Running head: INTERNAL ISSUES IN RWANDA 1

Internal Issues in Rwanda

INTERNAL ISSUES IN RWANDA 2

Internal Issues in Rwanda

Introduction
Rwanda is among the fastest-growing economies in both Africa and across the globe. A report by
Jauhari (2018) placed Rwanda among the top ten fastest-growing economies in the world together with
Mozambique, Nigeria, Angola, Chad, and Ethiopia. However, despite the current economic growth,
Rwanda’s dark history informs of a nation that faced serious economic, social, and political challenges.
The 1994 genocide, which was a watershed moment in the country’s history, resulted in a 58% decrease
in gross domestic product (GDP) and a 31% loss of GDP per capita, considering that at least 800,000
people died (Roland, 2019). The post-genocide Rwandan government invested in a ‘never forget and
move on’ program in which it established democratic reforms in governance structure, initiated a postwar
recovery plan, and depended on the international community, including the United Nations and World
Bank. The assistance the transitional government received from the international community enabled it to
pursue an outstanding economic recovery process. However, the presidency of Paul Kagame, which
begun in 2000, was a turning point in the history of Rwanda. Kagame’s government invested in key areas
to boost economic development, including but not limited to information and communication technology,
healthcare, and education, with an emphasis on gender equality and representation in the social, political,
technological, and economic spheres.
Education
Education is a key measure of economic growth. In Africa, educational attainment is undermined
in most countries because of the lack of resources and financial inability to support teachers and ensure
real-time service provision. Hence, Rwanda’s case is no different from that of other African nations. Part
of the recovery plans and reforms post the 1994 genocide pointed to the development of a world-class
educational system. The Rwandan government hoped for an educational system that offered equal
opportunities to all students regardless of their ethnic inclination. At the start of Paul Kagame’s
presidency, educational reforms were key for driving economic change and creating lasting peace in the
country (Popa & Betco, 2020). The regime believed that investment in education was a key strategy to
uplift the economic potential of households and establish a future for balanced and competitive
engagement in the global space. The government focused on abolishing colonial schools that deepened
the ethnic divisions in the country. To reconstruct the education system in Rwanda, the new government
banned all forms of discrimination within schools. The government also focused on creating new schools,
rebuilding others, and investing in higher education through the construction of new colleges,
universities, and vocational training centers. To regain trust and commitment in the education sector, Paul
Kagame’s government introduced the ‘Education For All’ policy, which enabled the provision of free
education for all Rwandese children. The move was intended to give equal opportunities to both Hutus
INTERNAL ISSUES IN RWANDA 3

and the Tutsis and discourage any form of discrimination within the local economy (Popa & Betco,
2020). The government focused on creating and supporting inclusive schools in Rwanda; hence, through
the education program, more learners enrolled in primary, secondary, and higher education institutions.
The effects of the ‘Education For All’ policy in Rwanda were many, with the most notable ones
being an increase in enrollment. As the Rwandan government created more opportunities for students
from the country, parents became motivated to send their children to school. Paul Kagame’s government
renewed the lost trust and motivation that parents had in their country’s educational system. Markedly,
since the implementation of the free education program with the ‘Education For All’ slogan, many
overage children who had never attended school or had dropped out due to the conflict were reenrolled. In
effect, by 2009, the gross enrollment ratio of primary school was over 100% (Bridgeland et al., 2009). In
2008, the gross enrollment rate in primary schools was 128% (Bridgeland et al., 2009). During the same
year, 94.2% of Rwandese children were old enough for primary school enrollment. A contrasting study
by Rwigema (2020) found the primary school enrollment rate in 2008 to be 97%. A consensus in the
reports is that the free education policy in the country increased the students’ enrollment rate.
Nevertheless, as Nyirandikubwimana et al. (2019) state, with the free education program and increased
enrollment came a change in the quality of education. With more students in school, the Rwandan
government had to grapple with and address other potential challenges, including overall education
quality, congestion in classrooms, and a widening teacher-student ratio.
The biggest challenge Rwanda faces in its move to design and support a world-class education
system is the shortage of competent teachers. The country reports a significant shortage of teachers,
especially in primary schools, which, consequently, leads to a widening student-teacher ratio. Notably, in
1998, after the genocide, the student-teacher ratio was 57:1 (Bridgeland et al., 2009). Then, in 2007, the
ratio was 74:1, before it dropped to 66:1 in 2008. This ratio means that there is only one teacher for every
66 students, (Bridgeland et al., 2009). The compounding problem in the Rwandan education system is
that many teachers are not qualified to teach students as per the government standards. In addition, the
problem of few teachers is complemented by the few schools needed to accommodate the rising student
population. In 2008, Rwanda had only 2,432 primary schools to accommodate the growing student
population, but a World Bank analysis revealed that 52% of them were in poor conditions (Bridgeland et
al., 2009). At the same time, in 2000, only 53% of the Rwandan schools were within 30 minutes reach of
local households. By 2009, the average student population within the Rwandan primary schools was 900
pupils against a World Bank requirement of 400 pupils per school (Bridgeland et al., 2009). These
challenges affected the overall quality of Rwanda’s education system. The measure of educational quality
involves a determination of the student-teacher ratio, the graduation rate, achievement levels, proximity,
and classroom condition, among other factors. Hence, as Williams (2017) states, despite educational
INTERNAL ISSUES IN RWANDA 4

improvements, the Rwandan education system is still ineffective. The United Arab Emirates has been
instrumental in offering financial support to Rwanda to assist needy students in primary and secondary
schools. In the coming years, Rwanda has an opportunity to construct more schools and employ more
teachers to develop a world-class education system.
Healthcare
Besides education, healthcare status is another key determinant of a country’s economic progress.
Similar to education, the healthcare system in Rwanda has changed from a state-controlled system to a
publicly-owned one. Before the 1994 genocide, the Rwandan healthcare system was highly centralized
and operated on the free provision of health services (World Health Organization, 2017). However,
although free service delivery was prominent during the era, the quality of the care services was low.
During the genocide, most infrastructural services, including hospitals, clinics, and community care
centers, were destroyed. In addition, healthcare staff were also killed during the conflicts, while others
fled the country. In the transitional period, Paul Kagame’s government focused on rebuilding the
healthcare system from nearly scratch. The transitional period between 1994 and 2003 featured a
reconstruction of the health system and filling the resource gaps in the department (World Health
Organization, 2017). Between 2000 and 2003, the government initiated key reforms in the health sector
that it believed would improve the quality of care and service delivery in Rwanda post genocide.
One of the reforms included the establishment of the National AIDS Control Commission as an
advocacy body to fight stigma among citizens suffering from HIV/AIDS. The commission mobilized
resources and managed coordination of partner programs. The commission also initiated the merger of
key health programs relating to malaria, HIV/AIDS, and Tuberculosis into the Centre for Treatment and
Research on AIDS, Malaria, Tuberculosis, and other Epidemics (TRAC Plus) (World Health
Organization, 2017). The commission further allocated resources through government support for the
prevention, treatment, and control of the three major diseases outlined above. At this point, the primary
goal of the Rwandan government was to create a healthcare system that upheld individual welfare
promotion, especially at the local level.
Another key reform in the sector involved the creation of the Central Procurement Agency for
Essential Medicines in Rwanda, whose main role was to procure, store, and distribute drugs and
consumables for the public sector. The agency was later renamed the Medical Production and
Procurement Division (MPPD) (Uwizeyimana et al., 2021). It preserved its initial role of procuring,
storing, and distributing drugs. The agency worked under the Rwanda Biomedical Center (RBC) to
facilitate the procurement and distribution of pharmaceuticals in Rwanda. In this regard, the transitional
phase in Rwanda focused on creating reliable and functional distribution and supply networks for
healthcare commodities, which the country needed to achieve improved health care quality.
INTERNAL ISSUES IN RWANDA 5

Within the same period and motivated with the vision of achieving inclusivity, Rwanda
introduced the Universal Healthcare Program. The provision of Universal Healthcare Coverage in
Rwanda started in 1999 with the “Mutuelles de Sante” or the Community-Based Health Insurance (CBHI)
(World Health Organization, 2017). The program sought to provide health insurance coverage to rural
populations and citizens in the informal sector. The CBHI was established to increase healthcare access
and reduce healthcare costs for low-income earners. Since July 2015, the Rwandan Ministry of Health in
collaboration with the Rwanda Social Security Board have assumed the management of CBHI
(Mukangendo et al., 2018). The insurance scheme reduces medical care costs by reducing individual
expenditure and improving treatment outcomes. The Rwandan government has relied on the CBHI to
achieve universal health coverage.
The World Health Organization (WHO) affirms that every individual has a right to receive
quality healthcare services at affordable rates. The organization defines UHC as a program that ensures
all individuals and communities receive the health services they need without financial hardship (Bloom
et al., 2018). While governments strive to provide citizens with affordable care services, they also strive
to upgrade the quality of the services and work on promoting the overall quality of health care and
support programs (Bloom et al., 2018). With the improved healthcare quality and reduced costs, the
government ensures every individual enjoys equal rights to access treatment or diagnostics services from
any care facility within the country. Moving towards UHC requires strengthening of health systems
through robust financing, availability, accessibility, and capacity building for healthcare workers (Bloom
et al., 2018). Therefore, the primary goal of UHC is to reduce the cost of healthcare and increase
accessibility, especially for economically disadvantaged individuals and families.
For Rwanda, the journey towards the achievement of Universal Health Coverage started with the
CBHI. In 2003, the government institutionalized community-based health insurance, which further
allowed the development of the health insurance policy (World Health Organization, 2017). The universal
health coverage made it possible for the Rwandan government to achieve its vision of inclusivity, equity,
and comprehensive and integrated quality service delivery, with a focus on primary health care. Since the
implementation of the program, Rwanda’s health care sector has achieved numerous milestones, which
has helped improve the health status of the population. According to the Rwanda Annual Health
Statistics, since the implementation of universal health coverage, the primary health care utilization rate
increased from 0.81 to 0.94 visits per inhabitant from 2009 to 2013 (World Health Organization, 2017).
The service utilization also rose between 2005 and 2012, especially among the low socioeconomic status
populations. With universal healthcare coverage, the proportion of the population reporting an illness or
accident and consulting a medical practitioner also surged from 31% to 40% between 2005 and 2012. The
UHC program has also affected other healthcare metrics in the economy, including life expectancy, which
INTERNAL ISSUES IN RWANDA 6

stands at 64.5 years, and immunization coverage, which stands at 98% (World Health Organization,
2017). The success of these programs is related to good governance and the commitment shown by the
healthcare ministry to improve the lives of Rwandese. Although successful, the Rwandan version of UHC
faces chronic financial deficits that undermine the effectiveness of the program (Nyandekwe et al., 2020).
Through the Beyond 2020 program, the UAE government supports a humanitarian initiative that provides
financial support to Rwanda to continue offering critical access to health care to rural populations. The
humanitarian drive embraces the goal of achieving universal healthcare coverage and ensuring all
Rwandese access quality health care services. Going forward, Rwanda will remain one of the African
countries to have ever developed and sustained a universal healthcare insurance program for its
populations.
Gender Equality
The journey towards equality and inclusivity in Rwanda, especially post the 1994 genocide,
required the government to address various shortcomings of the nation’s social systems. Besides focusing
on healthcare and education, the Rwandan government has embraced efforts to ensure men and women
from all ethnic groups feel valued and engaged in the country’s development process. Part of the post-
genocide reforms involved finding solutions to the gender inequality problem that existed before the
genocide. Historically, Rwanda has been known for supporting patriarchal ideals, which undervalue
women and fail to engage them in serious decision-making initiatives, while undermining their access to
both education and opportunities that would enable them to succeed in the modern world. Patriarchal
systems also promote relationships, beliefs, and values in the political, social, and economic spaces that
embrace male domination. As a result, attributes regarded as masculine are privileged. One aspect of
Rwandese culture entailed the subordination of women and their reduced involvement in the social,
political, and economic functions of the community. In government representation, women formed the
minority, and in some cases during the pre-genocide era, they lacked representation in government. The
establishments were based on the prevailing social beliefs, attitudes, and norms towards femininity, which
considered women underserved members of the communities whose primary role was procreation.
Therefore, the case of gender inequality was pronounced in pre-genocide Rwanda.
The transitional period in the post-genocide era was an opportunity for reforms. Part of the
changed entailed the design and implementation of a new constitution. In the 2003 constitutional reforms,
President Paul Kagame, in consultation with the citizens and elites, prompted a universally accepted
document that outlined the rights and freedom of every citizen. In realization of the growing inequality in
the country, the constitution stated that all Rwandans, both men and women, had the right to vote and be
elected. The constitution also identified Rwanda as an independent, democratic, sovereign, social, and
secular republic based on the guiding principle of a “government of Rwandans, by Rwandans and for
INTERNAL ISSUES IN RWANDA 7

Rwandans” (Constitute Project, 2021). In the fundamental principles and homegrown solutions, the
constitution emphasized the eradication of discrimination and divisionism with equitable power sharing.
The constitution further affirmed the need for equality of all Rwandans and between men and women. In
particular, the constitution supported that women be allowed to occupy, at least, 30% of positions in the
decision-making organs (Constitute Project, 2021). At the time of the constitutional reforms, Women’s
organizations championed calls for equality and the recognition of women’s roles in the constitutional
reform process. With the constitution in place, Rwanda has made significant steps and adjustments with
regard to gender equality. Currently, women and men receive equal treatment in recruitment to public
offices or general engagement within the social and economic space. At the same time, Rwandan women
continue to enjoy more opportunities in the social, technological, economic, and political spaces, with the
increased agitation on equality and feminine participatory rights (Madsen, 2018). For instance, currently,
the Rwandan constitution allow women to claim property in marriage and gives them exclusive rights
over land (Abbott & Malunda, 2016). In employment, women enjoy equal chances of being employed in
the public or private sector. In all education levels, an increasing number of women are securing
enrollment. These successes reveal the commitment of Paul Kagame’s government to create a solid,
inclusive, and focused nation. With the spirit enshrined in the constitution, the Rwandan government
believes that the achievement of high and improved economic ratings rests in the promotion of gender
equality.
Conclusion
Rwanda is an inspiration to other African countries. The evidence provided in the paper indicates
that the country has changed its history from one of genocide, human rights violation, and perceived poor
economic performance to one of the fastest-growing economies in the world with notable progress in
healthcare, education, governance, and gender equality. Since President Paul Kagame took reins of
power, Rwanda has initiated serious reforms in the social, political, technological, and economic sectors.
In healthcare, the country supports universal health coverage, which promotes a low-cost, accessible, and
quality healthcare system. In education, the education for all program, through the free education
program, has seen increased enrollment in schools and seen significant advances in social, economic, and
political spaces for women. Presently, through its engagement with international players such as the UAE,
Rwanda is set to become one of the leading economies not only in Africa, but also in the world.
INTERNAL ISSUES IN RWANDA 8

References
Abbott, P., & Malunda, D. (2016). The promise and the reality: Women’s rights in Rwanda. African
Journal of International and Comparative Law, 24(4), 561-581.
[Link]
Bloom, D.E., Khoury, A., & Subbaraman, R. (2018). The promise and peril of universal health care.
Science, 361(6404), eaat9644. [Link]
Bridgeland, J., Wulsin, S., & McNaught, M. (2009). Rebuilding Rwanda: From genocide to prosperity
through education, 3-43. [Link]
Constitute Project. (2021, August 26). Rwanda’s constitution of 2003 with amendments through 2015. pp.
1-56. [Link]
Jauhari, A. (2018). African economic renaissance: A case study of Rwanda and Angola. Insight on
Africa, 10(2), 127-149. [Link]
Madsen, D.H. (2018, January). ‘Localising the Global’–Resolution 1325 as a tool for promoting women’s
rights and gender equality in Rwanda. In Women’s Studies International Forum (Vol. 66, pp. 70-
78). Pergamon.
Mukangendo, M., Nzayirambaho, M., Hitimana, R., & Yamuragiye, A. (2018). Factors contributing to
adherence to community-based health insurance in Rural Nyanza District, Southern Rwanda.
Journal of Environmental and Public Health, 2018, 2624591.
[Link]
Nyandekwe, M., Nzayirambaho, M., & Kakoma, J.B. (2020). Universal health insurance in Rwanda:
Major challenges and solutions for financial sustainability case study of Rwanda community-
based health insurance part I. The Pan African Medical Journal, 37, 55.
[Link]
Nyirandikubwimana, C., Njihia, D.R., & Mwalw’aD.S. (2019). Influence of free education policy on
quality education in day public secondary schools in Huye District, Rwanda. Journal of
Education, 2(2), 29-51. [Link]
article/view/311
Popa, M., & Betco, D. (2020). Rwanda’s prosperous economic upgrade: From genocide to a fast-growing
economy. CSEI Working Paper Series, 15, 34-44.
[Link]
Roland, H. (2019). The economic effects of genocide: Evidence from Rwanda. Journal of African
Economies, 28(1), 1-17. [Link]
INTERNAL ISSUES IN RWANDA 9

Rwigema, P.C. (2020). Impact of education on economic growth. The case of Rwanda. The Strategic
Journal of Business & Change Management, 7(2), 490-512.
[Link]
Uwizeyimana, T., Hashim, H.T., Kabakambira, J.D., Mujyarugamba, J.C., Dushime, J., Ntacyabukura,
B., Ndayizeye, R.,…………….Lucero-Prisno, D.E. (2021). Drug supply situation in Rwanda
during the COVID-19: Issues, efforts, and challenges. Journal of Pharmaceutical Policy and
Practice, 14(12). [Link]
Williams, T.P. (2017). The political economy of primary education: Lessons from Rwanda. World
Development, 96, 550-561. [Link]
World Health Organization (WHO). (2017). Primary health care systems (PRIMASYS): Case study from
Rwanda, abridged version. [Link]
[Link]?ua=1