the timber is
termed as Rough timber.
3. Converted timber - If a tree is modified into desired
size and shape then the timber is termed as Converted
timber.

on the basis of mode of growth , the types of trees are :

1 . E n d o g e n o u s Tree
2 . E x o g e n o u s Tree
1. E N D O G E N O U S T R E E
0 Trees grow in inward direction with the addition of fibrous (like
of jute) layer at tip portion, i.e the growth is longitudinal.
0 Trees are hollow at the core and have flexible stem.
e.g- Bambo, coconut, Sugarcane etc.

2. E X O G E N O U S T R E E
0 Trees increase in bulk by growing outwards and distinct
consecutive rings are formed in the horizontal section of such
trees.
0 These rings are called annual rings, because one such ring added
every year, such trees grow bigger in diameter as well.
0 Life of trees can be find by counting the annual rings.
e.g – Sisham, Sal, Pine etc.
0 Timber from these suitable for construction purpose
These are further classified as
1. Deciduous tree 2. Coniferous tree
 E X O G E N O U S TREE
Deciduous tree
0 Are characterized by flat and broad
leaves which fall in autumn season and
new one appear in spring season
0 H A R D W O O D is obtained by such tree
which can be used for superior structural

Engineering D
Er. Pramesh H
and engineering work.
e.g – Sal, Sisham, Teak etc.
Coniferous tree
0 Trees are characterized by needle
shaped thin leaves which are evergreen
0 Trees bear conical shaped fruits and
yield resins ( viscous substance )
0 S O F T V A R I E T Y O F W O O D S are obtained
0 Used is general constructional purpose
- e. g Pine, deodar etc.
 Coniferous Tress

tment,nec
Deciduous Tress
D IFFERENCE BETWEEN HARD WOOD AND SOFT
WOOD (C HARACTERISTICS)

Aspects hard wood soft wood

(Deciduous) (Coniferous)
Annual rings Indistinct Clearly distinct
Medullary rays Distinct indistinct
Color Dark Light
Strength Strong: tens, comp, shear Strong: direct pull
Weak: shear
Structure Non resinous Resinous and split easily

Weight Heavy Light

Uses Structural purpose Aesthetic and light structural
purpose
Sources Deciduous Conifers/evergreen trees
Branches Less branches More branches
Example Sal, teak, deodar, shisam Pine, chir, kail etc
S ISHAM TREES
SAL TREE
T EAK WOOD
P INE TREES
D EODAR TREES
GROWTH O F A TREE

 Roots of the tree suck a solution of salts from the soil in

spring season.
 Salts are food for the tree and roots transmit the same
through the trunk of tree to its branches and leaves.
 Solution of salts looses some of the moisture because of
evaporation and absorbs carbon dioxide from the air. This
action in the presence of sun makes the solution a bit
viscous. This transformed viscous solution is known as sap.
 Viscous sap descends below the bark and deposited under
the bark in form of new layer known as cambium layer.
 Cambium layer hardens with time and thus adds a new
annual ring around stem.
 A fresh layer is added on the outside of the tree every year
forming a new annual ring. The number of ring represents
the age of trees.
 Medullary rays carry the sap from below the bark to the
interior thereby nourishing the tree.
STRUCTURE O F A E X O G E N E O U S T REE

• Pith/Medulla/Core
• Heart wood
• Sap wood
• Cambium Layer
• Inner Bark
• Outer Bark
• Medullary rays (Pit Rays)
S T RU C T U RE O F A E X O G E N E O U S TREE
Pith/ medulla/core:
0 It is first formed portion of trees.
0 It consist entirely cellular tissues and nourishes the
plant in young age.
0 It is found as dead part of the trees incase of
matured trees and decayed.
A n n u a l rings:
0 Grows extra layer around the circumference of the trees
per year
0 Circular concentric rings
0 Each rings indicates the age of tree in year
H e a r t wood:
0 Annual rings around the pith at the innermost central
portion of the tree section
0 Strong, durable and compact part of trees
0 Darker in color
0 Best part of trees in engineering views
0 Imparts rigidity to the trees
S T RU CTURE O F A E X O G E N E O U S TREE
S a p wood:
0 Outer annual rings between heart wood and the cambium layer
0 Light in color and weight as well
0 Indicates recent growth and contains sap
(Sap = A watery solution of sugars, salts, and minerals that circulates
through the vascular system of a plant )
0 Annual rings of sap wood are less sharply defined in comparison to
heart wood
C a m b i u m layer:
0 Thin layer of sap between sap wood and inner bark
I n n e r bark:
0 Inner layer covering the cambium layer
0 Protect cambium layer from any injury
O u t e r bark:
0 A protective layer, outer skin covering the trees
0 Contains cracks and fissures sometimes
M ed u l l ary rays: (Pit rays )
0 Radial fibers extending from pith to cambium layer
0 Hold the annual rings of heart wood and sap wood together
Resinous wood
DEFECTS I N T IMBER
0 Defects are either due to growing phases of tree or defect
occurring after cutting trees
0 Defects reduce the usefulness of wood as aesthetic
appearance as well as strength
1. Heart Shake
- This defect usually occurs in over matured trees due to
shrinkage of heart wood
- These cracks are mostly confined to heart wood portion
and diminishing towards outward.
DEFECTS IN TIMBER
2. Star Shake
- It is confined in the outward portion
and diminishing towards center.
- It occurs due to frost action and strong
heat of sun.
- It is the most serious defect because it
tends to separate single log into small
pieces.

3. Radial Shake
- These are radial cracks extending from
centre towards bark .
- These are similar to star shake but are
irregular and numerous.
- It occurs due to drying of sap or
moisture .
 DEFECTS IN TIMBER
4. Cup or Ring Shake
- Is the separation of tissue along annual
rings
- If the shake is whole round the annual
ring then it is called ring shake and if it is
half way round the ring then it is called cup
shake.
- It is due to unequal seasoning and change
in humidity.

5. Rind Gall
- Is the curved irregular swelling on surface.
- Due to development of new sap layer on
wound left after branches have been
irregularly cut.
- New layer fails to unite with old one and
decay starts from that point
 DEFECTS IN TIMBER
6. Knots
- This defect occurs due to formation of annual rings at right
angles to surface and also due to twisting of fibers.
- The roots of the branches yet embedded(Enclosed firmly) by the
tissue and knots are formed
- Knots reduce the aesthetic value and effects tensile strength
- Knots may be round or oval shaped
DEFECTS IN TIMBER
7. Twisted fibers
- This defect occurs due to wind velocity constantly turning trees in
one direction only.

8. End Splits
- Occurs only at the ends of log due to exposed conditions during
seasoning.
- May be prevented by painting the ends of log or covering with
metallic cap.
DEFECTS IN TIMBER
9. Druxiness and Foxiness
(Druxiness is a term that is defined as a disease that is
found in timber or wood. It is caused or brought about by
a wound located in the layer known as the cambium
which is attacked by fungus.)
(Foxiness is caused due to poor ventilation during storage
or due to over maturity of the tree).

- These are stains or pa t che s on the surface of timber

which destroy the a p p e a r a n c e a n d m a y ca use de ca y
of timber
- Stain may be in form of white patches or mottled
reddish colour.
(stains - A soiled or discolored appearance)
SEASONING O F TIMBER:
0 Wood is hygroscopic material, dry wood absorbs moisture from
surroundings
0 Freshly cut wood may contains more than 50% water in the
form of sap and moisture
0 After removal of such water from wood then it can be used in
diff. engineering works
0 Thus d r y i n g process of timber is known as seasoning of
timber
0 Moisture must be extracted during seasoning under controlled
conditions as nearly as possible at a uniform rate from all parts
of the timber
0 If the drying is irregular, the shrinkage of timber will also be
irregular and it will set up internal stresses between the fibers
0 Moisture content in wood may be:
• Free moisture: present in cell cavities (major part)
• Bound moisture: present in cell wall ( associated with the body of
timber)
o Free moisture/ water evaporated first and the point at which cell
cavities no longer contain free water is known as fiber saturation point.
O B J E C T I V E S O F S E A S O N I N G ARE :
0 Timber to burn readily, if used as fuel
0 Decreased the weight of timber: easy handling and
low cost
0 Impart hardness, stiffness, strength, better electrical
resistance. (stiffness - hard to bend)
0 To increase resisting power of timber against the
cause of defects
0 To maintain the shape and size of the component of
the timber
0 To make it fit for painting and other treatment
0 For effectively gluing and joining
0 To reduce the shrinkage, warping, twisting
( shrinkage - b e c omi ng less or smaller)
(Warping - B e n d out of shape, as u n d e r pressure or from heat)
M E T H O D S O F S E A S O N I N G O F TIMBER :
Natural seasoning
o Air seasoning/ drying
o Water seasoning

Artificial seasoning
 Kiln Seasoning
 Boiling or steam seasoning

 Chemical or salt seasoning

 Electrical seasoning
M E T H O D S O F S E A S O N I N G O F TIMBER :
N a t u r a l seasoning
Artificial seasoning
N a t u r a l seasoning
► Air seasoning/ drying
► Water seasoning
A i r seasoning:
Method used with the timber stacked in the open air. It
requires the following:
0 Stacked stable and safely with horizontal or vertical spacing
of at least 25 mm.
0 Ends of boards sealed by using a suitable sealer or cover to
prevent too rapid drying out via the end grain.
0 The stack raised well clear of the ground, vegetation, etc to
provide good air circulation and free from rising damp, frost,
etc.
0 Over head cover from effects of direct sunlight and driving
weather.
 A IR SEASONING:
0 This method is economical one
0 Takes 2 to 4 years
0 Covers more space
0 No need of skilled labor
0 Timber can stack either horizontally or vertically
A IR SEASONING:
A IR SEASONING:
 WATER SEASONING
0 Log of wood is kept completely
immerged in stream of water
0 Sap, sugar etc are leached out of
wood and replaced by water
0 Then log is kept out of water

Engi neering D
Er. Pr amesh H
after 2 to 4 weeks and placed in
air
0 Quick process and also remove
organic matters/ materials
0 Elasticity may reduced and
make timber brittle
0 Takes long time to be dried but
less than air seasoning
 Engineering D
Er. Pramesh H
Wood logs floating on water kept for
seasoning near echo point at lake
Munnar; Kerala ; India
A RTIFICIAL SEASONING:

0 Thisis quick process of seasoning and moisture content

can be controlled.
o Popular method of artificial seasoning is K I L N
SEASONING.
Reason for carrying artificial seasoning are :
0 Shrinkage, cracking and warping are minimized

0 Drying is controlled and no chances for the attack of

fungi and insects
0 Drying surface is even and uniform

0 Reduced duration of seasoning

0 Desired moisture content can be attainable

(shrinkage – becoming less or smaller)
(warping - Bend out of shape, as under pressure or from heat)
Artificial kiln seasoning
 KILN SEASONING:
0 This process consists basically of introducing heat.
0 May be directly, using natural gas and/or electricity or
indirectly, through steam-heated heat exchangers,
although solar energy is also possible.
0 In the process, deliberate control of temperature,
relative humidity and air circulation is provided to give
conditions at various stages (moisture contents or
times) of drying the timber to achieve effective drying.
0 Timber is stacked in chambers, called wood drying
kilns, which are fitted with equipment for manipulation
and control of the temperature and the relative
humidity of the drying air and its circulation rate
through the timber stack.
0 Provides a means of overcoming the limitations imposed
by erratic(inconsistent) weather conditions.
0 Almost all commercial timbers of the world are dried in
industrial kilns.
Er. Pramesh H
Engineering D
0 Kilns are used because the process speeds up seasoning
and it can be used to accurately control the moisture
content of the wood.
0 Wood is carefully stacked inside the brick kiln.
0 Water is heated and the resulting steam allowed to enter
the kiln, circulating inside and around the wood boards.
Over time, the amount of steam (humidity) is reduced until
the wood has the desired moisture content.
C o m p a r t m e n t a l ki ln
0 A compartment kiln is a single enclosed container or
building, etc.
0 Timber is stacked as described above and the whole
stack is seasoned using a program of settings until the
whole stack is reduced to the moisture content
required.
Progressive:
0 A progressive kiln has the stack on trolleys that
‘progressively’ travel through chambers that change
the conditions as it travels through the varying
atmospheres. (trolleys - An wheeled vehicle that runs on rails and is
propelled by electricity)
0 The advantage of this system, although much larger,
has a continuous flow of seasoned timber coming off
line.
S o l a r kiln
0 A solar kiln is a cross between kiln drying and air drying.
These kilns are generally a greenhouse with a high-
temperature fan and either vents or a condensing system.
Solar kilns are slower and variable due to the weather, but
are low cost.
OTHER SEASONING OF TIMBER ARE
B o i l i n g or S t e a m seasoning
0 Submersion in boiling water or the application of steam
speed the drying of wood. This method is said to cause less
shrinkage "...but it is expensive to use, and reduces the
strength and elasticity of the timber."
C h e m i c a l or salt seasoning
0 Salt seasoning is the submersion of wood in a solution of
urea, sodium nitrate or sodium chloride, all of which act as
dehydrating agents. Then the wood is air dried.
Electrica l seasoning
0 Electrical seasoning involves running an electrical current
through the timber causing heat to build up drying the wood.
This method is expensive but is fast and uniform quality.
P R E S E R V A T I O N O F TIMBER :
 Preservation of timber means protecting timber from fungi
and insects attack so that its life is increased.
Charring:
 Very old method, no preservatives are used

 Surface to be charred is kept wet for about half an hour and

burnt up to 15mm depth over a wood fire
 The charred portion is then cooled by water and thus burnt
layer doesn’t get
affected by moisture, fungi etc
 Adopted for lower ends of posts for fencing, telephone etc
Tarring : (coating)
• Timber surface is coated with hot coal tar with brushes
• Coal tar has unpleasant smell and appearance
P R E S E R V A T I O N O F TIMBER :
Painting:
 A paint when applied to timber acts not only as a good preservative
but also it enhances the appearance of the surface so treated.
 Form thin layer in the surface of timber
 Paints protect seasoned timber against moisture by acting as
barrier for defective environmental factors thereby prolonging its
life
P R E S E R V A T I O N O F TIMBER :
Creosoting:
 Timber surface coated with creosote oil
 Creosote oil is obtained by distillation of tar (distillation - process of
purifying a liquid by boiling it and condensing its vapors)
Steps :
 Timber are thoroughly seasoned and dried
 Placed well seasoned wood in air tight chamber
 Air is pumped out from chamber
 Creosote oil is then pumped under high pressure of 0.7-1.0N/mm2
and temperature of about 500C
 After 1 to 2 hrs, when timber has sufficiently absorbed creosote oil,
it is taken out of chamber
 Creosote oil is antiseptic i.e it is poisonous to the wood-attacking
fungi
P R E S E R V A T I O N O F TIMBER :
Abel’s process:
 Timber surface is cleaned and coated with a dilute
solution of sodium silicate
 Paste of Ca(OH) 2 is then applied and finally, a
concentrated solution of silica soda is applied on the
timber surface
 This process is quite satisfactory in making the
timber fire- resistant
Fire proofing of timber:
 Timber can’t be made fire proof but some chemical
treatment may reduce the fire attack towards the
timber
 Soaking of timber in ammonium sulphate,
ammonium chloride, zinc chloride etc improves the
fire resisting capacity of timber.
B A M B O O – ( P R O PE RTI ES A N D U SES )

 Bamboo is a natural material with a high strength-to-weight

ratio derived by its fibres longitudinally aligned in its body.
 Bamboo is fastest growing woody plant.
 Bamboo is able to resist more tension than compression.
 The tensile strength these fibres is higher than that of steel,
but it is not possible to construct connections that can
transform this tensile strength.
 The fire resistance is good because of high content of silicate
acid. Filled inside with water it can withstand temperature of
400 o C.
B A M B O O – ( P R O PE RTI ES A N D U SES )

 Bamboo is easy to cut, handle, repair, reposition without

the need for sophisticated tools or equipment.
 Bamboo can be utilized for temporary and permanent
constructions.
 Because of property of bending and shock resistance it
provides superior earthquake resistance.
 Besides being used as a structural elements it can also
serve many function like flooring, paneling, water
drainage etc.
 Bamboo intended for use in construction should be
treated to resist insects and rot. The most common
solution for this purpose is a mixture of borax and boric
acid.
BAMBOO – USES

 Foundation
• When used in direct ground contact, bamboo with closely
spaced nodes and large diameter and thick walled section
should be used for obtaining better strength and
durability.
• Bamboo is also used to stabilize soft soils and reduce
building settlement.
 Flooring

• Bamboo can be used as flooring material due to its better

wear and tear resistance and its resilience properties.
BAMBOO – USES

 Walls
• As the bamboo is light in weight it is beneficial for
earthquake prone areas as its chances of falling are very
less due to flexibility and even if it falls it can be
recreated easily.
• Roofing
• Roofs offer protection against extremes of weather
including rain, sun and wind and to provide shelter.
• Bamboo is ideal roofing material as it is strong, resilient
and light weighted.
BAMBOO – USES

 Scaffolding
• Bamboo poles lashed together have been used as scaffolding in
high rise structures due to their strength and resilience.
 Bamboo doors and windows
• Bamboo is a durable natural material that is very suitable for
use in doors and windows.
• Bamboo alone is not used for constructing doors or windows.
 Bamboo as reinforcement in concrete
• Bamboo can be used as reinforcement while constructing
building which is provided in every corner of buildings and
also where two cross walls intersect. It is also provided in the
form of bands as sill, lintel, tie beam and roof bands.
WOOD BASED PRODUCTS
1. Veneers
0 Veneering is the primary process of manufacturing
woods.
0 Prepared by slicing and sawing of wood in thin sheets of
0.4mm to 6mm.
0 Are of superior Quality.
0 Used in manufacturing ply woods, battens, lamin
boards.
WOOD BASED PRODUCTS
2. Plywood
0 Is a manufactured wood panel from the family of
manufactured boards (such as medium-density
fibreboard (MDF), particle board (chipboard), etc.) made
from thin sheets of wood veneer.
0 Prepared by gluing together odd number of veneers with
grain direction of core block at right angle to adjacent
veneer or ply.
0 Are used in making partition, furniture, ceiling, doors,
paneling wall, Formworks for concrete.
P LYWOOD
3. BATTEN BOARD
0 Is a solid block with core of sawn thin wood
0 The Thickness of core is about 20mm to 25mm
0 Total thickness of board is about 50mm
0 Is Light and strong
0 Do not crack or split easily
0 Uses: partition wall, furniture, shutters, packing case
4. L AMIN B OARD
0 Consist of core of strips each not exceeding 7 mm in
thickness.
0 These strips are joined together with two face veneers.
0 Lamin board are used for furniture, partition, doors,
windows, ceilings,etc.
I MPREG T IMBER / IMPREGNATED TIMBER
0 Timber which has been made flame-resistant, fungi-
resistant, or insect-proof by forcing into it under
vacuum or pressure a flame retardant or a fungal or
insect poison.
C O M P R E G TI MBER
0 Processed wood whose cells are impregnated with a resin and
compressed, to reduce shrinking and swelling and to
increase density and strength.
0 Compreg is a very special wood composite material with
exquisite mechanical properties.
0 Compreg indicates that it is both impregnated and
compressed.
0 Used in applications where long durability, hardness, and
dimensional stability is required e.g. gears, rolls and wear
strips of industrial conveyors, woodworking machine tables.
0 Regardless of its hardness, it is comparatively easy to
machine, which makes it an excellent choice for
manufacturers of exclusive woodworking products.