1

Table of Contents

Analogy 2
Complete Pair Analogy 7
Data Interpretation 11
Diagramming Characters 21
Identifying Conclusions 24
Logic 33
Logical Puzzles 37
Logic and Pattern Recognition 40
Syllogisms 44
Phobias 50
Branches of Science 51
Collective Nouns 52
Roman Numerals 53

[Link] | [Link]
 2

Analogy
Understanding the Structure:
An analogy question typically follows the format “A is to B as C is to D.” The key to answering
such questions lies in understanding the relationship between A and B, and then applying the
same relationship to find the correct pair, C and D.
Steps to Solve Analogies:
Identify the Relationship:
Begin by closely examining the relationship between the first pair of words (A and B). Determine
what kind of link exists—is it functional (what it does), descriptive (what it is like), part of a
whole, or a type of a larger category?
Example: “Doctor is to hospital.” Here, the relationship could be “works in.”
Formulate the Relationship:
Articulate the relationship in your own words, making it clear and specific. This step is crucial
because it sets the foundation for finding the right answer.
Example: If “A is to B” as “doctor is to hospital,” you might describe it as “a professional who
works in a specific place.”
Apply the Same Relationship:
Use the relationship identified to find a word that fits the same relationship with the third word
(C).
Example: If C is “teacher,” then D should be “school,” because the relationship “works in”
applies here as well.
Eliminate Incorrect Answers:
Look at each answer choice and eliminate those that do not fit the relationship you’ve identified.
Be careful of choices that seem right but don’t perfectly match the relationship.
Example: For “teacher is to ___,” eliminate options like “classroom,” “students,” etc., if the
defined relationship specifically pertains to the place of professional work.
Double-Check:
Once you select an answer, reverse the analogy to see if it still makes sense. This helps confirm
the consistency of the relationship.
Example: Just as a “doctor works in a hospital,” a “teacher works in a school.”
Practice With Varieties:

[Link] | [Link]
 3

Regular practice with different types of analogies will help you quickly identify and articulate
relationships. The more you practice, the faster and more accurate you will become at spotting
the right connections.
Common Types of Relationships in Analogies:
Synonyms (similar to): cold is to icy
Antonyms (opposite to): hot is to cold
Function (uses of): pen is to write
Part to Whole (component of): wheel is to car
Performer and Action (does this): painter is to paint
Performer and Object (uses this): chef is to knife
Category and Example (type of): fruit is to apple
Final Tip:
If you’re stuck, try making up a sentence that describes the relationship between the first pair
and see if it logically applies to the second pair. This can often help clarify which answer is
correct.
By following these steps and regularly practicing different types of analogies, you can enhance
your ability to solve these questions efficiently and accurately.
Practice Test in Analogies
1. candle : light = ____ : ____
o A) oven : heat
o B) water : wet
o C) book : read
o D) car : wheel
o E) shoe : walk
Correct Answer: A) oven : heat
Explanation: Just as a candle provides light, an oven provides heat.
2. finger : hand = ____ : ____
• A) leaf : tree
• B) pedal : bicycle
• C) tire : car
• D) branch : forest
• E) brick : wall
Correct Answer: A) leaf : tree
Explanation: Just as a finger is part of a hand, a leaf is part of a tree.

[Link] | [Link]
 4

3. paint : artist = ____ : ____

• A) word : sentence
• B) hammer : carpenter
• C) key : pianist
• D) script : actor
• E) book : librarian
Correct Answer: B) hammer : carpenter
Explanation: Just as paint is a tool for an artist, a hammer is a tool for a carpenter.
4. river : lake = ____ : ____
• A) rain : cloud
• B) book : page
• C) teacher : school
• D) water : ocean
• E) path : garden
Correct Answer: D) water : ocean
Explanation: Just as a river flows into a lake, water fills an ocean.
5. writer : words = ____ : ____
• A) dancer : moves
• B) singer : song
• C) painter : brushes
• D) runner : miles
• E) chef : recipes
Correct Answer: A) dancer : moves
Explanation: Just as a writer uses words, a dancer uses moves.

6. heart : body = engine : ____

• A) mechanic
• B) car
• C) wheel
• D) road

[Link] | [Link]
 5

• E) fuel
Correct Answer: B) car
Explanation: The heart functions as the vital organ pumping blood through the body, as the
engine powers the car.
7. leaf : tree = petal : ____
• A) rose
• B) sun
• C) grass
• D) soil
• E) insect
Correct Answer: A) rose
Explanation: Just as a leaf is part of a tree, a petal is part of a rose.
8. school : education = gym : ____
• A) trainer
• B) health
• C) weight
• D) exercise
• E) sport
Correct Answer: D) exercise
Explanation: Just as a school is a place for education, a gym is a place for exercise.
9. judge : courtroom = chef : ____
• A) restaurant
• B) kitchen
• C) menu
• D) food
• E) diner
Correct Answer: B) kitchen
Explanation: Just as a judge works in a courtroom, a chef works in a kitchen.
10. novel : chapters = dictionary : ____
• A) words

[Link] | [Link]
 6

• B) definitions
• C) pages
• D) entries
• E) languages
Correct Answer: D) entries
Explanation: Just as a novel is composed of chapters, a dictionary is composed of entries.

[Link] | [Link]
 7

Complete Pair Analogy

1. Choose the pair that has the same relationship to the words below:
Expand : Compress = ____ : _____
A. Neutral : Concerned
B. Encroach : Intrude
C. Impetuous : Spontaneous
D. Impinge : Infringe

Answer. A
Explanation:
The analogy "Expand : Compress" is based on opposites.

"Expand" means to increase in size, volume, or scope, while "Compress" means to reduce in
size, volume, or scope. These two words are opposites because one involves making
something larger, and the other involves making something smaller.

Similarly, "Neutral" means not taking sides, being indifferent or unconcerned, while "Concerned"
means showing interest, worry, or involvement. These two words are also opposites, just like
"Expand" and "Compress."

The other options do not follow the same pattern of opposites:

"Encroach : Intrude" are similar in meaning, not opposites.

"Impetuous : Spontaneous" are related in meaning, not opposites.
"Impinge : Infringe" are synonyms, not opposites.
Therefore, the best answer for this analogy is "Neutral : Concerned."

2. Choose the pair that has the same relationship to the words below:
Open : Impenetrable = ____ : _____
A. Complacent : Unhappy
B. Outrageous : Shocking

[Link] | [Link]
 8

C. Repugnant : Disgusting
D. Combined : Merged
Answer. A
Explanation:
The analogy "Open : Impenetrable" is based on opposites.

"Open" means allowing access or passage, while "Impenetrable" means impossible to pass
through or enter. These two words are opposites because one suggests accessibility, and the
other suggests a barrier.

Similarly, "Complacent" means self-satisfied and unaware of potential dangers or flaws, often
leading to a lack of motivation for change, while "Unhappy" means dissatisfied or not content.
These two words are also opposites because one suggests contentment (even if unwarranted),
and the other suggests discontent or dissatisfaction.

The other options do not follow the same pattern of opposites:

"Outrageous : Shocking" are similar in meaning, not opposites.

"Repugnant : Disgusting" are synonyms, not opposites.
"Combined : Merged" are also synonyms, not opposites.
Therefore, the best answer for this analogy is "Complacent : Unhappy."

3. Choose the pair that has the same relationship to the words below:
Aboveboard : Dubious = ____ : _____
A. Deplete : Develop
B. Dilemma : Predicament
C. Indecent : Obscene
D. Detached : Disinterested

Answer. A
Explanation:
The analogy "Aboveboard : Dubious" is based on opposites.

"Aboveboard" means honest and straightforward, while "Dubious" means doubtful or suspicious.
These two words are opposites because one implies honesty, and the other implies uncertainty
or suspicion.

Similarly, "Deplete" means to reduce or use up resources, while "Develop" means to grow or

[Link] | [Link]
 9

build up something. These two words are also opposites, as one involves a reduction and the
other involves growth or enhancement.

The other options do not follow the same pattern of opposites:

"Dilemma : Predicament" are similar in meaning, not opposites.

"Indecent : Obscene" are similar in meaning, not opposites.
"Detached : Disinterested" are related in meaning, not opposites.
Therefore, the best answer for this analogy is "Deplete : Develop.

4. Choose the pair that has the same relationship to the words below:
Open : Impenetrable = ____ : _____
A. Complacent : Unhappy
B. Suspicious : Unreliable
C. Indifferent : Disinterested
D. Interested : Involved

Answer. A
Explanation:
The analogy "Open : Impenetrable" is based on opposites.

"Open" suggests accessibility and the ability to be entered, while "Impenetrable" suggests that
something cannot be entered or accessed. These two words are opposites, representing
completely different states.

Similarly, "Complacent" means self-satisfied and unaware of potential dangers or flaws, which
often leads to inaction or a lack of motivation for improvement, while "Unhappy" means
dissatisfied or discontent. These two words are opposites in the sense that complacency implies
contentment (even if unjustified), whereas unhappiness implies dissatisfaction.

The other options do not follow the same pattern of opposites:

"Suspicious : Unreliable" are related in meaning but not opposites.

"Indifferent : Disinterested" are synonyms, not opposites.
"Interested : Involved" are similar in meaning, not opposites.
Therefore, the best answer for this analogy is "Complacent : Unhappy."

5. Choose the pair that has the same relationship to the words below:
Genuine : Dubious = ____ : _____
A. Accurate : False

[Link] | [Link]
 10

B. Pleased : Satisfied
C. Suspicious : Unreliable
D. Arguable : Debatable

Answer. A
Solution.
Explanation:
The analogy "Genuine : Dubious" is based on opposites.

"Genuine" means real, authentic, and sincere, while "Dubious" means doubtful or uncertain,
often suggesting that something may not be genuine. These two words are opposites because
one suggests authenticity and certainty, while the other suggests doubt and potential falseness.

Similarly, "Accurate" means correct or true, while "False" means incorrect or untrue. These two
words are also opposites, just like "Genuine" and "Dubious."

The other options do not follow the same pattern of opposites:

"Pleased : Satisfied" are synonyms, not opposites.

"Suspicious : Unreliable" are related in meaning, but not opposites.
"Arguable : Debatable" are also synonyms, not opposites.
Therefore, the best answer for this analogy is "Accurate : False."

[Link] | [Link]
 11

Data Interpretation
1. The pie chart below shows the percentage distribution of total incentives of Carlos Yulo after
bringing home 2 gold medals at the Paris Olympics 2024. In total, Carlos Yulo received a total
amount of PHP80,000,000. If Carlos Yulo's total incentive had been PHP 100,000,000 instead
of PHP 80,000,000, how much more would he have received from the National Politicians (15%)
compared to the current incentives distribution?

A. PHP 3,000,000.00
B. PHP 4,000,000.00
C. PHP 5,000,000.00
D. PHP 2,000,000.00

Answer
Solution:
Step 1: Calculate how much Carlos Yulo would receive from the National Politicians with a total

[Link] | [Link]
 12

of PHP 100,000,000.

100,000,000 x .15 = 15,000,000

Step 2: Calculate how much Carlos Yulo received from the National Politicians with the original
total of PHP 80,000,000.

80,000,000 x .15 = 12,000,000

Step 3: Calculate how much more Carlos Yulo would have received from the National Politicians
with the increased total (PHP 100,000,000).

15,000,000 - 12,000,000 = 3,000,000

2. The pie chart below shows the percentage distribution of total incentives of Carlos Yulo after
bringing home 2 gold medals at the Paris Olympics 2024. In total, Carlos Yulo received a total
amount of PHP80,000,000. Rank the contributors in the pie chart by the percentage of total
incentives they provided. How much is the combined contribution in PHP of the top two
contributors?

A. PHP 36,000,000.00
B. PHP 32,000,000.00
C. PHP 40,000,000.00

[Link] | [Link]
 13

D. PHP 42,000,000.00

Answer:
Step 1: Calculate the combined percentage of the top two contributors.
The top two contributors are:
Office of the President: 25%
As Mandated by Republic Act: 20%

Step 2: Calculate their combined contribution in PHP.

80,000,000 x .45 = PHP 36,000,000

Answer: The combined contribution in PHP of the top two contributors is PHP 36,000,000.00

3. The pie chart below shows the percentage distribution of total incentives of Carlos Yulo after
bringing home 2 gold medals at the Paris Olympics 2024. In total, Carlos Yulo received a total
amount of PHP80,000,000. Rank the contributors in the pie chart by the percentage of total
incentives they provided. What is the combined contribution percentage of the top two
contributors?

[Link] | [Link]
 14

A. 45%
B. 30%
C. 50%
D. 55%

Answer:
Step 1. Ranking the contributions below:
Office of the President: 25%
As Mandated by Republic Act: 20%
National Politicians: 15%
House of Representatives: 14%
Local Politician: 12%
AdrenaPlus: 8%
MegaWorld: 6%

Step 2. Calculate the combined percentage of the top two contributors.

Office of the President: 25%

As Mandated by Republic Act: 20%

Total 45%

Answer: The combined contribution percentage of the top two contributors is 45%

4. The pie chart below shows the percentage distribution of total incentives of Carlos Yulo after
bringing home 2 gold medals at the Paris Olympics 2024. In total, Carlos Yulo received a total
amount of PHP80,000,000. Assuming MegaWorld decided to double its contributions, calculate
the new total incentive amount Carlos Yulo would receive.

[Link] | [Link]
 15

A. PHP 24,000,000.00
B. PHP 20,000,000.00
C. PHP 28,000,000.00
D. PHP 15,000,000.00

Answer:
Step 1: Calculate the current contributions from MegaWorld.

80,000,000 x .15 = 12,000,000.00

Step 2. Calculate the new contributions after doubling.

PHP 12,000,000 x 2 = 24,000,000.00

5. The bar-graph below shows the percentage distribution of total expenditures of a company
under various expenses for 2023. What is the ratio of the total expenditure on Business

[Link] | [Link]
 16

insurance to the total expenditure on Taxes?

A. 1:3
B. 2:5
C. 2:3
D. 3:4

Answer: Total expenditure on Business insurance : 4%

Total expenditure on Taxes : 10%

4 : 10 or 2 : 5

Check our video here: [Link]

6. The bar-graph below shows the percentage distribution of total expenditures of a company
under various expenses for 2023. What is the ratio of the total expenditure on Business Meals

[Link] | [Link]
 17

to the total expenditure on Employee Salary and Benefits?

A. 1:2
B. 1:3
C. 2:3
D. 2:5

Answer
Total expenditure on Business Meals : 7.5%
Total expenditure on Employee Salary and Benefits : 15%

7.5 : 15 or 1:2

Check our video here: [Link]

7. The finance director of Sunshine Bakery was given the task of preparing the budget for 2024.
The total budgeted expense is ₱25,000,000. He illustrated the distribution of expenses in a pie
chart, shown below. Based on the chart, how much of the total fund is left after all the allocation

[Link] | [Link]
 18

for Packaging, Rent and Utilities is spent?

A. 7,500,000
B. 8,000,000
C. 8,500,000
D. 7,000,000

Answer:
Step 1: Calculate the total percentage allocated to Packaging, Rent and Utilities.

Packaging, Rent and Utilities is 40% + 20% + 10% = 70%

Step 2. Calculate the percentage left

100% - 70% = 30%

Step 3. Calculate the total fund left after all the allocation for Packaging, Rent and Utilities is
spent

25,000,000 x .30 = 7,500,000

Answer: The total fund is left after all the allocation for Packaging, Rent and Utilities is spent is
PHP7,500,000.00

8. The finance director of Sunshine Bakery was given the task of preparing the budget for 2024.
The total budgeted expense is ₱25,000,000. He illustrated the distribution of expenses in a pie
chart, shown below. Based on the chart, how much of the total fund is left after all the allocation

[Link] | [Link]
 19

for Marketing and Salary is spent?

A. 16,000,000
B. 17,000,000
C. 17,500,000
D. 18,000,000

Answer: Step 1: Calculate the total percentage allocated to Marketing and Salary

The total allocation for Marketing and Salary is (25% + 5%) = 30%

Step 2. Calculate the percentage left

100% - 30% = 70%

Step 3. Calculate the total fund left after all the allocation for Marketing and Salary is spent

25,000,000 x .7 = 17,500,000

Answer: The total fund is left after all the allocation for Marketing and Salary is spent is PHP
17,500,000.00

9. The finance director of Sunshine Bakery was given the task of preparing the budget for 2024.
The total budgeted expense is ₱25,000,000. He illustrated the distribution of expenses in a pie
chart, shown below. Based on the chart, how much of the total fund is left after all the allocation

[Link] | [Link]
 20

for Marketing and Salary and Rent is spent?

A. 10,000,000
B. 11,000,000
C. 12,000,000
D. 12,500,000

Answer: Step 1: Calculate the total percentage allocated to Marketing, Salary, and Rent.
The total allocation for Marketing, Salary and Rent is (25% + 5% + 20%) = 50%

Step 2. Calculate the percentage left

100% - 50% = 50%

Step 3. Calculate the otal fund left after all the allocation for Marketing and Salary and Rent is
spent

25,000,000 x .5 = 12,500,000

Answer: The total fund is left after all the allocation for Marketing and Salary and Rent is spent
is PHP 12,500,000.00

10. The finance director of Sunshine Bakery was given the task of preparing the budget for
2024. The total budgeted expense is ₱25,000,000. He illustrated the distribution of expenses in

[Link] | [Link]
 21

a pie chart, shown below. Based on the chart, what is the amount allocated for Packaging?

A. 6,000,000
B. 7,000,000
C. 9,000,000
D. 10,000,000

Answer:
Step 1: Calculate the amount allocated for Packaging.

The amount allocated for Packaging is 25,000,000 x .4 = 10,000,000

[Link] | [Link]
 22

Diagramming Characters
1. Ruby is smarter than Sara but not as smart as Tina. Uma is smarter than Tina but not as
smart as Victor. Further, Willa is not as smart as Victor and Uma but smarter than Tina.
Therefore,
A. Tina is smarter than Uma and Willa
B. Sara is the least smart
C. Tina is less smart than Victor and Ruby
D. Ruby is the least smart

2. Ruby is smarter than Sara but not as smart as Tina. Uma is smarter than Tina but not as
smart as Victor. Moreover, Willa is not as smart as Victor and Uma but smarter than Tina.
Therefore,
A. Victor is the smartest
B. Uma is smarter than Victor and Willa
C. Ruby is the least smart
D. Willa is smarter than Uma and Sara

3. Tom is older than Jerry but younger than Sam. Nick is older than Sam but younger than
Victor. In addition, Olivia is younger than Victor and Nick but older than Sam. Therefore,
A. Olivia is the oldest
B. Tom is the youngest
C. Nick is younger than Victor but older than Olivia
D. Sam is the oldest

4. Tom is older than Jerry but younger than Sam. Nick is older than Sam but younger than
Victor. Further, Olivia is younger than Victor and Nick but older than Sam. Therefore,
A. Jerry is the youngest
B. Nick is younger than Victor and Sam
C. Sam I older than Nick and Tom
D. Jerry is the oldest

[Link] | [Link]
 23

5. Tom is older than Jerry but younger than Sam. Nick is older than Sam but younger than
Victor. Moreover, Olivia is younger than Victor and Nick but older than Sam. Therefore,
A. Victor is the youngest
B. Victor is the oldest
C. Nick is younger than Sam and Tom
D. Olivia is older than Victor

6. Alice is taller than Bob but shorter than Charles. Dana is taller than Charles but shorter than
Evan. Also, Frank is shorter than Dana and Evan but taller than Charles. Therefore,
A. Charles is the shortest
B. Frank is taller than Alice and Bob
C. Dana is shorter than Frank
D. Frank istaller than Dana

7. Alice is taller than Bob but shorter than Charles. Dana is taller than Charles but shorter than
Evan. In addition, Frank is shorter than Dana and Evan but taller than Charles. Therefore,
A. Bob is the shortest
B. Frank is taller than Dana and Charles
C. Evan is shorter than Alice and Bob
D. Dana is shorter than Charles and Alice

8. Alice is taller than Bob but shorter than Charles. Dana is taller than Charles but shorter than
Evan. Moreover, Frank is shorter than Dana and Evan but taller than Charles. Therefore,
A. Evan is the tallest
B. Bob is taller than Dana
C. Frank is taller than Dana
D. Alice is shorter than Bob

9. Ruby is smarter than Sara but not as smart as Tina. Uma is smarter than Tina but not as
smart as Victor. Willa is not as smart as Victor and Uma but smarter than Tina. Therefore,
A. Ruby is the smartest
B. Sara is the smartest

[Link] | [Link]
 24

C. Tina is less smart than Uma and Willa

D. Ruby is smarter than Sara and Victor

10. Tom is older than Jerry but younger than Sam. Nick is older than Sam but younger than
Victor. Olivia is younger than Victor and Nick but older than Sam. Therefore,
A. Sam is younger than Olivia and Victor
B. Tom is older than Nick
C. Jerry is the oldest
D. Olivia is older than Tom and Sam

Answers
1. Combining all the information: Victor > Uma > Willa > Tina > Ruby > Sara. Thus, Sara is the
least smart is the only correct statement
2. Combining all the information: Victor > Uma > Willa > Tina > Ruby > Sara. Thus, Victor is the
smartest is the only correct statement
3. Combining all the information: Victor > Nick > Olivia > Sam > Tom > Jerry. Thus, Nick is
younger than Victor but older than Olivia is the only correct statement
4. Combining all the information: Victor > Nick > Olivia > Sam > Tom > Jerry. Thus, Jerry is the
youngest is the only correct statement
5. Combining all the information: Victor > Nick > Olivia > Sam > Tom > Jerry. Thus, Victor is the
oldest is the only correct statement
6. Combining all the information: Evan > Dana > Frank > Charles > Alice > Bob. Thus, Frank is
taller than Alice and Bob is the only correct statement
7. Combining all the information: Evan > Dana > Frank > Charles > Alice > Bob. Thus, Bob is
the shortest is the only correct statement
8. Combining all the information: Evan > Dana > Frank > Charles > Alice > Bob. Thus, Evan is
the tallest is the only correct statement
9. Combining all the information: Victor > Uma > Willa > Tina > Ruby > Sara. Thus, Tina is less
smart than Uma and Willa is the only correct statement
10. Combining all the information: Victor > Nick > Olivia > Sam > Tom > Jerry. Thus, Olivia is
older than Tom and Sam is the only correct statement

[Link] | [Link]
 25

Identifying Conclusion

1. Statements:
1. No cats are dogs.
2. Some dogs are pets.
3. All pets are friendly.

Conclusions:
I. Some pets are dogs.
II. No cats are pets.
III. All dogs are friendly.

A. Only I and III follow.

B. Only III follows.
C. I, II, and III follow.
D. Only I follows.

Answer:
Answer is only Conclusion I follows.

Conclusion I: Some pets are dogs. From the statement "Some dogs are pets", it directly implies

[Link] | [Link]
 26

that some PETS are indeed DOGS. Moreover, based on our diagram, categories PETS and
DOGS intersect. Thus Conclusion I follows.

Conclusion II: No cats are pets. The statement "No cats are dogs" only separates CATS from
DOGS, and there is no information provided about the relationship between CATS and PETS.
Moreover, based on our diagram, the statements can lead to 2 different conclusions. In the first
image, CATS and PETS do not intersect. However, on the second image, it is possible that the
categories CATS and PETS may intersect. Therefore, Conclusion 2 does not follow.

Conclusion III: All dogs are friendly. Based on the statement "Some dogs are pets" and "All pets
are friendly". However, this does not mean all dogs are friendly, only that the dogs that are pets
are friendly. Based on our diagram, only some DOGS are FRIENDLY. Thus, Conclusion III does
not follow.

2. Statements:
No fruits are vegetables.
All vegetables are healthy.
All healthy things are good for you.

Conclusions:
I. No fruits are healthy.
II. Some healthy things are vegetables.
III. All vegetables are good for you.

A. Only II and III follow.

B. Only III follows.
C. I, II, and III follow.
D. Only II follows.

Answer : Conclusions 2 and 3 follow

Please check the diagram below. There are 2 diagrams the statements can have 2 possible
conclusions.

[Link] | [Link]
 27

Conclusions:
I. No fruits are healthy. From the statements, “no fruits are vegetables”, and “All vegetables are
healthy,” this does not imply that the category FRUITS cannot be included in the category
HEALTHY THINGS, as the statement only separates fruits from vegetables, not from the entire
category of healthy things. Based on the diagram, there are possibilities. First possibility,
category FRUITS do not intersect with category HEALTHY. Second possibility, category FRUITS
may intersect with category HEALTHY. Thus, Conclusion 1 does not follow.

II. Some healthy things are vegetables. From the statement, “All vegetables are healthy”, we
can conclude that some HEALTHY THINGS are indeed VEGETABLES. The diagram shows that
the category VEGETABLES is included as a subset of HEALTHY THINGS. Thus, Conclusion 2
follows.

III. All vegetables are good for you. From the statement “All vegetables are healthy” and “All
healthy things are good for you”, it logically follows that the category VEGETABLES are
included in the category GOOD FOR YOU. Moreover, based on the diagram, the category
VEGETABLES are included in the category GOOD FOR YOU. Thus, Conclusion 3 follows.

[Link] | [Link]
 28

3. Statements:
Some birds are sparrows.
All sparrows are eagles.
All eagles are predators.

Conclusions:
I. Some birds are eagles.
II. Some sparrows are predators.
III. Some birds are predators.

A. Only II and III follow.

B. Only I and II follow.
C. I, II, and III follow.
D. Only III follows.

Answer:

The answer is Conclusions 1, 2 and 3 follow.

Conclusions:
I. Some birds are eagles. Based on the diagram, you can see the categories EAGLES and
BIRDS intersect with each other. Moreover, from the statements, "Some birds are sparrows",
and all sparrows are eagles", it logically follows that some birds are eagles. Thus, Conclusion
1 follows.

[Link] | [Link]
 29

II. Some sparrows are predators. Since "All sparrows are eagles" and "All eagles are
predators", it follows logically that all SPARROWS are also PREDATORS, making some
SPARROWS PREDATORS. Moreover, the diagram shows that SPARROWS are included in
the set of PREDATORS. Thus, Conclusion 2 follows .

III. Some birds are predators. From the first statement, "Some birds are sparrows" , and "All
sparrows are eagles," and since "All sparrows are predators" it follows that some BIRDS are
also PREDATORS. Moreover, the diagram shows that the categories BIRDS and
PREDATORS intersect with each other. Thus, Conclusion 3 follows.

4. Statements:
Some students are athletes.
All athletes are musicians.
All musicians are artists.

Conclusions:
I. Some students are artists.
II. Some athletes are artists.
III. Some students are Musicians.

A. Only II and III follow.

B. Only I and II follow.
C. I, II, and III follow.
D. Only III follows.

Answer is Conclusions 1, 2 and 3 follow.

[Link] | [Link]
 30

Conclusions.
I. Some students are artists. From the first statement, " Some students are athletes" , and " All
athletes are musicians” and since " All musicians are artists” " it follows that some STUDENTS
are also ARTISTS. Moreover, the diagram shows that the categories STUDENTS and ARTISTS
intersect with each other. Thus, Conclusion 1 follows.

II. Some athletes are artists. Since " All athletes are musicians" and " All musicians are artists", it
follows logically that all ATHLETES are also ARTISTS, making some ATHLETES ARTISTS.
Moreover, the diagram shows that SPARROWS are included in the set of PREDATORS. Thus,
Conclusion 2 follows.

III. Some students are Musicians. Based on the diagram, you can see the categories
STUDENTS and MUSICIANS intersect with each other. Moreover, from the statements, "Some
students are Athletes. ", and “All athletes are musicians.” It logically follows that some
STUDENTS are MUSICIANS. Thus, Conclusion 3 follows.

5.
Statements:
Some flowers are roses.
All roses are tulips.
All tulips are plants.

Conclusions:

[Link] | [Link]
 31

I. Some flowers are tulips.

II. Some roses are plants.
III. Some flowers are Plants.

A. Only I and III follow.

B. Only II follows.
C. I, II, and III follow.
D. Only III follows

The answer is Conclusions 1, 2 and 3 follow.

Conclusions:
I. Some flowers are tulips. Based on the diagram, you can see the FLOWERS and TULIPS
intersect with each other. Moreover, from the statements, we know that "Some flowers are
roses", and "All roses are tulips." Therefore, it logically follows that some flowers are tulips.
Thus, Conclusion 1 follows.

II. Some roses are plants. Since "All roses are tulips" and "All tulips are plants," it follows
logically that all roses are also plants, making some roses plants. Moreover, the diagram shows

[Link] | [Link]
 32

that ROSES are included in the set of PLANTS. Thus, Conclusion 2 follows .

III. Some flowers are plants. From the first statement, "Some flowers are roses", and since "All
roses are tulips" and "All tulips are plants", it follows that some FLOWERS are also PLANTS.
Moreover, the diagram shows that FLOWERS and PLANTS intersect with each other. Thus,
Conclusion 3 follows.

6. Here are the conclusions and choices based on the statements provided:

Statements:
All flowers are plants.
All plants are living things.
No living things are machines.

Conclusions:
I. No flowers are machines.
II. Some living things are plants.
III. No plants are machines.

A. Only I and III follow.

B. Only II follows.
C. I, II, and III follow.
D. Only II and III follow.

The correct answer is Conclusions 1, 2 and 3 follow.

[Link] | [Link]
 33

Conclusions:
I. No flowers are machines. Based on the diagram, FLOWERS do not intersect with
MACHINES. Also, from the statements, "All flowers are plants." and "All plants are living
things.", since "No living things are machines." it follows that No FLOWERS are MACHINES.
Thus, Conclusion 1 follows.

II. Some living things are plants. From the statement, " All plants are living things", it logically
follows that some LIVING THINGS are PLANTS. Moreover, based on the diagram, PLANTS are
included in the set of LIVING THING. PLANTS are a subset of LIVING THINGS. Thus,
Conclusion 2 follows.

III. No plants are machines. Based on the diagram, PLANTS do not intersect with MACHINES.
Also, from the statements, "All plants are living things." and "No living things are machines.", it
follows that no PLANTS are MACHINES. Thus, Conclusion 3 follows.

[Link] | [Link]
 34

Logic
Introduction
• Purpose: This guide aims to help learners understand and solve logic questions typically
found in analytical ability tests.
• Scope: Focus on questions involving spatial and relational logic, using everyday
scenarios such as distances, rankings, and comparisons.
1. Understanding Logic Questions
• Definition: Logic questions require you to use reasoning skills to analyze information and
deduce relationships or order among a set of elements.
• Types:
o Spatial Relationships: Determine the physical order or proximity based on given
distances or arrangements.
o Hierarchical Relationships: Establish rank or sequence based on attributes like
age, speed, height, etc.
2. Strategies for Solving Logic Questions
• Reading Carefully: Pay close attention to the specifics of the relationships or distances
mentioned.
• Sketching Diagrams: For spatial problems, draw a simple diagram to visualize the
relationships.
• Making Lists: For hierarchical relationships, listing out the elements in order can help
visualize their order or ranking.
• Elimination: Use the process of elimination on multiple-choice questions to narrow down
the possible answers.
3. Step-by-Step Approach to Logic Problems
• Identify the elements: Note all the elements involved in the problem (e.g., people,
objects).
• Determine fixed relationships: Identify any relationships that are explicitly given and are
unchangeable.
• Infer hidden relationships: Use the given information to deduce any indirect relationships
or sequences.
• Apply logical deductions: Use logical reasoning to fill in gaps between known and
unknown elements.
4. Example Problem and Solution
• Problem: “Alice, Bob, and Charlie are in line for a concert. Alice is somewhere ahead of
Bob. Charlie is behind Alice but ahead of Bob. Who is in the middle?”

[Link] | [Link]
 35

• Diagram:
o A>B
o A>C>B
• Analysis: Since Alice is ahead of both Bob and Charlie, and Charlie is between Alice and
Bob, Charlie is the middle person.
• Answer: Charlie
5. Practice Problems
• Include a set of 5-10 practice problems similar to the example provided.
• Offer detailed solutions and reasoning for each problem to reinforce learning.
6. Tips and Tricks
• Focus on Keywords: Look for terms like “between,” “behind,” “taller than,” which indicate
the nature of the relationships.
• Check Consistency: Ensure that all deduced relationships are consistent with each other
throughout your analysis.
• Practice Regularly: Regular practice can help improve speed and accuracy in
recognizing patterns and solving problems.
Conclusion
• Summarize the skills needed to tackle logic questions effectively and encourage ongoing
practice with different types of logic problems.
Practice Test on Logic - Civil Service Exam
Question 1:
Four friends received four pizzas. Their coach stated that the extra pizza belongs to the fastest
runner.
Alan is faster than Bill. Bill is slower than Cindy. Dan is slightly faster than Bill. Who gets the
extra pizza?
Choices:
A. Bill
B. Cindy
C. Alan
D. Dan
Answer: C. Alan
Solution:
Alan is faster than Bill and Dan. Cindy is faster than Bill but slower than Alan, making Alan the
fastest. Therefore, Alan gets the extra pizza.

Question 2:
Lana is faster than Lila, but slower than Lisa. Lisa is the slowest of them all.

[Link] | [Link]
 36

Is the second sentence correct?

Choices:
A. Yes, because Lisa is not the fastest.
B. No, because Lisa is the fastest of them all.
C. No, because Lisa is in between Lana and Lila.
D. No, because all of them are equal in speed.
Answer: B. No, because Lisa is the fastest of them all.
Solution:
The first sentence indicates that Lisa is faster than both Lana and Lila, contradicting the second
sentence that claims Lisa is the slowest.

Question 3:
H runs faster than J. K runs slower than J, but faster than I. Who is the second slowest runner?
Choices:
A. H
B. J
C. K
D. I
Answer: C. K
Solution:
H is faster than both J and I. J is faster than K but slower than H, making K faster than I but
slower than both H and J. Thus, K is the second slowest.

Question 4:
A runs faster than C. B runs slower than C, but faster than D. Who is the second slowest
runner?
Choices:
A. A
B. B
C. C
D. D
Answer: B. B
Solution:
A is faster than both C and D. C is faster than B but slower than A, making B faster than D but
slower than both A and C. Thus, B is the second slowest.

Question 5:
Rita is older than Manuel. Carlos is older than Manuel but younger than Rita. Who is the
youngest?
Choices:
A. Rita
B. Manuel
C. Carlos
D. Cannot be determined

[Link] | [Link]
 37

Answer: B. Manuel
Solution:
Given that Rita is older than Manuel, and Carlos is older than Manuel but younger than Rita, it
places Manuel as the youngest. Manuel is younger than both Carlos and Rita.

[Link] | [Link]
 38

Logical Puzzles
1. If 'doctor' is coded as 'fpeuqs', how is 'patient' coded?
A. Rcdjgov
B. Rbvjgov
C. Rbvjdev
D. Rthxgov

2. If 'player' is coded as 'rmczgs', how is 'fighter' coded?

A. Hjiivft
B. Hjiixtu
C. Hkcdvft
D. Hlmivft

3. If 'investor' is coded as 'koxfuqsu', how is 'funders' coded?

A. Hvpegsu
B. Hwqegsu
C. Hvphgtu
D. Itpegsu

4. If 'college' is coded as 'epnmghg', how is 'university' coded?

A. wokwgsujvz
B. xpkwgsujvz
C. wokvhtujvz
D. wokwgsukuy

5. If 'hobbies' is coded as 'jpdckfu', how is 'passion' coded?

A. Rbutkpp
B. Scutkpp
C. Rbvukpp
D. Rbutlno

[Link] | [Link]
 39

6. If 'holiday' is coded as 'kqokgcb', how is 'vacation' coded?

A. ydfjrsv
B. ydfkrsv
C. ycfcwkrp
D. xdfkrsv

7. If 'library' is coded as 'oketdtb', how is 'reading' coded?

A. Ugdflpj
B. vhqvkmr
C. vhdosml
D. vhpvlmr

8. If 'meeting' is coded as 'pghvlpj', how is 'session' coded?

A. vhpvjmr
B. Vgvuqlq
C. vhuvlmr
D. vhqvlmr

9. If 'teacher' is coded as 'wgdekgu', how is 'student' coded?

A. vxshvkr
B. wxtxuln
C. wvsgvmk
D. Vvxfhpw

10. If 'network' is coded as 'qgwyrtn', how is 'database' coded?

A. Gcwcecvg
B. gcvefduf
C. gcuefdwb
D. gduefduf

[Link] | [Link]
 40

Answers
1. The pattern alternates between adding 2 and adding 1 to each letter's position in the alphabet
for 'doctor' to 'fpeuqs'. Applying the same pattern to 'patient' yields 'rbvjgov"'.
2. The pattern alternates between adding 2 and adding 1 to each letter's position in the alphabet
for 'player' to 'rmczgs'. Applying the same pattern to 'fighter' yields 'hjiivft'.

3. The pattern alternates between adding 2 and adding 1 to each letter's position in the
alphabet for 'investor' to 'koxfuuqs'. Applying the same pattern to 'funders' yields 'hvpegsu'.

4. The pattern alternates between adding 2 and adding 1 to each letter's position in the alphabet
for 'college' to 'epnmghg'. Applying the same pattern to 'university' yields 'wokwgsujvz'.
5. The pattern alternates between adding 2 and adding 1 to each letter's position in the
alphabet for 'hobbies' to 'jpdckfu'. Applying the same pattern to 'passion' yields 'rbutkpp'.
6. The pattern alternates between adding 3 and adding 2 to each letter's position in the alphabet
for 'holiday' to 'kqokgcb'. Applying the same pattern to 'vacation' yields 'ycfcwkrp'.
7. The pattern alternates between adding 3 and adding 2 to each letter's position in the
alphabet for 'library' to 'oketdtb'. Applying the same pattern to 'reading' yields 'ugdflpj'.
8. The pattern alternates between adding 3 and adding 2 to each letter's position in the
alphabet for 'meeting' to 'pghvlpj'. Applying the same pattern to 'session' yields 'vgvuqlq'.
9. The pattern alternates between adding 3, adding 2, and adding 3 to each letter's position in
the alphabet for 'teacher' to 'wgdekgu'. Applying the same pattern to 'student' yields 'vvxfhpw'.
10. The pattern alternates between adding 3 and adding 2 to each letter's position in the
alphabet for 'network' to qgwyrtn'. Applying the same pattern to 'database' yields 'gcwcecvg'.

[Link] | [Link]
 41

Logic and Pattern Recognition

Tips for Answering Logic and Pattern Recognition Questions

Identify the Pattern:
Look at the sequence of numbers, letters, or shapes.
Identify any consistent changes or increments between elements.
Break Down the Components:
If dealing with multiple components (like letter-number combinations), analyze each component
separately.
Determine the pattern for numbers and letters individually.
Check for Arithmetic or Geometric Sequences:
For number patterns, check if they increase or decrease by a constant amount (arithmetic) or by
a multiple (geometric).
Calculate the differences or ratios between successive terms.
Observe Letter Sequences:
Identify the position of each letter in the alphabet.
Check for patterns such as forward or backward steps, skipping letters, or alternating
sequences.
Look for Alternating Patterns:
Some sequences alternate between two or more patterns.
Pay attention to every second, third, or fourth element to see if a sub-pattern exists.
Consider Multiple Possibilities:
If one pattern doesn’t fit, consider other logical possibilities.
Sometimes patterns involve a combination of arithmetic, geometric, and alphabetic sequences.
Double-Check Your Assumptions:
Ensure your identified pattern holds true for all given elements.
Verify that the identified rule applies consistently throughout the sequence.
Use Elimination Techniques:
Narrow down choices by eliminating those that clearly don’t fit the identified pattern.
Focus on the most plausible options and test them against the pattern.
Practice Regularly:
Regular practice with different types of patterns improves recognition skills.
Familiarize yourself with common patterns and sequences to increase speed and accuracy.
Stay Calm and Focused:

[Link] | [Link]
 42

Keep a clear mind and avoid getting overwhelmed by complex patterns.

Take a systematic approach to analyze each component carefully.
Practice in Logic and Pattern Recognition
Problem 1. Which letter-number combination will correctly complete the pattern below?
3-B-5, 6-D-9, 9-F-13, ???
A) 12-H-17
B) 12-G-17
C) 12-H-16
D) 13-H-18
E) 12-I-17
Correct Answer: A) 12-H-17
Pattern Explanation: First number increases by 3 each step. The letters follow every second
consonant in the alphabet. The second number increases by 4, then 4, expecting another 4.
Problem 2. Which letter-numbers combination will correctly complete the pattern below?
1-Z-2, 2-X-4, 3-V-6, ???
A) 4-T-8
B) 4-U-8
C) 5-T-9
D) 5-U-10
E) 4-T-9
Correct Answer: A) 4-T-8
Pattern Explanation:
First number increases by 1 each step. The letters are moving back by 2 positions in the
alphabet each time. Second number increases by 2 each step.
Problem 3. Which letter-numbers combination will correctly complete the pattern below?
7-M-14, 8-O-16, 9-Q-18, ???
A) 10-S-20
B) 10-R-20
C) 10-S-21
D) 11-S-22
E) 10-T-20
Correct Answer: A) 10-S-20
Pattern Explanation:
First number increases by 1 each step. Letters move forward 2 positions in the alphabet.
Second number increases by 2 each step.
Problem 4. Which letter-numbers combination will correctly complete the pattern below?
4-J-8, 5-L-10, 6-N-12, ???

[Link] | [Link]
 43

A) 7-P-14
B) 8-P-16
C) 7-Q-14
D) 7-O-14
E) 7-P-15
Correct Answer: A) 7-P-14
Pattern Explanation:
First number increases by 1 each step. Letters follow every second letter forward in the
alphabet. The second number increases by 2 each step.
Problem 5. Which letter-numbers combination will correctly complete the pattern below?
12-T-24, 14-V-28, 16-X-32, ???
A) 18-Z-36
B) 18-Y-36
C) 17-Z-34
D) 19-Z-38
E) 18-Z-37
Correct Answer: A) 18-Z-36
Pattern Explanation:
First number increases by 2 each step. Letters move forward by 2 positions in the alphabet
each time. Second number increases by 4 each step.
Problem 6. Which letter-numbers combination will correctly complete the pattern below?
15-A-30, 18-C-36, 21-E-42, ???
A) 24-G-48
B) 23-G-46
C) 24-F-48
D) 24-H-49
E) 25-G-50
Correct Answer: A) 24-G-48
Pattern Explanation:
First number increases by 3 each step. The letters are consecutive vowels. Second number
increases by 6 each step.
Problem 7. Which letter-numbers combination will correctly complete the pattern below?
20-K-40, 23-N-46, 26-Q-52, ???
A) 29-T-58
B) 29-S-58
C) 29-U-59
D) 30-T-60
E) 29-T-57
Correct Answer: A) 29-T-58

[Link] | [Link]
 44

Pattern Explanation:
First number increases by 3 each step. The letters skip two letters forward in the alphabet each
time. Second number increases by 6 each step.
Problem 8. Which letter-numbers combination will correctly complete the pattern below?
3-H-6, 6-K-12, 9-N-18, ???
A) 12-Q-24
B) 12-P-24
C) 12-R-25
D) 13-Q-26
E) 12-Q-23
Correct Answer: A) 12-Q-24
Pattern Explanation:
First number increases by 3 each step. The letters skip two letters forward in the alphabet each
time. Second number doubles the first number.

[Link] | [Link]
 45

Syllogisms
1. No UFC fighter is gentle. All Buddhists are gentle. Thus ___________
A. No UFC fighter is Buddhist
B. Some UFC fighters are Buddhists
C. All Buddhists are UFC fighters.
D. Some Buddhists are UFC fighters

Answer
The first premise can be illustrated on this diagram below. It shows that the set of UFC fighter
does not intersect with the set of gentle individuals.

Adding the second premise, it shows that the set of Buddhists are inside the set of gentle
individuals.

Thus, the conclusion that can be drawn is that no UFC fighter is a Buddhist.

Some UFC fighters are Buddhists is incorrect because it is not supported by the premises as
shown in the diagram.
All Buddhists are UFC fighters is incorrect because it is not supported by the premises as

[Link] | [Link]
 46

shown in the diagram.

Some Buddhists are UFC fighters is incorrect because it is not supported by the premises as
shown in the diagram.

2. Some book lovers are residents of Pasig City. No resident of Pasig City will ever support
abortion. Thus,
A. Some book lovers may or may not support abortion
B. All book lovers support abortion
C. All book lovers do not support abortion
D. No book lover reside in Pasig City
The first premise can be illustrated in this diagram. It shows that the set of set of book lovers
intersect with the set of Pasig City residents.

Adding the second premise, it shows that the set of Pasig City residents does not intersect with
the set of abortion supporters. However, there is no reasonable certainty that the set of abortion
supporters will intersect with the set of book lovers. In this diagram, book lovers do not intersect
with abortion supporters .

In this diagram, abortion supporters may intersect with book lovers.

[Link] | [Link]
 47

Thus, the conclusion that can be drawn is that some book lovers may or may not support
abortion

All book lovers support abortion is incorrect because it is not supported by the premises as
shown in the diagram.
All book lovers do not support abortion is incorrect because it is not supported by the premises
as shown in the diagram.
No book lover reside in Pasig City is incorrect because it is not supported by the premises as
shown in the diagram.

3. All Youtubers are famous people. Oprah is a famous person. Thus, _______________
A. Oprah is a Youtuber
B. Oprah is not a Youtuber
C. No famous people is a Youtuber
D. Oprah may or may not be a Youtuber

The first premise can be illustrated in the diagram below. It shows that the set Youtubers is
included in the set of famous people.

[Link] | [Link]
 48

Adding the second premise, Oprah who is included in the set of famous persons may be
included in the set of Youtubers as well as shown in the diagram below

Or, Oprah may also not be included in the set of Youtubers as shown in the diagram below.

[Link] | [Link]
 49

The conclusion is that Oprah may or may not be a Youtuber.

Oprah is a Youtuber is incorrect because it is not supported by the premises as shown in the
diagram.
Oprah is not a Youtuber is incorrect because it is not supported by the premises as shown in the
diagram.
No famous people is a Youtuber is incorrect because it is not supported by the premises as
shown in the diagram.

[Link] | [Link]
 50

Phobias

Arachnophobia: Fear of spiders. Anthophobia: Fear of flowers.

Acrophobia: Fear of heights. Aerophobia: Fear of flying.

Claustrophobia: Fear of enclosed spaces. Thanatophobia: Fear of death or dying.

Agoraphobia: Fear of open or crowded Hemophobia: Fear of blood.

spaces.
Glossophobia: Fear of public speaking.
Cynophobia: Fear of dogs.
Aviophobia: Fear of flying.
Ophidiophobia: Fear of snakes.
Chestnutophobia: Fear of chestnuts.
Trypanophobia: Fear of needles or injections.
Emetophobia: Fear of vomiting.
Mysophobia: Fear of germs or dirt.
Nomophobia: Fear of being without a mobile
Nyctophobia: Fear of darkness or night. phone.

Sociophobia: Fear of social situations or Triskaidekaphobia: Fear of the number 13.

being judged.

[Link] | [Link]
 51

Branches of Science

Biology: Study of living organisms and life Genetics: Study of heredity and the variation
processes. of inherited characteristics.

Chemistry: Study of matter, its properties, Meteorology: Study of weather, atmospheric

and chemical reactions. conditions, and climate.

Physics: Study of matter, energy, and the Oceanography: Study of the ocean, its
fundamental forces of nature. ecosystems, and marine life.

Geology: Study of the Earth, its structure, and Entomology: Study of insects and their
the processes that shape it. relationships to humans, other organisms,
and the environment.
Astronomy: Study of celestial objects, space,
and the universe as a whole. Neuroscience: Study of the nervous system,
brain, and behavior.
Ecology: Study of interactions between
organisms and their environment. Pharmacology: Study of drugs, their effects,
and how they interact with living organisms.
Botany: Study of plants and their biology. Forensic Science: Study of applying scientific
principles and techniques to criminal
Zoology: Study of animals and their behavior, investigations.
physiology, and classification.
Paleontology: Study of fossils and ancient life
Microbiology: Study of microscopic forms.
organisms, such as bacteria and viruses.
Biochemistry: Study of chemical processes
Anthropology: Study of humans, their and substances within living organisms.
societies, cultures, and biological
characteristics. Immunology: Study of the immune system
and its responses to pathogens and
diseases.

[Link] | [Link]
 52

Collective Nouns

Pack: A group of wolves. Troop: A group of monkeys or scouts.

Troupe: A group of dancers or actors. Fleet: A group of ships or vehicles.

Herd: A group of cattle or other large animals. Murder: A group of crows.

Flock: A group of sheep or birds. Bale: A group of turtles.

School: A group of fish. Skein: A group of geese (when they are

flying).
Colony: A group of penguins or ants.
Quiver: A group of cobras.
Swarm: A group of bees or insects.
Cackle: A group of hyenas.
Gaggle: A group of geese (when they are on
the ground). Sounder: A group of wild boars.

Pod: A group of dolphins or whales. Sloth: A group of bears.

Drove: A group of pigs. Parliament: A group of owls.

[Link] | [Link]
 53

Roman Numerals

[Link] | [Link]
 1

Table of Contents

1987 Constitution 2
Article III Bill of Rights 13
Introduction to RA 6713 16
Prohibited Acts and Transactions Under RA 67131 19
Environment Management and Protection 23
Peace and Human Rights Issues and Concepts 29

[Link] / [Link]
 2

1987 Constitution

Overview of the 1987 Constitution - Civil Service Exam

Philippine 1987 Constitution Overview

General Information
• Purpose: Establishes the framework for the government of the Philippines and asserts
the sovereignty of the Filipino people.
• Ratification: Ratified on February 2, 1987, following the EDSA People Power
Revolution.
Executive Branch
• Head: The President of the Philippines, who serves as both the head of state and the
head of government.
• Term: The President serves a single six-year term without re-election.
• Key Powers:
o Chief Executive: Manages the executive branch of the government.
o Commander-in-Chief: Controls the Armed Forces of the Philippines, especially
during emergencies.
o Appointment Authority: Appoints key officials in the executive branch, judiciary,
and armed forces.
o Diplomatic Powers: Handles foreign relations, negotiates treaties, and receives
ambassadors.
o Veto Powers: Has the authority to veto legislation, which can be overridden by a
two-thirds majority in Congress.
o Pardoning Power: Grants pardons and reprieves, and remits fines and
forfeitures.
o Budgetary Power: Presents the national budget to Congress.
Legislative Branch
• Structure: Bicameral Congress, composed of the Senate and the House of
Representatives.
• Senate: 24 senators serving six-year terms.
• House of Representatives: Members serve three-year terms; seats vary by population.

[Link] / [Link]
 3

• Key Powers:
o Lawmaking: Crafts and passes national legislation.
o Oversight: Monitors and supervises executive actions and agencies.
o Impeachment and Trials: Initiates impeachment processes; Senate acts as the
trial court for impeachments.
o Budgetary and Revenue Responsibilities: Initiates all revenue-raising
measures in the House; Senate can propose amendments.
Judicial Branch
• Supreme Court: Comprised of a Chief Justice and fourteen Associate Justices.
• Appointment: Justices are appointed by the President from a Judicial and Bar Council
list.
• Key Powers:
o Judicial Review: Assesses the constitutionality of laws, decrees, and
governmental acts.
o Adjudicatory Authority: Resolves legal disputes and interprets laws.
o Administrative Oversight: Manages and supervises all courts and court
personnel.
Bill of Rights
• Protection of Fundamental Rights:
o Due Process and Equal Protection: Guarantees fair legal processes and equal
protection under the law.
o Freedom of Speech and Expression: Ensures the freedom of speech,
expression, and the press.
o Freedom of Religion: Protects the right to practice or not practice any religion.
o Rights to Privacy and Against Unlawful Searches: Secures individuals and
properties against unreasonable searches and seizures.
o Rights of the Accused: Affirms rights to a fair trial, legal representation, and the
presumption of innocence.
o Habeas Corpus: Maintains the right to challenge unlawful detentions, except
under specific emergency conditions.
Autonomy of Local Governments
• Local Government Units (LGUs): Recognizes provinces, cities, municipalities, and
barangays, allowing them to generate their own revenues and impose taxes within
guidelines set by Congress.

[Link] / [Link]
 4

• Decentralization: Encourages decentralization to enhance local autonomy, enabling

local leaders to address community-specific needs effectively.
• Elected Officials: Promotes democratic governance at the local level through the direct
election of governors, mayors, and barangay officials.
• Local Legislative Power: Empowers local legislative bodies to enact ordinances and
resolutions for better local governance.
• Local Autonomy: Ensures local units are self-reliant and effective in contributing to
national development.
• Accountability: Holds local governments accountable to the national government,
ensuring adherence to laws and proper use of authority.
Separation of Church and State
• Principle: Ensures that the state remains neutral in matters of religion, prohibiting the
establishment of a state religion and safeguarding the freedom of religious expression.
• Implications: The government cannot pass laws that favor or hinder any religion, nor
can it require religious participation or use public funds to support any religion.
Age Requirements for Elected Officials
• President: Must be at least 40 years old at the time of the election.
• Senator: Must be at least 35 years old on the day of the election.
• Congressman (House of Representatives): Must be at least 25 years old on the day
of the election.
Right to Form Associations
• Guarantee: Individuals have the right to form associations, societies, or groups for
purposes not contrary to law.
• Scope: This right extends to both labor unions and social clubs, among other types of
organizations, enhancing civic participation and collective bargaining.
Right to Information
• Access to Information: Citizens have a right to access information on matters of public
concern from government agencies, under certain conditions and exceptions, to promote
transparency and accountability in government.
• Limits: The right to information may be subject to reasonable conditions prescribed by
law, ensuring that the exercise of this right does not impede government operations or
violate privacy rights.
Amendment of the Constitution
• Methods: The Constitution can be amended through a Constitutional Convention,
Constituent Assembly, or People’s Initiative.

[Link] / [Link]
 5

• Ratification: All proposed amendments must be ratified by a majority vote in a national

referendum.
Constituent Assembly (Con-Ass)
• Function: Acts as an alternative to a Constitutional Convention, where Congress
proposes amendments by a three-fourths majority.
Constitutional Commission
• Purpose: Tasked with drafting the Constitution or amendments, this body consists of
appointed experts and conducts consultations before finalizing the draft for ratification.
Impeachment
• Purpose: Allows for the legal removal of high-ranking officials who violate the
Constitution or commit other high crimes.
• Process: Initiated by the House of Representatives, and upon approval, the Senate
conducts a trial where a two-thirds vote is necessary for conviction.

Exercises
1. You are a lawyer representing a private landowner whose property is being acquired by the
government to build a new highway. The landowner believes that the compensation offered is
unfair. How would you advocate for the landowner’s rights under the doctrine of eminent
domain?
A. Advise the landowner to accept the government’s offer, as there is no option to challenge the
compensation provided in cases of eminent domain.
B. File a case in court to challenge the compensation amount, arguing that just compensation
under the Constitution requires payment that reflects the fair market value of the property being
acquired.
C. Recommend that the landowner refuse to sell the property, as the government cannot force a
sale without the owner’s consent.
D. Suggest that the landowner seek additional compensation beyond fair market value to
account for sentimental value attached to the property.

2. As a city planner, you are tasked with developing a new public park that will improve
community welfare, but the land needed is privately owned. Some residents are concerned
about the government forcibly acquiring their property. How would you explain the government’s
right to use eminent domain while ensuring property owners are treated fairly?

[Link] / [Link]
 6

A. Justify the acquisition by explaining that eminent domain allows the state to take private
property for public use, but the government must provide just compensation to ensure property
owners are fairly compensated for their loss.
B. Inform the property owners that the government has the absolute right to take their property
without explanation or compensation if it’s for the public good.
C. Offer the property owners a set price below market value to expedite the process and avoid
lengthy negotiations.
D. Cancel the public park project to avoid conflict with property owners, as the government
should not interfere with private land ownership.

3. Question.
You are part of a local council that has just passed a law requiring restaurants to display
nutritional information on their menus to promote healthier eating habits. Some restaurant
owners complain that this infringes on their autonomy. How would you justify this law based on
Police Power?
A. Justify the law by explaining that Police Power allows for regulations that protect public
health, and requiring nutritional information on menus helps consumers make informed
decisions that can prevent lifestyle diseases and promote overall health.
B. Allow restaurant owners to decide whether or not to display the information, as their
autonomy should not be interfered with.
C. Suggest that restaurants display the information only upon request, to avoid burdening the
owners.
D. Cancel the law and allow restaurants to operate without regulations on what they can display
to customers

4. Question.
As a city mayor, you propose a new ordinance that requires businesses to reduce their carbon
emissions to combat climate change. Some business owners argue that the ordinance violates
their right to freely conduct business. How would you justify this ordinance under the state’s
Police Power?
A. Explain that the ordinance is a legitimate use of Police Power because it is designed to
protect public health and the environment by reducing harmful emissions, which aligns with the
state’s responsibility to promote the common good.
B. Cancel the ordinance, as businesses have the right to operate without government
interference.
C. Allow businesses to continue their operations without any restrictions, as economic growth
should take priority over environmental concerns.

[Link] / [Link]
 7

D. Only enforce the ordinance on larger businesses, allowing smaller ones to operate without
restrictions to avoid backlash.

5. Question.
You are a member of a city council where a new ordinance requires property owners to
implement fire safety measures, such as installing smoke detectors and fire alarms. Some
property owners argue that this infringes on their property rights. How would you explain the
ordinance using the Police Power doctrine?
A. Inform the property owners that the ordinance is a valid exercise of Police Power as it aims to
protect public safety and prevent harm by requiring basic fire safety measures for the common
good.
B. Cancel the ordinance, as property owners should have full control over the safety standards
in their buildings.
C. Explain that the city government cannot regulate private property unless the property owners
are involved in the decision-making process.
D. Suggest that property owners install fire safety measures only in high-risk areas to minimize
complaints.

6. Question.
As a governor, you are considering implementing a temporary lockdown in response to a public
health emergency. Some citizens are concerned that restricting movement violates their
freedom. How can you justify this measure under the state’s Police Power, while ensuring the
public understands the rationale behind it?
A. Explain that the temporary restriction on movement is justified by the state’s Police Power to
protect public health and safety, especially during emergencies, as long as it is applied fairly and
transparently.
B. Allow citizens to continue moving freely, as their freedom of movement should never be
restricted, even during emergencies.
C. Impose the lockdown without any public explanation, assuming the government has the
authority to do so in emergencies.
D. Lift the lockdown for individuals who promise to follow health guidelines while continuing to
impose it on others.

7. Question.
You are a city council member, and a new regulation has been proposed that restricts certain
business activities in residential areas to reduce traffic and noise. Some business owners argue

[Link] / [Link]
 8

that this interferes with their right to property and the free use of their businesses. How would
you explain the rationale behind this regulation based on Police Power?
A. Explain that Police Power allows for the regulation of business activities to ensure the well-
being of the community, including protecting residential areas from excessive traffic and noise,
which disrupts the general welfare and quality of life.
B. Allow all businesses to operate freely in residential areas to avoid any property rights
disputes.
C. Advise the business owners to relocate to a different part of the city without giving any
reasons for the restrictions.
D. Cancel the regulation and focus on more lenient measures that do not affect property rights
at all.

8. Question.
As the mayor of a small city, you are considering enacting a curfew to reduce crime rates in
certain areas. Some residents, however, argue that this violates their personal freedom to move
around the city at night. How would you justify the curfew based on the state’s Police Power,
while ensuring it serves the broader interest of the community?
A. Justify the curfew by explaining that the Police Power allows the state to impose restrictions
on personal liberty when necessary for the public safety, and reducing crime rates at night is in
the best interest of the entire community.
B. Allow the residents to move freely, even at night, to avoid infringing on their personal liberty,
regardless of the potential increase in crime.
C. Enforce the curfew without providing any explanation, as the government has full authority
over the movement of citizens.
D. Only enforce the curfew on individuals who have previously been involved in crimes to
reduce complaints about personal freedom.

9. Question.
As a local government official, you are tasked with implementing a new ordinance that limits
public gatherings in certain areas to reduce noise pollution and promote community health.
However, some residents argue that the ordinance infringes on their personal liberties. How
would you justify the ordinance based on the state’s exercise of Police Power, while ensuring it
fosters the common good?
A. Explain that the Police Power of the state allows for restrictions on personal liberty if they are
necessary to protect public health, safety, and the general welfare of the community. In this
case, reducing noise pollution promotes the health and well-being of all residents.
B. Allow public gatherings to continue without any restrictions to avoid infringing on personal
liberties, even if it negatively impacts the community.

[Link] / [Link]
 9

C. Impose the ordinance but offer no justification, as public officials have the authority to create
laws without needing to explain them.
D. Propose that residents who disagree with the ordinance should relocate to areas where
public gatherings are unrestricted.

10. Question.
You are a legislator and the Supreme Court has recently struck down a law passed by
Congress, ruling that it violated executive powers. Some of your colleagues are calling for a new
law to be passed that challenges the Court’s ruling. How would you ensure that the new
legislation respects the principles of separation of powers?
A. Support passing a new law that directly overrides the Supreme Court’s ruling, as Congress
should have the final say.
B. Recommend drafting a new version of the law that addresses the Supreme Court’s concerns
while respecting the executive branch’s authority, ensuring it complies with the Constitution.
C. Ignore the ruling and push for the same law to be passed again to assert Congress's power
over the other branches.
D. Propose reducing the judiciary’s authority by amending the Constitution to limit judicial review
powers.

Answers.
1. B.
Answer
File a case in court to challenge the compensation amount, arguing that just compensation
under the Constitution requires payment that reflects the fair market value of the property being
acquired.

Explanation:
Just compensation in eminent domain cases requires that the landowner be paid the fair market
value of the property, ensuring that they are not financially disadvantaged by the state’s
acquisition. If the landowner believes the compensation is inadequate, they have the right to
challenge the amount in court, seeking an adjustment to reflect the true value of the land. This
protects the property owner's rights while allowing the state to carry out necessary public works.

2. Answer. A
Solution.

[Link] / [Link]
 10

Answer
Justify the acquisition by explaining that eminent domain allows the state to take private
property for public use, but the government must provide just compensation to ensure property
owners are fairly compensated for their loss.

Explanation:
Eminent domain is the state's power to acquire private property for public use, but the 1987
Constitution (Article III, Section 9) ensures that property owners receive just compensation for
any land taken. The state must balance public interest with the property rights of individuals by
offering fair market value compensation to those affected. This approach ensures that while the
government can promote public welfare, private property rights are also respected.

3. Answer. A
Solution.
Answer
Justify the law by explaining that Police Power allows for regulations that protect public health,
and requiring nutritional information on menus helps consumers make informed decisions that
can prevent lifestyle diseases and promote overall health.

Explanation:
The exercise of Police Power is justified when it promotes public health and welfare. Requiring
nutritional information on menus allows consumers to make healthier choices, which can reduce
the incidence of diseases like obesity and diabetes. The law, therefore, serves the common
good while balancing individual autonomy with public health objectives.

4. Answer. A
Solution.
Answer
Explain that the ordinance is a legitimate use of Police Power because it is designed to protect
public health and the environment by reducing harmful emissions, which aligns with the state’s
responsibility to promote the common good.

Explanation:
The Police Power of the state allows the government to impose regulations that protect public
health, safety, and welfare, even if they restrict certain economic activities. Requiring
businesses to reduce carbon emissions is a valid exercise of this power, as it addresses
environmental issues that affect the well-being of society, promoting sustainability for future
generations.

5. Answer. A
Solution.

[Link] / [Link]
 11

Answer
Inform the property owners that the ordinance is a valid exercise of Police Power as it aims to
protect public safety and prevent harm by requiring basic fire safety measures for the common
good.

Explanation:
The Police Power of the state allows for regulations that ensure the safety and well-being of the
public. By requiring fire safety measures, the ordinance serves the common good by preventing
potential hazards and protecting the lives of residents. While property rights are important, they
can be reasonably restricted when public safety is at risk.

6. Answer. A
Solution.
Answer
Explain that the temporary restriction on movement is justified by the state’s Police Power to
protect public health and safety, especially during emergencies, as long as it is applied fairly and
transparently.

Explanation:
The state’s Police Power allows it to enact temporary measures, such as restricting movement,
to address public health emergencies and protect the welfare of its citizens. However, it is
important that these restrictions are applied fairly and that the public understands the need for
such measures to foster cooperation and maintain trust.

7. Answer. A
Solution.
Answer
Explain that Police Power allows for the regulation of business activities to ensure the well-being
of the community, including protecting residential areas from excessive traffic and noise, which
disrupts the general welfare and quality of life.

Explanation:
Police Power enables the government to impose restrictions on property use if it benefits the
health, safety, and welfare of the community. Regulating business activities in residential areas
to prevent noise and traffic disturbances serves the common good, ensuring that residents’
quality of life is protected. The restrictions are a lawful exercise of Police Power, balancing
individual property rights with the broader public interest.

8. Answer. A
Solution.

[Link] / [Link]
 12

Answer
Justify the curfew by explaining that the Police Power allows the state to impose restrictions on
personal liberty when necessary for the public safety, and reducing crime rates at night is in the
best interest of the entire community.

Explanation:
Police Power grants the state the ability to restrict certain freedoms when it is essential for
public safety and welfare. In this case, the curfew aims to reduce crime and protect citizens,
which benefits the entire community. The state’s duty to promote the general welfare justifies the
temporary limitation on personal freedom, ensuring that the restriction is for the common good.

9. Answer. A
Solution.
Answer
Explain that the Police Power of the state allows for restrictions on personal liberty if they are
necessary to protect public health, safety, and the general welfare of the community. In this
case, reducing noise pollution promotes the health and well-being of all residents.

Explanation:
Police Power gives the state authority to impose certain restrictions on personal liberty or
property in order to promote the common good, including public health, safety, and morals. The
ordinance, which limits public gatherings to reduce noise pollution, is an exercise of Police
Power because it prioritizes the well-being of the community over individual liberties. By
explaining that the ordinance promotes the general welfare, you can justify the restriction while
remaining within the legal framework that governs Police Power.

This approach respects both the law and the need for public order, balancing individual
freedoms with the broader interests of society.

10. Answer. B
Solution.
Recommend drafting a new version of the law that addresses the Supreme Court’s concerns
while respecting the executive branch’s authority, ensuring it complies with the Constitution.

Explanation:
The separation of powers ensures that each branch of government operates within its defined
role, with judicial review serving as a key check on both the legislative and executive branches.
By drafting a new law that addresses the Supreme Court’s concerns, Congress can ensure that
its actions are constitutional and do not infringe upon the powers of the executive branch.
Ignoring or overriding the Court's decision would violate the principle of checks and balances,
while limiting judicial power would undermine the balance between the branches of government.

[Link] / [Link]
 13

Article III: Bill of Rights

The Bill of Rights is a vital part of the 1987 Philippine Constitution, aimed at protecting the
fundamental freedoms and rights of every individual from abuse by the government and
ensuring that due process and justice are upheld. In addition to the rights already covered (e.g.,
freedom of speech, due process, privacy, etc.), the Bill of Rights also includes several other
significant protections:

1. Right to Form Associations

o Citizens have the right to form associations, organizations, or unions without
interference from the government.
May karapatan ang mga mamamayan na bumuo ng mga samahan,
organisasyon, o unyon para sa kanilang mga layunin o interes.

2. Freedom of Religion
o Every individual is guaranteed the freedom to practice any religion without fear of
persecution. The government cannot establish an official state religion or prohibit
the free exercise of any faith.
Ang bawat tao ay may karapatang pumili ng relihiyon at isagawa ito nang
malaya, nang walang takot sa diskriminasyon o pag-uusig mula sa pamahalaan.

3. Liberty of Abode and Travel

o Freedom to Choose Residence: Individuals are free to choose their place of
residence, and the government cannot prohibit them from doing so except on
lawful grounds.
o Freedom to Travel: Citizens have the right to travel within the country and
abroad. Restrictions may only be imposed by law in the interest of national
security, public safety, or public health.
Ang mga mamamayan ay may kalayaan sa pagpili ng kanilang tirahan at
karapatang maglakbay sa loob at labas ng bansa, maliban na lang kung may
legal na batayan para ito ay ipagbawal.

4. Right to Information
o Citizens have the right to access information on matters of public concern,
including records, documents, and transactions of the government.
o Exception: Confidential information affecting national security, trade secrets, and
privileged communication are exempted.
May karapatan ang bawat mamamayan na humingi ng impormasyon mula sa

[Link] / [Link]
 14

gobyerno ukol sa mga pampublikong usapin, maliban sa mga bagay na

maaaring makapinsala sa seguridad ng bansa o mga kumpidensyal na
impormasyon.

5. Non-Impairment of Contracts
o The government cannot pass any law impairing the obligation of contracts. This
means that agreements freely entered into by individuals or entities are protected
from government interference unless it is necessary for public welfare.
Hindi maaaring baguhin o tanggalin ng pamahalaan ang mga kontratang legal na
napagkasunduan ng mga partido, maliban na lang kung kinakailangan para sa
kapakanan ng publiko.

6. Right Against Double Jeopardy

o No person can be put on trial or punished for the same offense twice. Once a
person is acquitted or convicted of a crime, they cannot be tried again for the
same offense.
Hindi maaaring husgahan o parusahan ang isang tao nang dalawang beses para
sa parehong kasalanan. Kapag siya ay napawalang-sala o nahatulan, hindi na
siya maaaring muling litisin sa parehong kaso.

7. Right Against Involuntary Servitude

o Involuntary servitude or forced labor is prohibited, except as a punishment for a
crime where the person has been duly convicted.
Ipinagbabawal ang sapilitang paggawa o serbisyong hindi kusang loob, maliban
kung ito ay bahagi ng kaparusahan sa isang krimeng napatunayang ginawa ng
isang tao.

8. Right to Just Compensation

o Private property shall not be taken for public use without just compensation.
This means that the government may only expropriate private land if it is for
public purposes and the owner is paid fairly.
Hindi maaaring kunin ng pamahalaan ang pribadong pag-aari para sa
pampublikong paggamit nang hindi binabayaran ang may-ari nang patas.

9. Right to a Writ of Habeas Corpus

o This writ protects individuals from unlawful detention. If a person is unlawfully
detained, they can file for a writ of habeas corpus to demand that the court
order their release, unless there is a lawful reason for their detention.

[Link] / [Link]
 15

Ang Writ of Habeas Corpus ay nagpoprotekta laban sa ilegal na pagkakulong.

Kung may isang taong hinuli nang walang legal na batayan, maaaring humiling
ng writ upang ipalabas siya ng korte.

10. Right to Bail

o Every individual who is accused of a crime, except for offenses punishable by
reclusion perpetua (life imprisonment) and where the evidence of guilt is strong,
has the right to bail. This allows them temporary release while awaiting trial.
May karapatan ang bawat akusado na magpyansa upang pansamantalang
makalaya habang hinihintay ang paglilitis, maliban na lang sa mga kasong
mabigat gaya ng reclusion perpetua.

11. Right to Free Access to Courts

o Individuals should have free access to courts and legal remedies. The
Constitution ensures that justice is accessible to everyone, regardless of
financial capacity. The government should provide legal aid to those who cannot
afford it.
Ang bawat mamamayan ay dapat may malayang akses sa mga korte ng hustisya
at legal na tulong, lalo na ang mga walang kakayahang pinansyal upang matiyak
na ang hustisya ay abot-kamay ng lahat.

12. Prohibition Against Torture

o The use of torture, force, or intimidation to extract information or confessions is
strictly prohibited. No person shall be subjected to cruel, degrading, or inhumane
treatment or punishment.
Mahigpit na ipinagbabawal ang paggamit ng torture o puwersa upang makakuha
ng impormasyon o sapilitang pag-amin. Walang sinumang dapat isailalim sa
malupit o di-makataong pagtrato o parusa.

[Link] / [Link]
 16

Introduction to Republic Act No. 6713

Code of Conduct and Ethical Standards for Public Officials and Employees
1. Purpose and Policy
• RA 6713 establishes a framework to ensure accountability, integrity, and
transparency in public service.
• Public office is a public trust, and officials must serve the public interest above
personal gain.
• Ang bawat posisyon sa gobyerno ay isang pampublikong tiwala, ibig sabihin, ang
mga opisyal ng gobyerno ay may responsibilidad na unahin ang kapakanan ng publiko
kaysa sa pansariling interes. Dapat silang maglingkod nang tapat.

2. Norms of Conduct
Public officials must observe ethical norms:
• Commitment to public interest: Always prioritize the welfare of the people over
personal, familial, or financial interests.
• Professionalism: Act with diligence and efficiency in service delivery.
• Justness and Sincerity: Be fair and truthful in dealings. "Dapat maging patas at
tapat ang mga opisyal sa kanilang mga transaksyon".
• Political Neutrality: Officials should not use their office for partisan purposes.
• Responsiveness to the public: Provide timely, courteous, and effective services.
Ang mabilis at maayos na serbisyo sa publiko ay inaasahan mula sa mga kawani
ng gobyerno.
• Simplicity: Live modestly and avoid luxury or extravagance. Ang mga opisyal ng
gobyerno ay inaasahang mamuhay ng payak at iwasan ang magarbong
pamumuhay.

3. Duties of Public Officials and Employees

• Act promptly on letters and requests: Respond within 15 working days to ensure
transparency.
Ibig sabihin, kinakailangan nilang sumagot sa mga sulat o kahilingan ng publiko
sa loob ng 15 araw na may pasok, upang ipakita ang kanilang mabilis na pagtugon
sa pangangailangan ng publiko.
• Make documents accessible to the public: Public records should be made available
for inspection.
Ang mga opisyal ng gobyerno ay dapat gawing madaling makita at mabuksan ng

[Link] / [Link]
 17

publiko ang mga dokumentong pampubliko, upang magkaroon ng transparency o

bukas na pamahalaan.

4. Incentives and Rewards

• Rewards for outstanding public service include monetary bonuses, promotions, and
citations.
• A Committee on Awards reviews the performance of public officials and recommends
incentives for those who demonstrate ethical and exemplary service. Ang mga
gantimpala ay para sa mga opisyal na nagpakita ng kahusayan at tamang asal sa
kanilang tungkulin.

5. Prohibited Acts and Transactions

Public officials are prohibited from:
• Having financial interest in transactions that involve their office’s approval. Ang mga
opisyal ay hindi maaaring magkaroon ng pakinabang sa mga transaksyon na sila
ang mag-aapruba, upang maiwasan ang conflict of interest o pagkakaroon ng
pansariling interes.
• Soliciting or accepting gifts in exchange for influence.
Bawal silang tumanggap ng mga regalo o pabor na maaaring makaapekto sa
kanilang tungkulin, maliban na lamang kung ito ay mga simpleng souvenir o
marks of courtesy.

6. Statements and Disclosure of Assets, Liabilities, and Financial Interests

• Public officials must file a Statement of Assets, Liabilities, and Net Worth (SALN),
including their spouse’s and children’s assets.
Dapat isumite ng mga opisyal ang listahan ng kanilang ari-arian, utang, at iba
pang interes sa negosyo para sa transparency o pagiging bukas ng kanilang
pamumuhay.
• Filings are required:
o Within 30 days of assuming office.
o Annually, on or before April 30.
o Within 30 days after leaving office.

7. Conflict of Interest and Divestment

• Public officials must avoid conflicts of interest, where personal gain could interfere with
their public duties. Ang conflict of interest ay nangyayari kapag ang pansariling

[Link] / [Link]
 18

interes ng opisyal ay posibleng makaapekto sa tapat na pagtupad ng kanyang

tungkulin. Dapat iwasan ng mga opisyal ang ganitong sitwasyon.
• Officials must divest from business interests or resign from positions in private
businesses within 60 days of assuming office if a conflict of interest arises. Kung
sakaling magkaroon ng conflict of interest, kailangang iwanan o ibenta ng opisyal
ang kanilang bahagi sa negosyo sa loob ng 60 araw mula sa pag-upo sa posisyon.

8. Penalties for Violations

• Penalties for violating RA 6713 include fines, suspension, removal from office, and
disqualification from holding future public office.
Ang mga parusa ay maaaring magresulta sa multa, suspensyon, o pagtanggal sa
tungkulin ng opisyal na lumabag sa batas.

9. Administration and Enforcement

• The Civil Service Commission (CSC) and Ombudsman are responsible for enforcing
RA 6713. Ang Civil Service Commission at Ombudsman ang mga ahensyang may
pananagutan sa pagtiyak na nasusunod ang mga alituntunin ng RA 6713.

[Link] / [Link]
 19

Prohibited Acts and Transactions Under RA 6713

1. Financial and Material Interest
• Prohibition: Public officials and employees are strictly prohibited from having any
financial or material interest in transactions that require approval from their office. This
rule prevents conflicts of interest, ensuring that their decisions are not influenced by
personal financial gain.
• Why this is important: It ensures that public officials prioritize the public interest over
personal gain, preventing corruption and favoritism.
• Ang ganitong pagbabawal ay mahalaga upang masiguro na ang mga opisyal ng
gobyerno ay hindi naaakit o naiimpluwensyahan ng potensyal na kita o yaman mula sa
mga transaksyon. Kapag ang isang opisyal ay may pinansyal na interes sa isang
transaksyon, maaaring masira ang tiwala ng publiko dahil posibleng magdesisyon siya
nang hindi patas, at paboran ang sarili o mga koneksyon.
• Relatable Example:
o DPWH Example: A DPWH district engineer cannot have financial investments
or ownership in a construction company bidding for a road or infrastructure
project overseen by the DPWH office. If they do, it might lead to biased decisions
where the official favors their company over others.
o BIR Example: A BIR officer cannot be part-owner of a company under audit by
their division. This conflict of interest could result in lenient audits or biased
assessments in favor of their own company.

2. Outside Employment and Activities

Public officials are also prohibited from engaging in certain activities during their term of office.
This rule prevents potential conflicts between their private interests and public duties.
Specifically, they cannot:
a) Own, control, manage, or accept employment in private enterprises that are regulated,
supervised, or licensed by their office.
• Why this matters: If public officials are involved in businesses that their office regulates,
it might lead to biased decisions that favor their personal business ventures over the
public good.
• Kung ang isang opisyal ng gobyerno ay may direktang kaugnayan sa negosyo na
kanyang opisina ang namamahala o nagre-regulate, maaaring magkaroon ng hindi
patas na pagdedesisyon na mas pinapaboran ang personal niyang negosyo kaysa sa
interes ng publiko.
• Relatable Example: A DPWH officer cannot own shares in a construction materials
supplier that provides goods for DPWH projects. This could create an unfair advantage,
where the officer might recommend their own company for contracts.

[Link] / [Link]
 20

b) Engage in the private practice of their profession unless explicitly authorized by law or
the Constitution, and provided it does not conflict with their official duties.
• Relatable Example: A lawyer working at the Department of Justice (DOJ) cannot
simultaneously run a private law firm. The advice they give as a public servant may
conflict with the interests of their private clients, creating a conflict of interest.
• Kapag ang isang opisyal ng gobyerno ay may pribadong praktis, maaari itong magdulot
ng pagkalito sa pagitan ng kanilang opisyal na tungkulin at pribadong interes.
Halimbawa, kung ang isang abogado na nagtatrabaho sa Department of Justice ay
patuloy na kumukuha ng pribadong kliyente, maaaring magkaroon ng sitwasyon kung
saan ang interes ng kanyang pribadong kliyente ay sumasalungat sa interes ng
gobyerno.
c) Recommend any person for a position in a private enterprise that has official dealings with
their office.
• Why this is critical: Such recommendations may be seen as leveraging public office for
personal favors, which undermines merit-based hiring.
• Ipinagbabawal sa mga opisyal at empleyado ng gobyerno na magrekomenda ng
sinumang tao para sa isang posisyon sa isang pribadong negosyo na may opisyal na
transaksyon sa kanilang opisina. Layunin ng batas na ito na maiwasan ang paggamit ng
kanilang posisyon sa gobyerno upang makinabang ang kanilang mga personal na
kakilala o kamag-anak.
• Relatable Example: A barangay captain cannot recommend their cousin for a job in a
construction firm that has a project in their barangay, as this would give the appearance
of favoritism.
• Post-Term Rule: These prohibitions continue for one year after the official’s resignation
or retirement. However, public officials are allowed to practice a profession after leaving
office, as long as it doesn’t involve matters related to their former government office
during that year.

3. Disclosure and/or Misuse of Confidential Information

• Prohibition: Public officials and employees are prohibited from using or disclosing
confidential or classified information acquired by reason of their office, especially if it’s
not available to the public.
• What this prevents: This ensures that public officials cannot use inside knowledge to
further their personal interests or give unfair advantages to others.
• Pinipigilan nito ang mga opisyal na gamitin ang mga impormasyong hindi alam ng
publiko para sa kanilang personal na interes o upang bigyan ng hindi patas na
kalamangan ang ibang tao o organisasyon. Kapag ginagamit ang impormasyong ito
para sa pansariling pakinabang, nawawalan ng tiwala ang publiko sa gobyerno at
nasisira ang integridad ng kanilang serbisyo.

[Link] / [Link]
 21

• Relatable Example:
o BIR Example: A BIR tax officer who has access to confidential financial data
about a large company under audit cannot leak this information to rival firms in
exchange for money.
o DPWH Example: A DPWH official involved in the planning of a new road project
cannot disclose information about land prices or planned routes to real estate
developers in exchange for a bribe.

4. Solicitation or Acceptance of Gifts

• Prohibition: Public officials and employees are forbidden from soliciting or accepting
any gift, gratuity, favor, entertainment, loan, or anything of monetary value from
individuals or companies involved in transactions that their office regulates. This rule
applies if the gift is given in connection with their official duties.
• Why this is crucial: Acceptance of gifts during decision-making processes can create
the appearance of bribery, where the public official may be seen as being “bought” to
favor certain parties.
• Ang mga opisyal at empleyado ng gobyerno ay mahigpit na ipinagbabawal na humingi o
tumanggap ng kahit anong regalo, pabor, aliw, utang, o anumang bagay na may halaga
mula sa mga indibidwal o kompanya na may opisyal na transaksyon sa kanilang opisina.
Ang pagbabawal na ito ay partikular na umiiral kapag ang regalo o pabor ay ibinibigay
kaugnay ng kanilang mga opisyal na tungkulin.
Examples of prohibited scenarios:
• A DPWH project manager responsible for awarding contracts cannot accept an all-
expense-paid vacation from a contractor bidding for government projects. Doing so
could lead to a biased awarding of contracts.
• A BIR tax collector cannot accept cash gifts or holiday presents from business
owners who are undergoing audits. Accepting such gifts might appear as though the
auditor is being influenced to lower the company’s tax assessment.
• Exceptions for Foreign Gifts:
Gifts from foreign governments or entities can be accepted only under specific
conditions: a) If it is a gift of nominal value, like a small souvenir given as a courtesy
during official state visits. b) If it is a scholarship or fellowship grant or medical
treatment from foreign entities. c) If it is a travel grant for official purposes, subject to
approval by the official’s department.
• Example of an acceptable gift: A Filipino diplomat attending a conference abroad
may accept a commemorative plaque or souvenir from the host country as a courtesy.
However, they cannot accept expensive items such as luxury watches or vacation
packages.

[Link] / [Link]
 22

Enforcement and Oversight

• The Role of the Ombudsman: The Ombudsman is responsible for creating regulations
to enforce these rules, including the reporting and disclosure of gifts received by public
officials. The Ombudsman’s office is empowered to investigate violations of these
prohibitions and take appropriate legal action.
• Relatable Example: If a DPWH official is caught accepting bribes or gifts from a
contractor, the Ombudsman can initiate an investigation, and the official could face
suspension, dismissal, or legal charges.

Summary of the Prohibited Acts:

• Financial Conflicts: Public officials are prohibited from having financial or material
interests in transactions involving their office.
• Outside Employment: Public officials cannot hold positions in private enterprises
related to their regulatory functions.
• Misuse of Information: Public officials are forbidden from using confidential information
for personal gain.
• Gift Acceptance: Public officials are prohibited from accepting gifts from entities
involved in transactions with their office, with specific exceptions for officially sanctioned
gifts.
These provisions aim to prevent corruption, maintain integrity in public service, and ensure that
officials prioritize the public good over personal interests.

[Link] / [Link]
 23

Environment Management and Protection

Comprehensive Reviewer on Environmental Management and Protection
This overview focuses on the principles, practices, and legal frameworks surrounding
environmental management and protection, highlighting the key challenges and strategies
relevant to sustainable development.
Principles of Environmental Management
• Sustainable Development: Balancing the needs of present and future generations by
integrating environmental protection, economic growth, and social equity.
• Precautionary Principle: Taking preventive action in the face of uncertainty to avoid
harm to the environment and human health.
• Polluter Pays Principle: Ensuring that those who produce pollution are responsible for
managing and mitigating it, covering the costs of impacts on the environment.
• Public Participation: Engaging the community in environmental decision-making
processes, ensuring transparency and inclusivity.
Key Environmental Issues
• Climate Change, Biodiversity Loss, Deforestation, Water Scarcity and Pollution,
Air Pollution, Waste Management: Each representing significant challenges to
environmental sustainability with global and local impacts.
International Environmental Frameworks
• United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), Convention
on Biological Diversity (CBD), and Paris Agreement: Important international treaties
and agreements aimed at combating climate change, conserving biodiversity, and
promoting sustainable development.
Environmental Laws and Policies in the Philippines
• Philippine Clean Air Act, Clean Water Act, Ecological Solid Waste Management
Act, Climate Change Act, National Integrated Protected Areas System (NIPAS) Act:
Comprehensive legislations that provide mechanisms for managing air and water quality,
waste, climate change adaptation and mitigation, and conservation of protected areas.
Philippine Environmental Policy – Presidential Decree No. 1151
• Policy and Goals: Aims to foster conditions where humans and nature can thrive in
harmony, addressing the social and economic needs of current and future Filipinos, and
ensuring environmental quality conducive to dignity and well-being.
• Environmental Impact Statements: Mandates detailed statements for projects
affecting the environment, covering impacts, alternatives, and long-term productivity to
ensure sustainable resource use.

[Link] / [Link]
 24

• Implementation and Compliance: Outlines responsibilities for government agencies to

align their actions with the goals of environmental protection and sustainable
development.
Goals of PD 1151
1. Environmental Stewardship: Fulfill responsibilities as trustees of the environment for
future generations.
2. Safe and Healthy Environment: Ensure a safe, decent, healthful, productive, and
aesthetically pleasing environment for the people.
3. Sustainable Exploitation: Encourage the exploitation of the environment without
causing degradation or endangering human life, health, and safety.
4. Cultural Preservation: Preserve important historic and cultural aspects of the Philippine
heritage.
5. Population and Resource Balance: Achieve a rational and orderly balance between
population growth and resource use.
6. Resource Utilization: Improve the utilization of both renewable and non-renewable
resources.

Challenges and Solutions

• Challenges: Enforcement of environmental laws, integration of environmental
sustainability in development plans, and adaptation to climate change impacts.
• Solutions: Strengthening policy frameworks, promoting sustainable practices and
technologies, and enhancing public awareness and education on environmental issues.
Role of Technology and Innovation
• Technological Advances and Innovation in Conservation: Highlighting the role of
cleaner technologies and innovative conservation techniques like satellite imagery and
drones in enhancing the management and protection of natural resources.

Exercises
1. As an environmental activist, you’re advocating for cleaner air in a heavily industrialized city.
You’ve noticed that some factories in your area are still using outdated machinery that produces
excessive smoke and pollutants. Under RA 8749, what would be the most effective way to push
for better compliance from these industries?
A. Organize protests outside the factories without engaging local government authorities.
B. Coordinate with the DENR and local government units (LGUs) to conduct air quality
inspections, and advocate for the use of cleaner technology or fuels through partnerships and
financial incentives for industries that upgrade their machinery.

[Link] / [Link]
 25

C. Suggest that factories relocate to more rural areas where fewer people will be affected.
D. Call for a complete shutdown of all factories operating in your area.

2. You are a barangay captain in a rapidly urbanizing area where air pollution levels have
significantly increased due to the rise in construction and vehicle traffic. Under RA 8749, what
practical steps can you take to address this issue while ensuring the continued development of
your barangay?
A. Stop all construction projects until air quality improves.
B. Implement a local air quality monitoring program, enforce emission standards on vehicles,
and work with construction companies to adopt dust control measures, such as covering
materials and using water sprays.
C. Relocate construction projects to rural areas outside the barangay.
D. Ignore the problem and focus on addressing traffic congestion.

3. As a city council member, you’re noticing a rise in air pollution in your urban area, primarily
caused by vehicle emissions. Under RA 8749, what is the best initial step you can take to
address this issue while maintaining mobility for the public?
A. Ban all vehicles from entering the city center, regardless of emission levels.
B. Work with the Land Transportation Office (LTO) and DENR to strictly implement emission
testing, enforce the ban on smoke-belching vehicles, and promote public transportation systems
that use cleaner fuels like electric or hybrid vehicles.
C. Allow vehicles to continue operating but increase road widening projects to reduce
congestion.
D. Fine all drivers regardless of vehicle type to discourage driving in the city.

4. You are part of a scientific team studying an MPA. You discover that illegal fishing activities
are still occurring, which threatens the marine ecosystem's recovery. What would be the most
effective course of action to address the issue?
A. Increase surveillance in the MPA and implement higher fines for illegal fishing.
B. Work with the local fishermen to understand their needs and provide incentives for reporting
illegal activities and adopting alternative livelihoods.
C. Expand the MPA’s boundaries to push illegal activities further away.
D. Allow limited fishing in the MPA during certain times of the year to reduce conflict.

[Link] / [Link]
 26

5. You are a community leader in a coastal village near a Marine Protected Area (MPA). Some
residents feel frustrated because they can no longer fish in certain areas and believe the MPA
only benefits tourists. What approach would help you address these concerns while fostering a
sense of shared responsibility?

A. Increase access to the MPA for local fishermen, but restrict tourists from entering.
B. Work with the local government to establish a cooperative program where residents can
participate in managing the MPA and benefit from eco-tourism opportunities like guided tours or
sustainable fishing.
C. Close the MPA to tourists and allow fishing during off-peak months.
D. Ignore their concerns and focus on enforcing the rules.

Answers
1. B
Solution.
Answer
Coordinate with the DENR and local government units (LGUs) to conduct air quality inspections,
and advocate for the use of cleaner technology or fuels through partnerships and financial
incentives for industries that upgrade their machinery.

Explanation:
RA 8749 encourages cooperation between industries, local government units, and the DENR to
improve air quality. Advocating for upgrading machinery to cleaner technology, along with
financial incentives or partnerships, is a balanced and effective approach to ensure compliance
with air quality standards without shutting down industries. By working with government
authorities, inspections can also be conducted to ensure factories are following the law.

2. B
Solution.
Answer
Implement a local air quality monitoring program, enforce emission standards on vehicles, and
work with construction companies to adopt dust control measures, such as covering materials
and using water sprays.

Explanation:
RA 8749 emphasizes the need for local air quality monitoring and the enforcement of standards
on vehicles and industries. Instead of halting development, a balanced approach is to work with
construction companies to implement dust control measures and ensure vehicles meet emission

[Link] / [Link]
 27

standards. This allows development to continue while managing air quality, protecting the health
of the community.

3. B.

Solution.
Answer
Work with the Land Transportation Office (LTO) and DENR to strictly implement emission
testing, enforce the ban on smoke-belching vehicles, and promote public transportation
systems that use cleaner fuels like electric or hybrid vehicles.

Explanation:
RA 8749 mandates strict implementation of emission standards, especially for motor vehicles,
to control air pollution. Collaborating with the LTO and DENR to enforce emission testing and
bans on smoke-belching vehicles is a practical solution that ensures compliance with the law.
Promoting cleaner public transport options like electric or hybrid vehicles aligns with the law’s
goal of reducing harmful emissions, while also providing a long-term sustainable solution
without heavily disrupting public mobility.

4. Solution.
Answer B
Work with the local fishermen to understand their needs and provide incentives for reporting
illegal activities and adopting alternative livelihoods.

Explanation:
Building trust and cooperation with the local fishermen is key to long-term success. By providing
incentives for reporting illegal fishing and supporting alternative livelihoods, you can reduce the
pressure on the MPA and ensure that fishermen have a sustainable way to support their
families. Enforcement alone may not be enough without addressing the underlying economic
reasons for illegal fishing.

5. Solution.
Answer B
Work with the local government to establish a cooperative program where residents can
participate in managing the MPA and benefit from eco-tourism opportunities like guided tours or
sustainable fishing.

Explanation:
A cooperative program that involves the community in the management of the MPA would help
address their concerns and foster a sense of ownership. By participating in eco-tourism
initiatives or sustainable fishing practices, residents can still earn a livelihood while protecting

[Link] / [Link]
 28

the marine environment. Shared responsibility helps balance the needs of the community with
the ecological goals of the MPA.

[Link] / [Link]
 29

Peace and Human Rights Issues and Concepts - Civil Service Exam

Overview of Peace and Human Rights Issues and Concepts

This review material offers an extensive exploration of peace and human rights issues and concepts,
focusing on the principles, international and national frameworks, and the ongoing challenges and
solutions associated with these areas.

Definition and Importance of Human Rights

• Human Rights: Fundamental rights and freedoms to which all individuals are inherently entitled,
regardless of nationality, sex, ethnic origin, color, religion, language, or any other status.

• Importance: Human rights ensure the protection and dignity of all individuals and are crucial for
maintaining justice, peace, and well-being in societies.

Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR)

• Overview: Adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in 1948, the UDHR was the first
global expression of rights to which all human beings are inherently entitled.

• Key Rights: Includes the right to life, liberty, and security of person; freedom from torture and
cruel or inhuman treatment; the right to a fair trial; freedom of thought, conscience, and
religion; and the right to education and employment.

International Human Rights Instruments

• International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR): Emphasizes the importance of civil
and political rights, including the freedoms of speech, assembly, and religion.

• International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR): Focuses on economic,
social, and cultural rights like the right to health, education, and an adequate standard of living.

• Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW): Aims
to eradicate discrimination against women in all forms.

• Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC): Ensures protection and rights for all children under
the age of 18.

Human Rights in the Philippines

• Commission on Human Rights (CHR): An independent office created under the 1987 Philippine
Constitution, formally established by Executive Order No. 163 in 1987. This body is tasked with
protecting and promoting human rights in the Philippines.

o Composition and Appointment: Consists of a Chairman and four members who are
natural-born citizens of the Philippines, at least 35 years old, and have not been
candidates for any elective position in the immediate preceding elections. The majority
of the members must be members of the Philippine Bar.

[Link] / [Link]
 30

o Ethical Standards: Members must not hold any other office or employment, engage in
any profession or business affected by their duties, or have financial interests in
contracts or franchises granted by the government.

o Powers and Functions:

▪ Investigate human rights violations.

▪ Adopt operational guidelines and procedures.

▪ Provide legal measures and aid for the protection of human rights.

▪ Exercise visitorial powers over detention facilities.

▪ Conduct research and educational programs.

▪ Recommend legislation to enhance human rights protection.

▪ Monitor compliance with international treaties.

▪ Grant immunity for essential testimonies.

▪ Request governmental assistance.

▪ Appoint officers and employees as per the law.

Concepts of Peace

• Positive Peace: Not just the absence of conflict but also the presence of conditions for a
harmonious society, including justice, equality, and well-being.

• Conflict Resolution: Techniques like negotiation and mediation aimed at peacefully resolving
disputes.

• Peace Education: Teaches the importance of peace, conflict resolution, and respect for human
rights.

Issues and Challenges

• Internal Conflicts and Terrorism: Discusses the impact of civil unrest and terrorism on human
rights.

• Refugee Crises: Addresses challenges faced by displaced individuals due to conflicts or

persecution.

Role of International and National Bodies

• United Nations: Plays a crucial role in promoting and monitoring human rights through various
bodies like the Human Rights Council and the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights
(OHCHR).

• Local NGOs and Civil Society: Vital in advocating for human rights and providing direct support
to affected populations.

[Link] / [Link]
 31

Exercises on Peace and Human Rights Issues and Concepts

1. As a commissioner in the Commission on Human Rights (CHR), you are investigating a case involving
alleged police brutality during a protest. How would you ensure that the CHR fulfills its constitutional
mandate under Article XIII to protect human rights while balancing the state’s duty to maintain public
order?

A. Prioritize public order and downplay the human rights violations in favor of the state’s security
interests.

B. Conduct a thorough investigation of the alleged human rights violations, ensuring that human dignity
and the rights of the protesters are upheld, while acknowledging the state’s role in maintaining order.

C. Encourage leniency for the police, as their role in maintaining public safety is paramount.

D. Avoid investigating the case to prevent public scrutiny of law enforcement.

[Link] a member of the Philippine Congress, you are tasked with reviewing a proposed law that enhances
surveillance powers for law enforcement. However, civil society groups express concern that this may
infringe on individual privacy rights. How would you ensure that this proposed law aligns with the
Constitution’s commitment to human rights under Article II, Section 11?

A. Support the law without changes, as it strengthens national security.

B. Recommend modifications to ensure the law balances security with full respect for human rights,
ensuring that any surveillance is conducted with appropriate safeguards to protect individual privacy and
dignity.

C. Reject the law entirely, as any form of surveillance inherently violates human rights.

D. Encourage law enforcement to bypass privacy concerns if it ensures public safety.

[Link] Philippines is being pressured by regional allies to reconsider its stance on nuclear weapons and
participate in a regional defense pact that includes nuclear deterrence strategies. As a member of the
Philippine Senate, how would you respond to this proposal in line with Article II, Section 8 of the
Constitution?

A. Agree to participate in the pact, as nuclear deterrence is essential for national and regional security.

B. Oppose the proposal, reaffirming the Philippines’ constitutional stance against nuclear weapons and
highlighting the importance of adhering to peaceful, diplomatic methods for conflict resolution.

C. Recommend accepting the pact on a trial basis to evaluate the potential benefits.

D. Support the proposal but with restrictions on where nuclear weapons can be stored in the Philippines.

[Link] / [Link]
 32

4. A foreign military base has approached the Philippine government with a proposal to store nuclear
weapons on its territory as part of a regional defense strategy. As a national security advisor, what would
be your recommendation based on Article II, Section 8 of the Constitution?

A. Recommend accepting the proposal to enhance the Philippines’ defense capabilities.

B. Reject the proposal, citing the Philippines’ constitutional commitment to being nuclear-free and the
renunciation of war, and focus on regional peace-building initiatives.

C. Recommend storing the nuclear weapons but keeping their presence classified from the public.

D. Agree to a limited-time agreement until the regional conflict subsides.

[Link] are participating in an international conference on nuclear disarmament, where some countries
are advocating for nuclear deterrence to maintain peace. How would you present the Philippines’
constitutional policy on nuclear weapons and war, and why is it important to uphold this stance?

A. Support nuclear deterrence, as it guarantees national security and keeps the Philippines aligned with
stronger nations.

B. Reaffirm the Philippines’ constitutional commitment to a nuclear-free policy and its renunciation of
war as a tool of national policy, emphasizing that lasting peace comes from disarmament and diplomacy,
not nuclear weapons.

C. Suggest revising the Constitution to allow nuclear weapons as a defensive measure.

D. Avoid engaging in the debate to maintain neutrality.

Answers

1. B

2. B

3. B

4. B

5. B

[Link] / [Link]
 33

[Link]

[Link] / [Link]
 1

Table of Contents

Introduction

Fractions 2

Decimals 5

Roman Numerals 9

Percentages 12

Ratio 14

Proportion 16

Word Problems

Age Problems 21

Algebra Problems 25

Area Word Problems 26

Averaging Problems 29

Decimals, Percentage and Fraction Problems 33

Discount Problems 35

Distance Problems 42

Interest 47

Linear Equations 50

Number Series 56

Order of Operations 61

Percent, Rate and Base Problems 63

Perimeter Word Problems 66

Probability Word Problems 70

Profit and Loss Problems 74

Work Problems 77

[Link] | [Link]
 2

Fractions

Addition and Subtraction of Similar Fractions

1. Add or subtract the numerators.

2. Keep the common denominator the same.

3. Simplify the fraction if necessary.

Example 1. 3/5 + 1/5 = 4/5

Example 2. 5/7 + 1/7 = 6/7

Addition and Subtraction of Dissimilar Fractions

1. Determine the Least Common Denominator (LCD).

2. Adjust the fractions to have the same denominator.

3. Perform the addition or subtraction on the fractions.

4. Simplify the result if necessary.

Example 1. 3/6 + 1/2 = 3/6 + 3/6 = 6/6 or 1

Example 2. 3/6 + 3/4 = 6/12 + 9/12 = 15/12 or 1 3/12 or 1 1/4

Multiplication of Fractions

1. When multiplying fractions, simply multiply the numerators together and the denominators together.

Example 1. 3/5 x 2/3 = 6/15 or 3/5

Example 2. 4/7 x 1/2 = 4/14

Example 3. 5/9 x 3/4 = 15/36 or 5/12

2. If there are common factors between the numerator of one fraction and the denominator of another,
you can divide by those factors to simplify the calculation. It’s also a good idea to simplify the fractions
before multiplying them to make the process easier and to avoid simplifying later.

Example 1. 2/3 x 33/9 = 2/1 x 11/9 = 22/9 or 2 4/9

Example 2. 4/5 x 60/9 = 4/1 x 12/9 = 36/9 or 4

Example 3. 3/4 x 32/7 = 3/1 x 8/7 = 24/7 or 3 3/7

[Link] | [Link]
 3

Division of Fractions

Dividing fractions is similar to multiplying fractions, with a couple of extra steps:

1. Copy the dividend (the first fraction).

2. Change the division sign to multiplication.

3. Reciprocate the divisor (flip the second fraction).

4. Perform the multiplication to find the answer.

Example 1. 4/5 ÷ 1/2 = 4/5 x 2/1 = 8/5 or 1 3/5

Example 2. 5/8 ÷ 4/3 = 5/8 x 3/4 =15/32

Example 3. 4/9 ÷2/3 = 4/9 x 3/2 = 4/3 x 1/2 = 4/6 or 2/3

[Link] | [Link]
 4

[Link] | [Link]
 5

Decimals

In any decimal, the first digit after the decimal point represents the tenths place.

The digit 9 is in the tenths place. The value of 9 is 0.9

The digit 8 is in the hundredths place. The value of 8 in the hundredths place is 0.08.

The digit 7 is in the thousandths place. The value of 7 in the thousandths place is 0.007.

The digit 6 is in the ten thousandths place. The value of 6 is 0.0006.

The digit 3 is in the ones place. The value of 3 is 3.

The digit 4 is in the tens place. The value of 4 is 40.

The digit 5 is in the hundreds place. The value of 5 is 500.

Decimals Exercises

205.7431

Answer the following questions:

1. What is the place value of the number 2?

2. What is the value of the number 5?

3. What is the value of the number 7?

4. What is the place value of the number 0?

5. What is the place value of the number 1?

Answers

• Place value of the number 2: Hundreds

• Value of the number 5: 5

• Value of the number 7: 0.7

• Place value of the number 0: Tens

• Place value of the number 1: Ten-thousandths

[Link] | [Link]
 6

Rules for Comparing Decimals

1. Start by comparing the whole number parts first.

Example 1. 2.5831 __ 1.996

In this example, the whole number 2 is greater than 1. So, even if the decimal in the tenths place is
higher for 1.996, still, 2.5831 is higher.

2. Compare each digit in the decimal as you would with whole numbers.

Example 1. 41.3281 __ 41.5021

When the whole numbers are equal in value, we check the decimals. Based on the example, 5 which is
the the digit in the tenths place is higher than 3. So, 41.5021 is higher.

Example 2: 5.6324 __ 5.6291

Based on the example, 3 which is the the digit in the hundredths place is higher than 2. So, 5.6324 is
higher.

3. If needed, add zeros to the decimals to make the comparison easier, just like comparing whole
numbers.

Example 1: 4.7 __ 4.730

To make the comparison easier add zeros to 4.7 making it 4.700. Based on this example, 4.730 is higher

Comparing Decimals Exercises

Greater than or Less than

1. 78.64 __ 74.99

2. 82.62 __ 96.421

3. 2.5421 __ 2.8801

4. 7.421 __ 7.08

5. 11.621 __ 11.6

Arrange the following decimals from greatest to least

1. 2.34 2.04 23.04 .234

2. 7.07 70.7 7.007 70

Arrange the following decimals from Least to Greatest

1. 3.01 .031 30.1 301

2. 99.01 90.1 91.0 9.01

[Link] | [Link]
 7

Answers

Greater than or Less than

1. 78.64 > 74.99

2. 82.62 < 96.421

3. 2.5421 < 2.8801

4. 7.421 > 7.08

5. 11.621 > 11.6

Arrange the following decimals from greatest to least

1. 2.34 2.04 23.04 .234. a. 23.04 b. 2.34 c. 2.04 d. .234

2. 7.07 70.7 7.007 70 a. 70.7 b. 70 c. 7.07 d. 7.007

Arrange the following decimals from Least to Greatest

1. 3.01 .031 30.1 301 a..031 b. 3.01 c. 30.1 d. 301

2. 99.01 90.1 91.0 9.01 b. 9.01 b. 90.1 c. 91.0 d. 99.01

Addition and Subtraction of Decimals

Rule 1. Align the Decimal Points:

Start by aligning the decimal points of each number in a column. Write the numbers so that the decimal
points line up vertically. If any positions in the equation are empty, such as the hundreds place in the first
number or the thousandths place in the second, treat those places as zeros.

Rule 2. Perform the Addition or Subtraction:

Copy the decimal point directly below the aligned decimal points in the result. Then, begin adding or
subtracting from the rightmost digit, moving leftward. Treat the operation as if you were working with
whole numbers. Simply follow the rule on addition and subtraction of whole numbers.

Rule 3. Simplifying the Result

Once you’ve completed the addition or subtraction, you can remove any unnecessary zeros. However,
you should only remove zeros from the leftmost or rightmost positions if they are zero. This will leave
you with a number that begins and ends with a nonzero digit

Multiplication of Decimals

Rule 1. First, multiply the given problem as if they are whole numbers.

[Link] | [Link]
 8

Rule 2. Second, from right to left, count the number of decimal places from each factor then add them
altogether.

Rule 3. Third, place the decimal on your final answer.

Division of Decimals

Converting the Divisor to a Whole Number

When dividing decimals, the first step is to make the divisor a whole number. To do this, count the
number of decimal places in the divisor, and then move the decimal point in both the divisor and the
dividend to the right by the same number of places.

Performing Long Division

Once the divisor is a whole number, you can proceed with the division as you would with whole
numbers. The decimal point in the dividend can be temporarily ignored while performing the division.

Placing the Decimal Point in the Quotient

After obtaining the quotient, place the decimal point in the quotient so that it aligns with the decimal
point in the original dividend. If the dividend has no decimal point, there is no need to include one in the
quotient.

[Link] | [Link]
 9

The Roman Numeral System

1. Roman numerals should be arranged in descending order from largest to smallest, from left to
right.

o Example 1: CLX (160): C (100) is followed by L (50) and X (10), arranged in descending
order.

o Example 2: MCMXL (1940): M (1000) is followed by CM (900), and then XL (40), all
arranged in descending order.

2. Only the numerals I, X, C, and M can be repeated up to three times in succession. The
numerals V, L, and D cannot be repeated.

o Example 1: XXX (30): X (10) is repeated three times.

o Example 2: CCC (300): C (100) is repeated three times.

o Invalid Example: VV (10): V (5) is incorrectly repeated, which is not allowed.

3. No symbol should be repeated more than three times. Instead, apply the subtraction rule to
avoid exceeding this limit.

o Example 1: IV (4): Instead of repeating I four times (IIII), I is subtracted from V (5).

o Example 2: XL (40): Instead of repeating X four times (XXXX), X is subtracted from L (50).

Rules on Subtraction in Roman Numeral System

1. Only the symbols I, X, and C can be used for subtraction.

o Example 1: IX (9): I (1) is subtracted from X (10).

o Example 2: XC (90): X (10) is subtracted from C (100).

o Invalid Example: IC (99): This is incorrect because C (100) should only have X (10)
subtracted, not I (1).

2. Only one symbol may be subtracted from a larger symbol.

o Example 1: XL (40): X (10) is subtracted from L (50), with only one subtraction.

o Example 2: CD (400): C (100) is subtracted from D (500), with only one subtraction.

o Invalid Example: XXC (80): This is incorrect because two X’s (20) should not be
subtracted from C (100).

3. The symbol to be subtracted must precede the larger symbol.

o Example 1: IV (4): I (1) precedes V (5) for subtraction.

o Example 2: XC (90): X (10) precedes C (100) for subtraction.

o Invalid Example: VX (5): This is incorrect because V (5) cannot be subtracted from X (10).

[Link] | [Link]
 10

4. The subtrahend (the symbol being subtracted) should be either one-fifth or one-tenth of the
value of the minuend (the larger symbol).

o Example 1: IX (9): I (1) is one-tenth of X (10) and can be subtracted.

o Example 2: XL (40): X (10) is one-fifth of L (50) and can be subtracted.

o Invalid Example: XM (990): This is incorrect because X (10) cannot be subtracted from M
(1000) as it does not represent one-fifth or one-tenth of M’s value.

5. If a smaller symbol follows the larger one, it must be less than the subtrahend.

o Example 1: XIV (14): I (1) is subtracted from V (5), and the remaining X (10) is larger than
I.

o Example 2: XCIX (99): I (1) is subtracted from X (10) after C (100) is reduced by X (10),
following the rule that any smaller symbol after the larger one must be less than the
subtrahend.

o Invalid Example: IXL (39): This is incorrect because L (50) should not follow IX (9)
directly.

Roman Numeral Exercises

Convert the following Roman Numerals

1. CCLX

2. DCCCVIII

3. DXXXVII

4. MXXXVI

5. CDLXXXVIII

Convert the following to Roman Numerals

1. 2,355

2. 295

3. 856

4. 499

5. 229

Answers

A.

1. 260

[Link] | [Link]
 11

2. 808

3. 537

4. 1036

5. 488

B.

1. MMCCCLV

2. CCXCV

3. DCCCLVI

4. CDXCIX

5. CCXXIX

[Link] | [Link]
 12

Percentages

What is a Percentage?

A percentage is a way of expressing a number as a fraction of 100. The word “percent” literally means
“per hundred,” which indicates that a percentage is a relative value representing parts of a whole divided
into 100 equal parts.

Understanding the Basics:

• 1% of a number is equivalent to 1/100 of that number.

• This means that any percentage can be understood as a fraction with 100 as the denominator.
For instance:

o 29% means 29 parts out of 100, or 29/100 of the total value.

o 81% is 81/100 of the total value.

o 300% represents 300/100, which is equal to thrice the original value.

Calculating Percentages:

To calculate a percentage of a number, simply multiply the number by the percentage (expressed as a
decimal or fraction). This allows you to determine what portion of the whole is represented by the
percentage.

Example 1: To find 25% of 60

25% x 60 = 25/100 x 60 = 25 x 60 ÷ 100 = 15

Example 2. To find 40% of 80

40% x 80 = 40/100 x 80 = 40 x 80 ÷ 100 = 32

Converting Percentages to Decimals

To convert a percentage into its decimal form, simply shift the decimal point two places to the left and
remove the percent sign. This process changes the percentage into a decimal that represents the same
value.

For example:

• 75% becomes 0.75 when you move the decimal two places to the left.

• 5% becomes 0.05 after the conversion.

Converting Decimals to Percentages

To convert a decimal into a percentage, shift the decimal point two places to the right and then add a
percent sign. This process transforms the decimal into a percentage that represents the same value.

For example:

[Link] | [Link]
 13

• 0.85 becomes 85% when you move the decimal two places to the right.

• 0.07 becomes 7% after the conversion.

Converting Fractions to Percentages

To convert a fraction into a percentage, start by converting the fraction to a decimal. Once you have the
decimal, you can then easily convert it into a percentage by moving the decimal point two places to the
right and adding a percent sign.

For example:

• 1/4 becomes .25 and can be converted 25% by moving the decimal two places to the right

• 4/10 becomes .4 and can be converted to 40% by moving the decimal two places to the right.

Operations on Percent

Addition and Subtraction of Percent

• Adding and subtracting percentages is done just like with regular numbers; simply perform the
addition or subtraction, then add the % symbol to your answer.

Multiplication and Division of Percent

• When multiplying or dividing percentages, start by converting the percentages into fractions
with 100 as the denominator, like 38% is 38/100. After converting, proceed with the
multiplication or division as you would with any fraction.

• In word problems, the term “of” typically indicates a multiplication operation, helping you
identify where to apply this process.

• For example. 30% of 40 is the same is 30% x 40. To solve this, 30/100 x 40 = 12

• On the other hand, the word “is” can be understood as representing equality (=)

• For example, 20% of a number is 10. This is the same as 20% of x (n) is 10. To solve for this,
20/100 x (n) = 10. n = 10 ÷ 20/100. n = 10 x 100/20 = 50

[Link] | [Link]
 14

Ratio

What is Ratio

A ratio is a mathematical expression that compares two or more quantities of the same unit.

It shows how the size of one quantity relates to another.

Ratios can be expressed in three different ways: by using the words “to” or “is to,” by separating the
numbers with a colon (:), or by writing them as a fraction.

For example, the ratio of 5 hens to 7 cows can be expressed as:

• 5 to 7 or 5 is to 7

• 5:7

• 5/7

Each of these is read as “5 to 7” or “5 is to 7”

Terms of a Ratio

In ratios, the numbers being compared are called terms. In a two-term ratio, the first number is known
as the antecedent, and the second number is known as the consequent.

In our earlier example 5 is the antecedent while 7 is the consequent.

Non Commutability of Ratios

Ratios are non-commutative, meaning the terms in a ratio cannot always be swapped. In a two-term
ratio, the antecedent and consequent form an ordered pair, and their positions are not interchangeable.

Two Types of Ratios

1. Part-to-Part Ratio

2. Part-to-Whole Ratio

There are 15 students in a class, with 10 boys and 5 girls.

• Ratio A: The ratio of boys to girls is 10:5.

• Ratio B: The ratio of boys to the total number of students is 10:15.

Ratio A compares one part of the whole (boys) with another part (girls). This is known as a part-to-part
ratio because it compares two different parts of the whole.

On the other hand, Ratio B compares one part of the whole (boys) with the entire class (all students).
This is called a part-to-whole ratio

Simplifying Ratios

[Link] | [Link]
 15

1. Ratios can be simplified in the same way as fractions. When a ratio cannot be reduced any further, it
is called a simplified ratio, meaning it’s in its simplest form.

2. To simplify a ratio, identify the greatest common factor (GCF) of all the terms. Then, divide each term
by the GCF to obtain the simplified ratio. Let’s explore another example to see how this process works.

Example 1.

You have a collection of marbles consisting of green and yellow marbles. If you have 14 green marbles
and 21 yellow marbles, the ratio of green marbles to yellow marbles is 14:21. How would you express
this ratio in its simplest form?

14 : 21 or 2 : 3

Example 2. Let’s say you have 120 minutes to complete two tasks: reading and writing. If you spend 80
minutes reading and 40 minutes writing, the ratio of time spent on reading to writing is 80:40. How
would you express this ratio in its simplest form?

80 : 40 or 2:1

Example 3: Let’s say you have 45 fruits consisting of apples and bananas. If you have 40 apples and 5
bananas, the ratio of apples to bananas is 40:5. How would you express this ratio in its simplest form?

40 : 5 or 8 : 1

[Link] | [Link]
 16

Proportions

A proportion is an equation that shows two ratios are equal, establishing the equality between them.
Proportions are typically represented by the equal sign (=).

Example : 5 : 10 = 1 : 2

5 : 10 = 25 : 50

5 : 10 = 3 : 6

If you multiply or divide each term of a ratio by the same non-zero number, the ratio remains equivalent.

The first and fourth terms (the outermost terms) in a proportion are known as the extremes. The second
and third terms (the innermost terms) are referred to as the means

Thus, 5 and 2 are extremes while 10 and are the means.

Finding the Missing Terms in a Proportion

When solving for a missing term in a proportion:

• If the missing term is a mean, multiply the two extremes and then divide the product by the
known mean.

• If the missing term is an extreme, multiply the two means and then divide the product by the
known extreme.

Example 1. Find the value of y in the following proportion: 5 : 18 = 20 : y

y = 18 x 20 ÷ 5

360 ÷ 5 = 72

Example 2: Find the value of z in the following proportion: 7 : 35 = z : 25

z = 7 x 25 ÷ 35

175 ÷ 35

Direct Proportion: When one quantity increases, the other quantity increases at the same rate, or when
one quantity decreases, the other decreases at the same rate. This relationship is known as direct
proportion.

• Quantity and Price: The more items you buy, the higher the total price. If you buy double the
quantity, the price doubles as well.

• Exchange Rate and Money Received: If the exchange rate increases, the amount of money you
receive for a given amount of foreign currency also increases proportionally. For example, if the
exchange rate doubles, the amount of money you receive will also double.

[Link] | [Link]
 17

Example 1.

If 5 liters of milk cost 150 pesos, how much will 8 liters of milk cost?

Since the cost is directly proportional to the quantity of milk:

5: 15 = 8 : x

5x = 15 x 8

5x =120

x = 120 ÷ 5 = 24

Example 2.

If a car travels 120 kilometers in 2 hours, how far will it travel in 5 hours at the same speed?

Since the distance is directly proportional to the time:

120 : 2 = x : 5

2x =600

x = 600 ÷ 2 = 300

Indirect Proportion: When one quantity increases, the other quantity decreases, or when one quantity
decreases, the other increases. This inverse relationship is known as indirect proportion.

• Speed and Time: The faster you travel, the less time it takes to reach your destination. If you
double your speed, the time required to cover a certain distance is halved.

• Work Problems: The more people working on a task, the less time it will take to complete it. If
you double the number of workers, the time to finish the task is cut in half.

Example 1. If 10 workers can complete a project in 15 days, then how long will it take for 6 workers to
complete the same project?

Since the number of workers and the time taken are inversely proportional:

10 workers x 15 days = 6 workers : x

x = 150 ÷ 6

x = 25 days

Example 2. Problem: If a car traveling at 80 km/h takes 3 hours to reach a destination, how long will it
take if the car travels at 60 km/h?

Since speed and time are inversely proportional:

[Link] | [Link]
 18

80km/hr : 3 hours = 60km/hr : x

80 x 3 = 60 x (y)

60y = 240

y = 240 ÷ 60

y = 4 hours

Partitive Proportion

Partitive proportion is used when you need to divide a given whole into several parts based on a
specified ratio. It allows you to allocate portions of the whole according to the ratio provided, ensuring
that each part is proportional to the others as dictated by the ratio. This method is commonly used in
scenarios where a total amount or quantity needs to be split among different groups or categories in a
way that reflects their relative sizes or importance.

Example 1. A sum of 1000 pesos is to be divided among three friends in the ratio [Link]. How much will
each friend receive?

Solution: First, calculate the total parts in the ratio:

5 + 3 + 2 = 10 parts

Now, divide the total amount (1000 pesos) by the total parts to find the value of one part:

Value of one part=1000 ÷ 10 = 100 pesos

Now, multiply the value of one part by each part of the ratio:

Friend 1: 5 × 100 = 500

Friend 2: 3 × 100= 300

Friend 3: 2 × 100= 200

So, the friends will receive 500 pesos, 300 pesos, and 200 pesos respectively.

Example 2. A teacher has 40 pencils to distribute among five students in the ratio [Link]. How many
pencils will each student get?

Solution: First, calculate the total parts in the ratio:

3 + 5 + 4 + 6 + 2 = 20 parts

Now, divide the total number of pencils (40) by the total parts to find the value of one part:

[Link] | [Link]
 19

Value of one part= 40 ÷ 20 = 2 pencils

Now, multiply the value of one part by each part of the ratio:

Student 1: 3 × 2 = 6

Student 2: 5 × 2 = 10

Student 3: 4 × 2 = 8

Student 4: 6 × 2 = 12

Student 5: 2 × 2 = 4

So, the students will receive 6, 10, 8, 12, and 4 pencils respectively.

Exercises on Direct, Indirect and Partitive Proportion

Identify if its Direct Proportion, Indirect Proportion or Partitive Proportion, and solve.

1. If 7 kilograms of rice cost 280 pesos, how much will 10 kilograms of rice cost?

2. A prize of 600 pesos is to be shared among three siblings in the ratio [Link]. How much will each sibling
receive?

3. If a plane flying at 600 km/h takes 5 hours to reach its destination, how long will it take if the plane
flies at 400 km/h?

4. If 3 dozen eggs cost 180 pesos, how much will 5 dozen eggs cost?

5. If a cyclist traveling at 20 km/h takes 4 hours to reach a certain point, how long will it take if the cyclist
slows down to 15 km/h?

6. If a cyclist covers 80 kilometers in 4 hours, how far will the cyclist travel in 7 hours at the same speed?

7. If 4 meters of fabric cost 320 pesos, how much will 7 meters of fabric cost?

8. If a train travels 150 kilometers in 3 hours, how far will it travel in 8 hours at the same speed?

[Link] | [Link]
 20

9. A total of 800 candies are to be distributed among four children in the ratio [Link]. How many
candies will each child get?

10. If a train traveling at 90 km/h takes 8 hours to cover a certain distance, how long will it take if the
train travels at 60 km/h?

Answers

1. Direct Proportion, PHP 400

2. Partitive Proportion, PHP 200, PHP 150, PHP 250

3. Indirect Proportion, 7.5 hours

4. Direct Proportion, PHP 300

5. Indirect Proportion, 5.33 hours

6. Direct Proportion, 140 km

7. Direct Proportion, PHP 560

8. Direct Proportion, 400 km

9. Partitive Proportion, 160, 240, 320, and 80 candies.

10. Indirect Proportion, 12 hours

[Link] | [Link]
 21

Age Problems

1. The ages of Sam and Tom are in the ratio 4:3. After 8 years, Sam will be 40 years old. What is Tom's
current age?

A. 20

B. 14

C. 24

D. 17

Solution.

Let Sam's current age be 4x and Tom's current age be 3x

After 8 years, Sam will be 40 years old.

4x + 8 = 40
4x = 32
x = 32 ÷ 4 = 8

Now, solve for their ages:

Sam's age = 4x = 4 x 8 = 32
Tom's age = 3x = 3 x 8 = 24

2. The present age ratio of Alex and Ben is 4:3. If Alex's age after 4 years will be 28 years, what is Ben's
current age?

A. 15

B. 17

C. 16

D. 18

Let Alex present age be 4x and Ben's present age be 3x.

After 4 years Alex will be 28 years.

4x + 4 = 28
4x = 24
x = 24 ÷ 4 = 6

Now, solve for their current ages:

[Link] | [Link]
 22

Alex's age = 4x = 4 x 6 = 24
Ben's age = 3x = 3 x 6 = 18

3. The present age of a father is 4 times that of his son. After 5 years, the father's age will be three times
that of his son. What is the present age of the son?

A. 5

B. 10

C. 15

D. 20

Let the son's current age be x.

Father's age = 4x.

After 5 years, the father's age will be three times that of his son.
4x + 5 = 3 (x + 5)
4x +5 = 3x + 15
x = 10
So, the son's age is 10
Father's age = 4x = 4 x 10 = 40

4. At present, the ratio between the ages of Jack and Jill is 7:5. After 3 years, Jack's age will be 31 years.
What is the age of Jill at present?

A. 18

B. 20

C. 21

D. 22

Solution.

Let Jack's present age be 7x and Jill's present age be 5x.

After 3 years, Jack's age will be 31 years.

7x + 3 = 31
7x = 28
x = 28 ÷ 7 = 4

[Link] | [Link]
 23

Jack's age = 7x = 7 x 4 = 28
Jill's age = 5x = 5 x 4 = 20

5. If three times the age of Emma in 5 years will be equal to twice her age in 10 years, what is Emma's
current age?

A. 8

B. 5

C. 12

D. 15

Let Emma's current age be x.

Let (x+5) be Emma's age in 5 years. Let (x + 10) be Emma's age in 10 years.
3(x + 5) = 2(x + 10).
3x + 15 = 2x +20
x=5

6. The ages of three friends, John, Paul, and George, are consecutive integers. The sum of their ages is
81. John is the oldest among the three. How old is John?

A. 26

B. 27

C. 28

D. 29

Let the ages be x, x+1, and x+2.

x + (x+1) + (x+2) = 81.
3x + 3 = 81
3x = 78
x =26
x + 1 = 27
x + 2 = 28
John is 28 years old.

7. In 8 years, Kevin will be three times as old as he was 6 years ago. How old is Kevin now?

[Link] | [Link]
 24

A. 16

B. 24

C. 13

D. 18

Let Kevin's current age be x.

x + 8 = 3(x-6)
x + 8 = 3x - 18
2x =26
x = 26 ÷ 2
x = 13

8. The sum of the ages of Alice and Bob is 42 years. Six years ago, Alice was twice as old as Bob. How old
is Alice now?

A. 24

B. 18

C. 20

D. 26

Let Alice's age be x and Bob's age be y.

x + y = 42 and
x - 6 = 2(y - 6).
x - 6 = 2y - 12
x = 2y - 6

Substitute
2y - 6 + y = 42
3y = 48
y = 16: Bob's age
Alice age = 42 - 16 = 26

[Link] | [Link]
 25

Algebra

[Link] | [Link]
 26

Area Word Problems

Definition:
The area is the measure of the space inside a two-dimensional shape or figure, usually expressed in
square units (e.g., square meters, square centimeters).

Common Formulas for Area:

1. Rectangle:

Area= Length × Width

2. Square:

Area=Side2

3. Triangle:

Area=1/2 × Base × Height

4. Circle:

Area=π × Radius2

Exercises

1. What is the area of a square with a perimeter of 52 meters?

A. 196 square meters

B. 169 square meters

C. 125 square meters

D. 150 square meter

2. What is the area of a square with a perimeter of 64 meters?

A. 180 square meters

B. 100 square meters

C. 256 square meters

D. 280 square meters

3. What is the area of a square with a perimeter of 80 meters?

A. 400 square meters

[Link] | [Link]
 27

B. 450 square meters

C. 335 square meters

D. 385 square meters

4. What is the area of a square with a perimeter of 100 meters?

A. 625 square meters

B. 550 square meters

C. 676 square meters

D. 600 square meters

5. What is the area of a triangle with a base of 20 meters and a height of 15 meters?

A. 130 square meters

B. 140 square meters

C. 150 square meters

D. 160 square meters

Answers

1. Answer. B

Solution.
Calculate the side length: side = 52 ÷ 4 = 13 meters.
Calculate the area: Area = 13 x 13 = 169 square meters.

2. Answer C
Solution.
Calculate the side length: side = 64 ÷ 4 = 16 meters.
Calculate the area: Area = 16 x 16 = 256 square meters.

3. Answer. A

Solution.

[Link] | [Link]
 28

Calculate the side length: side = 80 ÷ 4 = 20 meters.

Calculate the area: Area = 20 x 20 = 400 square meters.

4. Answer. A

Solution.

Calculate the side length: side = 100 ÷ 4 = 25 meters.

Calculate the area: Area = 25 x 25 = 625 square meters.

5. Answer C

Solution.

Area = 0.5 × base × height = 0.5 × 20 × 15 = 150 square meters

[Link] | [Link]
 29

Averaging Problems

Averaging Problems - Civil Service Exam

Problem One:

Maria attended seven yoga classes last month and recorded the following durations in minutes: 45, 60,
40, 50, 55, 65, and 30. What is the average duration of her yoga classes?

Choices:

A) 49.29 minutes

B) 49.43 minutes

C) 49.57 minutes

D) 50 minutes

Answer: C) 49.57 minutes

Solution:

1. Sum of durations = 45 + 60 + 40 + 50 + 55 + 65 + 30 = 345 minutes

2. Number of classes = 7

3. Average duration = Total sum / Number of classes = 345 / 7 ≈ 49.29 minutes

Maria’s average yoga class duration is approximately 49.29 minutes.

Problem Two:

Liam recorded the following temperatures (in degrees Celsius) over six days: 22, 25, 24, 23, 26, and 22.
What is the average temperature?

Choices:

A) 23.67 degrees

B) 23.33 degrees

C) 24 degrees

D) 23 degrees

Answer: B) 23.33 degrees

Solution:

1. Sum of temperatures = 22 + 25 + 24 + 23 + 26 + 22 = 142 degrees

[Link] | [Link]
 30

2. Number of days = 6

3. Average temperature = Total sum / Number of days = 142 / 6 ≈ 23.67 degrees

The average temperature over the six days is approximately 23.67 degrees Celsius.

Problem Three:

Emma scored the following points in six basketball games: 12, 15, 10, 8, 20, and 5. Calculate her average
score per game.

Choices:

A) 11.67 points

B) 12 points

C) 11.5 points

D) 13.5 points

Answer: A) 11.67 points

Solution:

1. Sum of scores = 12 + 15 + 10 + 8 + 20 + 5 = 70 points

2. Number of games = 6

3. Average score = Total sum / Number of games = 70 / 6 ≈ 11.67 points

Emma’s average score per game is approximately 11.67 points.

Problem Four:

A sari-sari store in Manila sold goods worth Php 800, Php 850, Php 760, Php 900, and Php 820 over five
consecutive days. How much must the store sell on the sixth day to have an average daily sale of Php
850?

Answer: Php 970

Solution:

1. Desired average daily sale = Php 850

2. Number of days = 6

3. Total desired sales = Average daily sale × Number of days = Php 850 × 6 = Php 5100

4. Sum of sales for the first five days = Php 800 + Php 850 + Php 760 + Php 900 + Php 820 = Php
4130

[Link] | [Link]
 31

5. Required sixth day sales = Total desired sales – Sum of sales for the first five days = Php 5100 –
Php 4130 = Php 970

The sari-sari store needs to sell Php 970 on the sixth day to achieve an average daily sale of Php 850.

Problem Five:

A jeepney driver in Cebu City collected fares totaling Php 750, Php 800, Php 720, Php 780, and Php 760
during the first five days of the week. How much must he collect on the sixth day to have an average
daily collection of Php 800?

Answer: Php 980

Solution:

1. Desired average daily collection = Php 800

2. Number of days = 6

3. Total desired collections = Average daily collection × Number of days = Php 800 × 6 = Php 4800

4. Sum of collections for the first five days = Php 750 + Php 800 + Php 720 + Php 780 + Php 760 =
Php 3810

5. Required sixth day collection = Total desired collections – Sum of collections for the first five days
= Php 4800 – Php 3810 = Php 990

The jeepney driver needs to collect Php 990 on the sixth day to achieve an average daily collection of
Php 800.

Problem Six:

A restaurant in Davao sold meals worth Php 1200, Php 1350, Php 1180, Php 1420, and Php 1310 over
five consecutive days. How much must they sell on the sixth day to have an average daily sale of Php
1300?

Answer: Php 1340

Solution:

1. Desired average daily sale = Php 1300

2. Number of days = 6

3. Total desired sales = Average daily sale × Number of days = Php 1300 × 6 = Php 7800

4. Sum of sales for the first five days = Php 1200 + Php 1350 + Php 1180 + Php 1420 + Php 1310 =
Php 6460

[Link] | [Link]
 32

5. Required sixth day sales = Total desired sales – Sum of sales for the first five days = Php 7800 –
Php 6460 = Php 1340

The restaurant needs to sell Php 1340 on the sixth day to achieve an average daily sale of Php 1300.

[Link] | [Link]
 33

Decimals, Percentages and Fraction Problems

Convert Fraction to Decimal

Problem 1: Convert 1/5 to a decimal. Solution: 1/5=0.2 Explanation: Divide the numerator by the
denominator, 1 ÷ 5 = 0.2.

Problem 2: Convert 3/4 to a decimal. Solution: 3/4=0.75 Explanation: Divide 3 by 4, which equals 0.75.

Problem 3: Convert 2/9 to a decimal. Solution: 2/9=0.2 Explanation: 2 ÷ 9 = approximately 0.222…

which is a repeating decimal.

Convert Fraction to Percentage

Problem 4: Convert 1/4 to a percentage. Solution: 1/4=25% Explanation: 1/4×100=25%

Problem 5: Convert 5/8 to a percentage. Solution: 5/8=62.5% Explanation: 5/8×100=62.5%

Problem 6: Convert 710107 to a percentage. Solution: 7/10=70% Explanation: 7/10×100=70%

Convert Decimal to Fraction

Problem 7: Convert 0.5 to a fraction. Solution: 0.5 = 1/2 Explanation: 0.5 can be expressed as 5/10,
which simplifies to 1/2.

Problem 8: Convert 0.75 to a fraction. Solution: 0.75 = 3/4 Explanation: 0.75 is 75/100, which simplifies
to 3/4.

Problem 9: Convert 0.125 to a fraction. Solution: 0.125 = 1/8 Explanation: 0.125 is 125/1000, which
simplifies to 1/8.

Convert Decimal to Percentage

Problem 10: Convert 0.2 to a percentage. Solution: 0.2 = 20% Explanation: 0.2 × 100 = 20%.

Problem 11: Convert 0.01 to a percentage. Solution: 0.01 = 1% Explanation: 0.01 × 100 = 1%.

Problem 12: Convert 0.98 to a percentage. Solution: 0.98 = 98% Explanation: 0.98 × 100 = 98%.

Convert Percentage to Decimal

Problem 13: Convert 25% to a decimal. Solution: 25% = 0.25 Explanation: 25 ÷ 100 = 0.25.

Problem 14: Convert 60% to a decimal. Solution: 60% = 0.6 Explanation: 60 ÷ 100 = 0.6.

Problem 15: Convert 175% to a decimal. Solution: 175% = 1.75 Explanation: 175 ÷ 100 = 1.75.

Convert Percentage to Fraction

Problem 16: Convert 50% to a fraction. Solution: 50% = 1/2 Explanation: 50% is 50/100, which simplifies
to 1/2.

Problem 17: Convert 75% to a fraction. Solution: 75% = 3/4 Explanation: 75% is 75/100, which simplifies
to 3/4.

[Link] | [Link]
 34

Problem 18: Convert 20% to a fraction. Solution: 20% = 1/5 Explanation: 20% is 20/100, which simplifies
to 1/5.

Mixed Problems

Problem 19: Convert 0.33 to a percentage. Solution: 0.33 = 33% Explanation: 0.33 × 100 = 33%.

Problem 20: Convert 120% to a fraction. Solution: 120% = 6/5 Explanation: 120% is 120/100, which
simplifies to 6/5.

[Link] | [Link]
 35

Discount Problems

Discount problems are common in real-life shopping scenarios and appear frequently in math sections of
exams, including the civil service exam. Understanding how to calculate discounts helps in finding the
best deals, managing finances, and solving related math questions effectively.

Key Concepts in Discount Problems

1. Original Price (Marked Price): The initial price of an item before any discount is applied.

2. Discount Rate: The percentage reduction applied to the original price.

3. Discount Amount: The actual amount subtracted from the original price, calculated using the
discount rate.

4. Sale Price (Discounted Price): The final price paid after applying the discount.

Key Formulas

1. Discount Amount:

Discount=Original Price × Discount Rate /100

2. Sale Price:

Sale Price = Original Price − Discount

Step-by-Step Approach to Solving Discount Problems

1. Identify the Variables: Note the original price, discount rate, and what you need to find
(discount amount or sale price).

2. Calculate the Discount Amount: Use the discount formula to find the amount reduced from the
original price.

3. Determine the Sale Price: Subtract the discount amount from the original price to get the final
cost.

Example Problem

Problem:
A shirt costs PHP 800 and is on sale with a 15% discount. What is the sale price of the shirt?

Solution:

1. Identify the variables:

o Original Price = PHP 800

o Discount Rate = 15%

2. Calculate the Discount Amount:

Discount=800 × 15/100 = 800 × 0.15 = 120

[Link] | [Link]
 36

3. Determine the Sale Price:

4. Sale Price = 800 − 120 = 680

Answer: The sale price of the shirt is PHP 680.

Variations in Discount Problems

1. Finding the Original Price Given the Sale Price and Discount Rate:

o Use the formula: Original Price = Sale Price / 1 − Discount Rate / 100

2. Finding the Discount Rate Given the Original and Sale Price:

o Use the formula: Discount Rate = Original Price − Sale Price / Original Price × 100

Key Tips for the Exam

• Always double-check calculations, especially percentage conversions.

• Understand which variable you are solving for to avoid confusion.

• Use estimation to quickly assess if your answer makes sense.

Discount Problems Exercises

1. A department store in Manila has a sale on a blender that was originally priced at PHP 2,400. The sale
price is PHP 1,920. What was the discount rate?

2. A local shoe store reduced the price of a pair of sneakers from PHP 3,000 to PHP 2,250. What was the
discount rate?

3. A bookstore in Cebu marked down a cookbook from PHP 850 to PHP 680 during a special sale. What
was the discount rate?

4. Carlo bought a pair of jeans for PHP 1,200 after a 20% discount. What was the original price of the
jeans?

5. Liza purchased a microwave oven for PHP 3,400 after a 15% discount. What was the original price of
the microwave?

6. Jenny bought an air conditioner for PHP 16,000 after a 20% discount. What was the original price of
the air conditioner?

7. Marie bought a dining table originally priced at ₱8,000. After a discount, she paid only ₱6,000. What
was the percentage of the discount?

8. Carlos purchased a laptop for ₱50,000, but with a store promotion, he only paid ₱37,500. What was
the percentage of the discount?

9. Ana bought a pair of curtains priced originally at ₱3,000. After receiving a discount, she paid only
₱2,250. What was the percentage of the discount?

[Link] | [Link]
 37

Answer Keys

Problem One:

A department store in Manila has a sale on a blender that was originally priced at PHP 2,400. The sale
price is PHP 1,920. What was the discount rate?

Choices:

A) 15% discount

B) 20% discount

C) 25% discount

D) 30% discount

Answer: B) 20% discount

Solution:

1. Discount Calculation: Original Price – Sale Price = PHP 2,400 – PHP 1,920 = PHP 480.

2. Discount Rate Calculation: (Discount / Original Price) * 100% = (PHP 480 / PHP 2,400) * 100% =
20%.

The discount rate on the blender is 20%.

Problem Two:

A local shoe store reduced the price of a pair of sneakers from PHP 3,000 to PHP 2,250. What was the
discount rate?

Choices:

A) 20% discount

B) 25% discount

C) 30% discount

D) 35% discount

Answer: B) 25% discount

Solution:

1. Discount Calculation: Original Price – Sale Price = PHP 3,000 – PHP 2,250 = PHP 750.

2. Discount Rate Calculation: (Discount / Original Price) * 100% = (PHP 750 / PHP 3,000) * 100% =
25%.

The discount rate on the pair of sneakers is 25%.

[Link] | [Link]
 38

Problem Three:

A bookstore in Cebu marked down a cookbook from PHP 850 to PHP 680 during a special sale. What was
the discount rate?

Choices:

A) 15% discount

B) 18% discount

C) 20% discount

D) 25% discount

Answer: C) 20% discount

Solution:

1. Discount Calculation: Original Price – Sale Price = PHP 850 – PHP 680 = PHP 170.

2. Discount Rate Calculation: (Discount / Original Price) * 100% = (PHP 170 / PHP 850) * 100% =
20%.

The discount rate on the cookbook is 20%.

Problem Four:

Carlo bought a pair of jeans for PHP 1,200 after a 20% discount. What was the original price of the jeans?

Choices:

A) PHP 1,440

B) PHP 1,500

C) PHP 1,350

D) PHP 1,425

Answer: B) PHP 1,500

Solution:

1. Discount Rate: 20%

2. Sale Price: PHP 1,200

3. Calculation for Original Price: Let X be the original price. After a 20% discount, Carlo paid PHP
1,200, so:

X−0.20X = 1,200

0.80X = 1,200

4. Solving for X:

[Link] | [Link]
 39

p=1,200/0.80 = PHP1,500

The original price of the jeans was PHP 1,500.

Problem Five:

Liza purchased a microwave oven for PHP 3,400 after a 15% discount. What was the original price of the
microwave?

Choices:

A) PHP 3,750

B) PHP 3,900

C) PHP 4,000

D) PHP 4,100

Answer: C) PHP 4,000

Solution:

1. Discount Rate: 15%

2. Sale Price: PHP 3,400

3. Calculation for Original Price: Let X be the original price. After a 15% discount, Liza paid PHP
3,400, so:

X−0.15X = 3,400

0.85X = 3,400

4. Solving for X:

X=3,400/0.85 = PHP4,000

The original price of the microwave was PHP 4,000.

Problem Six:

Jenny bought an air conditioner for PHP 16,000 after a 20% discount. What was the original price of the
air conditioner?

Choices:

A) PHP 19,200

B) PHP 19,500

C) PHP 20,000

D) PHP 20,500

Answer: C) PHP 20,000

[Link] | [Link]
 40

Solution:

1. Discount Rate: 20%

2. Sale Price: PHP 16,000

3. Calculation for Original Price: Let X be the original price. After a 20% discount, Jenny paid PHP
16,000, so:

X − 0.20X = 16,000

0.80X = 16,000

4. Solving for X:

X = 16,000/0.80 = PHP20,000

The original price of the air conditioner was PHP 20,000.

Problem Seven:

Marie bought a dining table originally priced at ₱8,000. After a discount, she paid only ₱6,000. What was
the percentage of the discount?

Choices:

A) 20%

B) 25%

C) 30%

D) 35%

Correct Answer: B) 25%

Solution: The original price was ₱8,000 and the sale price was ₱6,000. The discount amount is ₱8,000 –
₱6,000 = ₱2,000.

The percentage of the discount is:

(2000/8000)×100% = 25%

Problem Eight:

Carlos purchased a laptop for ₱50,000, but with a store promotion, he only paid ₱37,500. What was the
percentage of the discount?

Choices:

A) 20%

B) 25%

C) 30%

[Link] | [Link]
 41

D) 35%

Correct Answer: B) 25%

Solution: The original price was ₱50,000 and the sale price was ₱37,500. The discount amount is
₱50,000 – ₱37,500 = ₱12,500.

The percentage of the discount is:

(12,500/50,000)×100% = 25%

Problem Nine:

Ana bought a pair of curtains priced originally at ₱3,000. After receiving a discount, she paid only ₱2,250.
What was the percentage of the discount?

Choices:

A) 20%

B) 25%

C) 30%

D) 35%

Correct Answer: B) 25%

Solution: The original price was ₱3,000 and the sale price was ₱2,250. The discount amount is ₱3,000 –
₱2,250 = ₱750.

The percentage of the discount is:

(750/3,000)×100% = 25%

[Link] | [Link]
 42

Distance Problems

Problem 1:

Ella and Tom start from the same point and walk in opposite directions. Ella walks west at a speed of 4
km/h, and Tom walks east at a speed of 6 km/h. How far apart will they be after 3 hours?

Solution: To solve this problem, you need to calculate the distance each person travels and then add
these distances together since they are moving in opposite directions.

1. Ella’s Speed: 4 km/h

2. Tom’s Speed: 6 km/h

3. Time: 3 hours

Calculating Distance:

• Distance Traveled by Ella: Ella’s speed multiplied by the time traveled.

Distance by Ella = 4 km/h × 3h = 12 km

• Distance Traveled by Tom: Tom’s speed multiplied by the time traveled.

Distance by Tom = 6 km/h × 3h = 18 km

Total Distance Apart: Add the distances traveled by Ella and Tom to find the total distance they are apart
after 3 hours.

Total Distance=12 km + 18 km = 30 km

Conclusion: After 3 hours, Ella and Tom will be 30 kilometers apart.

Problem 2:

Two cyclists start from towns that are 120 kilometers apart and ride towards each other. The first cyclist
rides from the north towards the south at a speed of 15 km/h, and the second cyclist rides from the
south towards the north at a speed of 10 km/h. How long will it take for the two cyclists to meet?

Solution: To find the time it takes for the cyclists to meet, calculate the combined speed at which they
are approaching each other and then use this speed to find the time to cover the 120 km distance.

Calculating Combined Speed: The combined speed of the cyclists is the sum of their individual speeds.

Combined Speed = 15 km/h + 10 km/h = 25 km/h

[Link] | [Link]
 43

Calculating Time to Meet: The time it takes to meet can be calculated by dividing the distance by their
combined speed.

Time=Distance/Combined Speed = 120 km/25 km/h = 4.8 hours

Conclusion: The two cyclists will meet after 4.8 hours.

Problem 3:

A car travels from City A to City B, a distance of 180 kilometers. The car travels the first half of the
journey at an average speed of 60 km/h and the second half at an average speed of 90 km/h. What is the
average speed of the car for the entire journey?

Solution: To calculate the average speed for the entire journey, find the total time taken for each half of
the journey and then use the total time and total distance to find the average speed.

Calculating Time for Each Segment:

• First Half (90 km at 60 km/h):

Time for first half=Distance/Speed = 90 km/60 km/h = 1.5 hours

• Second Half (90 km at 90 km/h):

Time for second half=Distance/Speed=90 km/90 km/h = 1 hour

Total Time for Journey:

Total Time = 1.5 hours + 1 hour = 2.5 hours

Calculating Average Speed:

Average Speed = Total Distance/Total Time = 180 km/2.5 hours = 72 km/h

Conclusion: The average speed of the car for the entire journey is 72 km/h.

Problem 4

Problem: Jill and Sam start running on a 400-meter circular track from the same point but in opposite
directions. Jill runs at a speed of 8 meters per second, while Sam runs at a speed of 5 meters per second.
How long will it take before they meet again at the starting point?

Solution: To solve this problem, determine how fast Jill and Sam are separating from each other and
calculate how quickly they complete a circuit to meet back at the start.

[Link] | [Link]
 44

Combined Speed: Since they are running in opposite directions, their speeds add up.

Combined Speed = 8 m/s + 5 m/s = 13 m/s

Time to Meet: The time it takes for them to meet can be calculated by dividing the track’s total distance
by their combined speed.

Time to Meet = Track Length/Combined Speed=400 /m13 m/s ≈ 30.77 seconds

Conclusion: Jill and Sam will meet again at the starting point approximately 30.77 seconds after they
start running.

Problem 5

Problem: Two cars are traveling towards each other from two cities that are 300 kilometers apart. The
first car travels at 70 km/h and the second car at 80 km/h. How long will it take for the two cars to meet?

Solution: To determine when the cars will meet, calculate their combined approach speed and use this
to find the time needed for them to cover the 300 kilometers separating them.

Combined Approach Speed: The speeds of the two cars add together because they are moving towards
each other.

Combined Approach Speed = 70 km/h + 80 km/h = 150 km/h

Time to Meet: The time to meet is calculated by dividing the total distance by the combined approach
speed.

Time to Meet = Total Distance/Combined Approach Speed = 300 km/150 km/h = 2 hours

Conclusion: The two cars will meet 2 hours after they start traveling towards each other.

Exercises

1. Two friends travel from City L to City M, covering a distance of 360 kilometers. The first half of their
journey is covered at a speed of 45 km/h, and the second half at 75 km/h. What is the average speed of
their trip?

A. 58.5 km/h

B. 60 km/h

C. 56.25 km/h

D. 62 km/h

[Link] | [Link]
 45

2. Ella and Tom start from the same point and walk in opposite directions. Ella walks west at a speed of 4
km/h, and Tom walks east at a speed of 6 km/h. How far apart will they be after 3 hours?

A. 15 km

B. 20 km

C. 25 km

D. 30 km

3. Mia cycles north at 5 km/h and Leah cycles south at 7 km/h starting from the same point. How far will
they be from each other after 2 hours?

A. 24 km

B. 22 km

C. 20 km

D. 18 km

4. Two trains start from the same station and travel in opposite directions. The first train travels west at
60 km/h, and the second train travels east at 40 km/h. How far apart are they after 1 hour?

A. 80 km

B. 90 km

C. 100 km

D. 110 km

Answers

1. Solution.

D = S x T. If S is missing, then S = D/T.

Solve for the Time first.

Time for first half = 180 km ÷ 45 km/h = 4 hours
Time for second half = 180 km ÷ 75 km/h = 2.4 hours
Total time = 4 hours + 2.4 hours = 6.4 hours.

[Link] | [Link]
 46

Then, solve for the Speed = D/T

Average speed = 360 km ÷ 6.4 hours = 56.25 km/h

2. Solution.

D = S x T.
Ella’s distance = 4 km/h × 3h = 12 km
Tom’s distance = 6 km/h × 3h = 18 km
Total distance = 12 km + 18 km = 30 km

3. Solution.

D = S x T.
Mia’s distance = 5 km/h × 2h = 10 km
Leah’s distance = 7 km/h × 2h = 14 km
Total distance = 10 km + 14 km = 24 km

4. Solution.

D = S x T.
First train’s distance = 60 km/h × 1h = 60 km
Second train’s distance = 40 km/h × 1h = 40 km
Total distance = 60 km + 40 km = 100 km

[Link] | [Link]
 47

Interest

What is Interest

Interest is the cost of borrowing money or the reward for saving money. It is a fundamental concept in
finance and economics, and it plays a significant role in everyday financial decisions, like taking loans,
saving money in a bank, or investing.

Key Terms:

1. Principal (P): The original amount of money invested or borrowed.

2. Rate (R): The percentage at which the interest is calculated, usually per year.

3. Time (T): The duration for which the money is invested or borrowed, typically measured in years.

4. Interest (I): The additional amount earned or paid on the principal over a certain period.

Types of Interest:

1. Simple Interest: Calculated only on the principal amount. It does not compound, meaning it
stays the same each period.

2. Compound Interest: Calculated on the principal and also on the accumulated interest of
previous periods. It grows faster because it compounds over time.

Simple Interest Formula:

The formula for calculating simple interest is:

I = (P) (R) (T)

Where:

• I = Interest earned or paid

• P = Principal amount

• R = Rate of interest (as a decimal, so 5% would be 0.05)

• T = Time in years

Example Problem:

Problem:
Anna invested ₱10,000 at an annual interest rate of 5% for 3 years. How much interest will she earn?

Solution:

1. Identify the values:

o Principal (P) = ₱10,000

o Rate (R) = 5% = 0.05

[Link] | [Link]
 48

o Time (T) = 3 years

2. Substitute into the formula:

I = 10,000 × 0.05 × 3

I = 10,000 x 0.15 = 1,500

Answer: Anna will earn ₱1,500 in interest after 3 years.

Exercises

1. John invested ₱12,000 at an annual interest rate of 6%. If the investment was held for 4 years, how
much interest did John earn?

2. Maria earned ₱1,500 in interest after investing a certain amount at an annual rate of 5% for 3 years.
What was the principal amount she invested?

3. A loan of ₱8,000 was taken at an annual interest rate of 4%. How many years will it take for the
interest to amount to ₱960?

4. Lisa invested ₱15,000 and earned ₱2,250 in interest after 5 years. What was the annual rate of
interest?

5. Mark borrowed ₱20,000 for 6 years at an annual interest rate of 3.5%. How much interest will he need
to pay?

6. An investment earned ₱2,400 in interest after being invested at an annual rate of 8% for 4 years.
What was the principal amount?

7. A principal of ₱10,000 was invested at a certain rate of interest for 5 years, earning ₱4,500 in interest.
What was the rate of interest?

8. Sarah wants to earn ₱1,200 in interest in 3 years by investing ₱5,000. What should be the annual rate
of interest?

9. David invested an amount at an annual interest rate of 7% and earned ₱2,100 in 2 years. What was
the principal amount invested?

10. A sum of ₱18,000 was invested at 4.5% annual interest. How long will it take to earn ₱3,240 in
interest?

Answers

1. PHP 2,880
2. PHP 10,000
3. 3 years

[Link] | [Link]
 49

4. 3%
5. PHP 4,200

6. PHP 7,500

7. 9%

8. 8%

9 PHP 15,000

10. 4 years.

Check videos here for tutorials

[Link]

[Link] | [Link]
 50

Linear Equations

1. Solve for x and y: 6x + 2y = 20 and x - y = 2

A. x = 4, y = 2

B. x = 3, y = 1

C. x = 2, y = 3

D. x = 1, y = 4

Solution.

Using substitution method:

x-y=2
x=y+2
6x + 2y = 20
6 (y + 2) + 2y = 20
6y + 12 + 2y = 20
8y=8
y=1

x-y=2
x-1=2
x=3

2. Solve for x and y: 3x − 2y = 0 and x + y = 5

A. x = 4, y = 1

B. x = 3, y = 1

C. x = 2, y = 3

D. x = 1, y = 4

[Link] | [Link]
 51

Using substitution method:

x+y=5
x=5-y

3x - 2y = 0
3(5 - y) - 2y = 0
15 - 3y - 2y = 0
-5y = -15
y=3

x+y=5
x+3=5
x=2

3. Solve for x and y: 3x + 4y = 32 and 2x + y = 13

A. x = 4, y = 1

B. x = 3, y = 1

C. x = 2, y = 2

D. x = 4, y = 5

Solution.

Using substitution method

2x + y = 13
y = 13 - 2x

3x + 4y = 32
3x + 4 (13 - 2x) = 32
3x + 52 - 8x = 32
-5x =-20
x=4

2x + y =13
2(4) + y = 13
8 + y = 13
y=5

[Link] | [Link]
 52

4. Solve for x and y: 3x + 2y = 11 and 2x + y = 6

A. x = 1, y = 4

B. x = 3, y = 1

C. x = 4, y = 0

D. x = 5, y = -1

Solution.

Using substitution method:

2x + y = 6
y = 6 - 2x

3x + 2y = 11
3x + 2 (6 - 2x) = 11
3x + 12 - 4x = 11
-x = 11 - 12
-x = -1
x=1

2x + y = 6
2 (1) + y = 6
2+y=6
y=4

5. Solve for x and y: 2x - 3y = 6 and x - 2y = 1

A. x = 4, y = 2

B. x = 9, y = 4

C. x = 2, y = 3

D. x = 1, y = 4

Solution.

[Link] | [Link]
 53

Using substitution method

x - 2y = 1
x = 1 + 2y

2x - 3y = 6
2 (1 + 2y) - 3y = 6
2 + 4y - 3y = 6
y=6-2
y=4

x - 2y = 1
x - 2(4) = 1
x-8=1
x=9

6. Solve for x and y: 3x - 4y = 6 and 2x + y = -7

A. x = 4, y = 3

B. x = 3, y = 2

C. x = -2, y = -3

D. x = 1, y = 0

Solution.

Using substitution method

2x + y = -7
y = -7 - 2x

3x - 4y = 6
3x - 4(-7-2x) = 6
3x + 28 + 8x = 6
11 x = -22
x = -2

2x + y = -7
2 (-2) + y = -7
-4 + y = - 7
y = -3

[Link] | [Link]
 54

7. Solve for x and y: 4x - 4y = 4 and 3x + y = -13

A. x = -3, y = -4

B. x = 3, y = 1

C. x = 4, y = 0

D. x = 5, y = -1

Solution.

Using substitution method:

3x + y = -13
y = -13 - 3x

4x - 4y = 4
4x - 4 (-13 - 3x) = 4
4x +52 + 12x = 4
16 x = -48
x = -3

3x + y = -13
3 (-3) + y = -13
-9 + y = -13
y = -4

8. Solve for x and y: 5x - 3y = 19 and x + 2y = 9

A. x = 4, y = 2

B. x = 5, y = 2

C. x = 6, y = 1

D. x = 7, y = 0

Solution.

Using substitution method:

x + 2y = 9

[Link] | [Link]
 55

x = 9 - 2y

5x - 3y = 19
5 (9 - 2y) -3y = 19
45 - 10y - 3y = 19
-13y = -26
y=2

x + 2y = 9
x + 2(2) = 9
x+4=9
x=5

[Link] | [Link]
 56

Number Series

Number series problems are a common component of the civil service exam’s numerical ability section.
These questions test your ability to recognize patterns in sequences of numbers, which can include
arithmetic, geometric, and other logical sequences. Mastering these problems improves critical thinking
and pattern recognition skills.

Types of Number Series

1. Arithmetic Series: A sequence where each term increases or decreases by a constant value
(common difference).
Example: 3, 6, 9, 12, … (common difference: + 3)

2. Geometric Series: A sequence where each term is multiplied or divided by a constant factor
(common ratio).
Example: 2, 4, 8, 16, … (common ratio: × 2)

3. Mixed Patterns: Sequences that combine arithmetic, geometric, or other logical patterns, such
as alternating additions and subtractions.
Example: 5, 10, 7, 14, 11, …

4. Special Patterns: Sequences involving squares, cubes, prime numbers, or other mathematical
operations.
Example: 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, … (squares of consecutive numbers)

Step-by-Step Approach to Solving Number Series Problems

1. Identify the Pattern: Look for a relationship between the terms. Check for addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division, or alternating patterns.

2. Apply the Pattern: Use the identified pattern to find the next term or the missing term in the
series.

3. Double-Check the Sequence: Ensure the pattern works consistently for all terms given in the
series.

Example Problems and Solutions

Example 1:
Problem: Find the next term in the series: 7, 14, 21, 28, …
Solution:

• This is an arithmetic series with a common difference of +7.

• Next term: 28+7=35

Answer: The next term is 35.

Example 2:
Problem: Find the missing term in the series: 3, 6, __, 24, 48.
Solution:

[Link] | [Link]
 57

• This is a geometric series with a common ratio of × 2.

• Missing term: 6 × 2 = 12
Answer: The missing term is 12.

Common Mistakes to Avoid

• Ignoring the pattern type: Always check for multiple types of patterns, as some series might not
be straightforward.

• Rushing through calculations: Take your time to apply the identified pattern correctly.

• Missing alternating patterns: Some series switch operations, so double-check the sequence if
something seems off.

Key Tips for the Exam

• Familiarize yourself with different patterns by practicing various types of series.

• Write down the differences or ratios between terms to help identify the pattern.

• Practice with timed exercises to improve speed and accuracy.

Exercises

Problem 1:

Series: 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, ___

Choices:

A) 96

B) 100

C) 128

D) 132

Problem 2:

Series: 1, 3, 7, 15, 31, 63, ___

Choices:

A) 127

B) 128

C) 129

D) 130

[Link] | [Link]
 58

Problem 3:

Series: 5, 10, 20, 40, 80, 160, ___

Choices:

A) 310

B) 320

C) 330

D) 340

Problem 4:

Series: 6, 12, 24, 48, 96, 192, ___

Choices:

A) 288

B) 384

C) 390

D) 400

Problem 5:

Series: 3, 6, 12, 24, 48, 96, ___

Choices:

A) 144

B) 192

C) 198

D) 200

Problem 6:

Series: 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, ___

Choices:

A) 30

B) 36

C) 42

D) 49

[Link] | [Link]
 59

Problem 7:

Series: 2, 3, 5, 8, 12, 17, ___

Choices:

A) 21

B) 22

C) 23

D) 24

Problem 8:

Series: 10, 13, 17, 22, 28, ___

Choices:

A) 34

B) 35

C) 36

D) 37

Answers:

1. Correct Answer: C) 128

Solution: This series is a simple progression where each number is doubled to get the next. Thus: 64 × 2
= 128

2. Correct Answer: A) 127

Solution: Each number in the series is obtained by doubling the previous number and adding 1.

Therefore: 63 × 2 + 1 = 126 + 1 = 127

3. Correct Answer: B) 320

Solution: The pattern shows each number is doubled to obtain the next number in the series. Thus: 160
× 2 = 320

4. Correct Answer: B) 384

Solution: Similar to the previous series, each number doubles the previous one. Following this rule: 192
× 2 = 384

5. Correct Answer: B) 192

[Link] | [Link]
 60

Solution: Each number is the result of multiplying the previous number by 2. Applying this pattern: 96 ×
2 = 192

6. Correct Answer: B) 36

Solution: This series represents the squares of consecutive integers. Thus: 6 x 6 =36

7. Correct Answer: C) 23

Solution: This series increments by successively increasing values: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, etc. The pattern shows
each next number is the sum of the current number and its incremental value: 17 + 6 = 23

8. Correct Answer: B) 35

Solution: 28+7=35

[Link] | [Link]
 61

Order of Operations

The Order of Operations is a standardized rule in mathematics that determines the sequence in which
mathematical operations should be performed.

What is GEMDAS?

Here’s an explanation of GEMDAS in bullet points:

• G: Groupings

o Perform operations inside grouping symbols first, such as parentheses ( ), brackets [ ], or

braces { }.

• E: Exponents

o Next, solve any exponents or powers.

• MD: Multiplication and Division

o After exponents, perform multiplication and division from left to right, as they appear in
the expression.

• AS: Addition and Subtraction

o Finally, perform addition and subtraction from left to right, as they appear in the
expression.

Note: Multiplication and Division are of equal rank, so you process them from left to right. The same
goes for Addition and Subtraction.

Example 1. (25 ÷ 5 + 3) × 3 + (56 ÷ 8 × 2)

8 x 3 + 14

24 + 14

38

Example 2. (36 ÷ 6 x 3) + (8 x 4 + 8)

(6 x 3 ) + (32 + 8)

18 + 40

58

Example 3. ( 96 ÷ 1.2 x 4) ÷ (5 x 4 ÷ 8)

[Link] | [Link]
 62

(80 x 4) ÷ (20 ÷ 8)

320 ÷ 2.5

128

[Link] | [Link]
 63

Percent, Rate and Base

Percentage

• The percentage represents the ratio of a part to the whole.

• This value can be expressed as a decimal, fraction, or in percentage (%) form.

• It shows what portion of the base is being considered.

Rate

• The rate is the specific percentage or ratio used to determine the part of the base.

• It is often expressed as a percentage (%) and is used to calculate how much of the base is taken
or considered.

Base

• The base is the original total or whole number from which a part (percentage) is taken.

• It serves as the reference point for calculating the percentage, and it is the value on which the
rate is applied.

Together, these concepts help in understanding and solving problems involving percentages, where the
base is the total amount, the rate is the percentage applied to that amount, and the percentage
represents the resulting portion of the base.

Solving for Percentage, Rate and Base

Percentage (P) = (R) x (B)

Rate (R) = Percentage (P) / Base

Base (B) = Percentage (P) / Rate (R)

Clue words to identify which is Percentage, Rate or Base

Identifying Percentage, Rate and Base in Word Problems

Identifying the Base, Percentage, and Rate in Word Problems

To accurately interpret word problems and determine which values represent the base, percentage, or
rate, it’s essential to recognize the key clue words within the problem. Common clues include:

• “Is”: This word typically indicates equality and helps you identify the number that is equal to the
percentage of the base. It usually corresponds to the part or the percentage.

[Link] | [Link]
 64

• “Of”: This word usually signifies multiplication and points to the base, the whole quantity from
which a percentage is taken.

• “What”: This term represents the unknown value you’re trying to find. It could refer to the base,
percentage, or rate, depending on the context of the problem.

Example:

1. “What is 20% of 50?”

x = 20% x 50. To solve this, x = .2 x 50 = 10

2. “What part of 10 is 4?”

(n) x (10) = 4. To solve this, n = 4 ÷ 10. n = .4 or 40%

3. “30% of what is 6?”

30% x (n) = 6. To solve this, (.3) (n) = 6. Then, n = 6 ÷ .3 = 20

4. “0.75 of 8 is what?”

.75 x 8 = n. To solve this, n = .75 x 8 = 6

By understanding these key terms, you can effectively break down word problems and determine the
base, percentage, or rate with confidence.

Percentage, Rate and Base Exercises

1. What is 15% of 80?

2. What part of 25 is 5?

3. 40% of what is 16?

4.0.6 of 50 is what?

[Link] is 25% of 120?

6. What part of 60 is 18?

7. 50% of what is 10?

8. 0.25 of 32 is what?

9. What is 10% of 150?

10. What part of 200 is 50?

Answers

1. 12

2. 20%

3. 40

[Link] | [Link]
 65

4. 30

5. 30

6. 30%

7. 20

8. 8

9. 15

10. 25%

[Link] | [Link]
 66

Perimeter Word Problems

1. What is the perimeter of a square with an area of 225 square meters?

A. 40 meters

B. 50 meters

C. 70 meters

D. 60 meters

2. What is the perimeter of a square with an area of 324 square meters?

A. 60 meters

B. 70 meters

C. 75 meters

D. 72 meters

3. What is the perimeter of a square with an area of 400 square meters?

A. 80 meters

B. 90 meters

C. 100 meters

D. 75 meters

4. Paul runs every morning around a rectangular track that is 80 meters long and 50 meters wide. If he
runs around the track 6 times, how many meters does he run in total?

A. 1250 meters

B. 960 meters

C. 1560 meters

D. 1300 meters

5. Anna walks every afternoon around a rectangular garden that is 75 meters long and 45 meters wide. If
Anna walks around the garden 3 times, how many meters does she walk in total?

A. 720 meters

[Link] | [Link]
 67

B. 800 meters

C. 950 meters

D. 630 meters

6. Mang Luis has a rectangular lot where the width is 5 meters more than one-third its length. If the
perimeter of the lot is 138 meters, what is the length of the lot?

A. 36 meters

B. 39 meters

C. 45 meters

D. 48 meters

7. The length of a rectangular playground is 12 meters more than its width. If the perimeter of the
playground is 112 meters, what is the width of the playground?

A. 22 meters

B. 24 meters

C. 26 meters

D. 28 meters

Answers

1. Solution.

Find the side length: side = √225 = 15 meters.

Calculate the perimeter: Perimeter = 4 x 15 = 60 meters.

2. Solution.

Find the side length: side = √324 = 18 meters.

Calculate the perimeter: Perimeter = 4 x 18 = 72 meters.

3. Solution.

Find the side length: side = √400 = 20 meters.

Calculate the perimeter: Perimeter = 4 x 20 = 80 meters.

[Link] | [Link]
 68

4. First, calculate the perimeter of the rectangular track.

Perimeter (P) of a rectangle is given by:

P = 2 x (length + width)
P = 2 x (80 meters + 50 meters)
P = 2 x 130 meters
P = 260 meters

Next, calculate the distance Paul runs in his routine of 6 rounds.

Distance run in 6 rounds:

6 x 260 meters = 1560 meters

Therefore, the correct answer is: 1560 meters

5. Solution.

First, calculate the perimeter of the rectangular garden.

Perimeter (P) of a rectangle is given by:

P = 2 x (length + width)
P = 2 x (75 meters + 45 meters)
P = 2 x 120 meters
P = 240 meters

Next, calculate the distance Anna walks in her routine of 3 rounds.

Distance walked in 3 rounds:

3 x 240 meters = 720 meters

Therefore, the correct answer is 720 meters

6. Solution.

Let's denote the length of the lot as l meters and the width as w meters.

Given:
- The width w is 5 meters more than one-third the length: W = (1/3)L + 5.
- The perimeter P is 138 meters: P = 2L + 2W.

Substitute w into the perimeter formula:

[Link] | [Link]
 69

2L + 2((1/3)L + 5) = 138
2L + (2/3)L + 10 = 138
(6/3)L + (2/3)L + 10 = 138
(8/3)L + 10 = 138
(8/3)L = 128
8L = 384
L = 48 meters
Therefore, the correct answer is: 48 meters

7. Solution.

Let's denote the width of the playground as w meters.

Given:
- The length l is 12 meters more than the width: L = W + 12.
- The perimeter P is 112 meters: P = 2L + 2W.

Substitute l into the perimeter formula:

2(W + 12) + 2W = 112
2W + 24 + 2W = 112
4W + 24 = 112
4W = 88
W = 22
Therefore, the correct answer is: 22 meters

[Link] | [Link]
 70

Probability Problems

Definition:
Probability is the branch of mathematics that deals with the likelihood or chance of an event occurring. It
quantifies uncertainty and provides a framework for making predictions based on known data.

Basic Concepts:

1. Experiment: An action or process that leads to one or more outcomes (e.g., rolling a die).

2. Outcome: The result of a single trial of an experiment (e.g., rolling a 4 on a die).

3. Event: A specific outcome or a set of outcomes from an experiment (e.g., rolling an even
number).

4. Sample Space (S): The set of all possible outcomes of an experiment (e.g., for a die, the sample
space is {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}).

Probability Formula:
The probability of an event (A) is calculated using the formula:

P(A)= Number of favorable outcomes / Total number of outcomes in the sample space

Probability Scale:

• 0: Impossible event (e.g., rolling a 7 on a standard die).

• 1: Certain event (e.g., rolling a number between 1 and 6 on a standard die).

• Between 0 and 1: Likely to occur, but not guaranteed.

Types of Probability:

• Theoretical Probability: Based on reasoning and calculations (e.g., the chance of flipping heads
on a fair coin is ½

• Experimental Probability: Based on actual experiments or historical data (e.g., rolling a die
multiple times and recording the results).

• Subjective Probability: Based on personal judgment or experience rather than mathematical

calculation (e.g., predicting the outcome of a sports game).

Applications:
Probability is widely used in various fields such as statistics, finance, science, and engineering to analyze
data, assess risks, and make informed decisions.

Exercises

[Link] | [Link]
 71

1. Find the probability of drawing a Diamond when a card is drawn from a pack of 52 cards

A. 11⁄13

B. 4⁄13

C. 1⁄4

D. 1⁄3

2. Find the probability of drawing a Club when a card is drawn from a pack of 52 cards

A. 1⁄2

B. 1⁄4

C. 1⁄13

D. 1⁄6

3. Find the probability of drawing an even numbered card when a card is drawn from a pack of 52 cards.

A. 3⁄13

B. 5⁄13

C. 4⁄13

D. 7⁄13

4. Find the probability of drawing an odd-numbered card when a card is drawn from a pack of 52 cards.

A. 2⁄13

B. 3⁄13

C. 5⁄13

D. 4⁄13

5. Find the probability of drawing a red odd-numbered card when a card is drawn from a pack of 52
cards.

A. 2⁄13

B. 3⁄13

[Link] | [Link]
 72

C. 1⁄13

D. 4⁄13

Answers

1. Solution.

Identify the Total Number of Cards: There are 52 cards in a standard deck.

Identify the Number of Diamonds: There are 13 diamonds in a deck.

Calculate the Probability: P(Diamond) = 13⁄52 or 1⁄4

2. Solution.

Identify the Total Number of Cards: There are 52 cards in a standard deck.

Identify the Number of Clubs: There are 13 clubs in a deck.

Calculate the Probability: P(Club) = 13⁄52 or 1⁄4

3. Solution.

Identify the Total Number of Cards: There are 52 cards in a standard deck.

Identify the number of even numbered card : The even-numbered cards in each suit are 2, 4, 6, 8, and
10.
There are 5 even-numbered cards per suit. There are 4 suits in a deck.
Therefore, the total number of even-numbered cards is: 5 cards/suit × 4 suits = 20 even-numbered cards

Calculate the Probability: P(even-numbered card) = 20⁄52 or 5⁄13

4. Solution.

Identify the Total Number of Cards: There are 52 cards in a standard deck.

Identify the number of odd numbered card : The odd-numbered cards in each suit are 3, 5, 7, 9.
There are 4 odd-numbered cards per suit. There are 4 suits in a deck.

[Link] | [Link]
 73

Therefore, the total number of odd-numbered cards is: 4 cards/suit × 4 suits = 16 odd-numbered cards

Calculate the Probability: P(odd-numbered card) = 16⁄52 or 4⁄13

5. Solution.

Identify the Total Number of Cards: There are 52 cards in a standard deck.

Identify the number of a red odd-numbered card : There are 4 odd-numbered cards per red suit.
There are 2 red suits.
Therefore, the total number of red odd-numbered cards is: 4 cards/suit × 2 suits = 8
red odd-numbered cards

Calculate the Probability: P(red odd-numbered card) = 8⁄52 or 2⁄13

[Link] | [Link]
 74

Profit and Loss Problems

Overview of Solving Profit and Loss Problems

Profit and loss problems are a fundamental aspect of financial arithmetic, involving calculations to
determine the financial outcome of transactions. Here’s a simplified explanation of the concepts and
steps involved in solving these problems:

Key Concepts:

1. Cost Price (CP): This is the price at which an item is purchased or the cost to the seller.

2. Selling Price (SP): This is the price at which an item is sold to the buyer.

3. Profit: If the selling price is greater than the cost price, the difference between them is the
profit. Profit=SP−CP

4. Loss: If the cost price is greater than the selling price, the difference is the loss. Loss=CP−SP

5. Profit Percentage: This is the percentage of the profit relative to the cost price. Profit
Percentage=(Profit/𝐶𝑃) × 100%

6. Loss Percentage: This is the percentage of the loss relative to the cost price. Loss
Percentage=(Loss/𝐶𝑃) × 100%

Steps to Solve:

1. Identify the Cost Price and Selling Price: Read the problem carefully to find the CP and SP.

2. Determine if it’s a Profit or Loss: Compare CP and SP to determine if the transaction resulted in
a profit or a loss.

3. Calculate the Profit or Loss: Use the formulas provided to calculate the absolute value of the
profit or loss.

4. Calculate the Percentage: If required, compute the profit or loss percentage using the respective
formulas.

5. Consider Additional Factors: Sometimes, problems may involve discounts, markups, or taxes.
Adjust the CP or SP accordingly before performing the above calculations.

Example:

A trader buys goods for PHP 500 and sells them for PHP 600.

• Cost Price (CP) = PHP 500

• Selling Price (SP) = PHP 600

• Profit = SP – CP = PHP 600 – PHP 500 = PHP 100

• Profit Percentage = (100/500) × 100% = 20%

[Link] | [Link]
 75

Problem 1. Question: If a shopkeeper buys notebooks for PHP 50 each and sells them for PHP 65 each,
what is the profit percentage on each notebook?

Choices:
A. 20%
B. 25%
C. 30%
D. 35%

Answer: C
Solution:
Profit per notebook = Selling Price – Cost Price = PHP 65 – PHP 50 = PHP 15.
Profit percentage = 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑓𝑖𝑡/𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑒 × 100% = 15/50 × 100% = 30%

Problem 2. Question: A furniture dealer purchases a desk for PHP 1,200 and sells it for PHP 1,440. What
is the profit percentage?

Choices:
A. 15%
B. 18%
C. 20%
D. 25%

Answer: C
Solution:
Profit = Selling Price – Cost Price = PHP 1,440 – PHP 1,200 = PHP 240.
Profit percentage = 240/1200 × 100% = 20%

Profit and Loss Exercises

1. A merchant buys a dining table for ₱28,000 and sells it for ₱25,000. What is his loss?

2. A trader buys a smartphone for ₱18,000 and sells it for ₱22,000. What is his profit?

3. A trader wants to make a profit of 12% on a desktop computer he bought for ₱25,000. At what price
should he sell it?

4. A vendor buys a microwave oven for ₱15,000 and sells it for ₱12,000. What is his loss percentage?

5. A shopkeeper buys a wardrobe for ₱20,000 and sells it for ₱24,000. What is his profit percentage?

6. A merchant sells an item at a loss of 10%. If the selling price was PHP 450, what was the original cost
price?

7. A trader buys a refrigerator for ₱45,000 and sells it for ₱40,500. What is his loss percentage?

8. A merchant buys a washing machine for ₱30,000 and sells it for ₱27,000. What is his loss?

[Link] | [Link]
 76

9. A trader wants to make a profit of 12% on a desktop computer he bought for ₱25,000. At what price
should he sell it?

10. A merchant buys a laptop for ₱35,000 and sells it for ₱42,000. What is his profit?

Answers

1. 3,000

2. 4,000

3. PHP 28,000

4. 20%

5. 20%

6. PHP 500

7. 10%

8. PHP 3,000

9. PHP 28,000

10. PHP 7,000

[Link] | [Link]
 77

Work Problems

Overview of Work Problems

Work problems are a category of mathematical questions that deal with rates and the time it takes for
workers or machines to complete a task. These problems often require the calculation of how long it
takes for two or more parties working together to accomplish a specific job, each working at their own
individual rate. Understanding work problems involves grasping a few key concepts:

1. Rate

• Definition: In the context of work problems, the rate refers to the amount of work that can be
done per unit of time. It is usually expressed as “task per hour.”

• Example: If John can paint a fence in 6 hours, his rate is 1/6 of the fence per hour.

2. Individual Work Rate

• Definition: This is the rate at which an individual can complete the work alone.

• Example: If Sarah can paint the same fence in 4 hours, her individual work rate is 1/4 of the
fence per hour.

3. Combined Work Rate

• Definition: When two or more individuals or machines work together, their rates are added to
determine the combined work rate.

• Example: If John and Sarah paint together, their combined work rate is 1/6 + 1/4 = 5/12 of the
fence per hour.

4. Total Time Required

• Definition: This is the total amount of time it takes for the combined effort of all involved parties
to complete the entire task. It is calculated by taking the reciprocal of the combined work rate.

• Example: For John and Sarah, the total time required to paint the fence together is 1 / (5/12) =
12/5 or 2.4 hours.

Solving Work Problems

To solve a work problem, follow these steps:

1. Determine the rate at which each individual can complete the work alone.

2. Calculate the combined work rate by adding the individual rates.

3. Find the total time required by taking the reciprocal of the combined work rate.

Practice Test on Work Problems - Civil Service Exam

Sample Work Problem:

[Link] | [Link]
 78

Problem: Anna and Brian are both tasked with assembling gift boxes for a community event. Anna can
assemble all the required gift boxes in 5 hours working alone, while Brian can do the same task in 3
hours working alone. If they work together, how long will it take them to assemble all the gift boxes?

Solution: To find out how long it will take for Anna and Brian to complete the task together, first
determine their individual rates of work and then add these rates together to find their combined rate.

1. Anna’s Rate: If Anna can complete the task in 5 hours, her work rate is:

Rate of Anna = 1 task/5 hours = 1/5 task per hour

2. Brian’s Rate: If Brian can complete the task in 3 hours, his work rate is:

Rate of Brian = 1 task/3 hours = 1/3 task per hour

3. Combined Rate: Add their rates together to find the rate at which they can complete the task
together:

Combined Rate=1/5 + 1/3 = 3/15 + 5/15 = 8/15 task per hour

4. Time Required Together: To find out how long it will take them to complete one whole task
working together, calculate the reciprocal of their combined rate:

Time required=1/Combined Rate = 1/8/15 = 15/8 hours

15/8 hours=1 hour and 52.5 minutes

Conclusion: Anna and Brian will be able to complete the task together in approximately 1 hour and 52.5
minutes.

Problem 2

Problem: Carla can paint a room by herself in 6 hours. Her friend, Jeff, can paint the same room in 4
hours. If they decide to paint the room together while working at their respective paces, how long will it
take them to paint the room?

Solution: To solve this, first determine each person’s rate of work, then combine these rates to find the
total rate when they work together.

1. Carla’s Rate: If Carla can complete the task in 6 hours:

Rate of Carla = 1 room/6 hours = 1/6 room per hour

2. Jeff’s Rate: If Jeff can complete the task in 4 hours:

Rate of Jeff = 1 room/4 hours = 1/4 room per hour

3. Combined Rate: Add their rates together to find the rate at which they can complete the room
together:

Combined Rate=1/6 + 1/4 = 2/12 + 3/12 = 5/12 room per hour

4. Time Required Together: To find out how long it will take them to complete one whole room
working together, calculate the reciprocal of their combined rate:

[Link] | [Link]
 79

Time required = 1/Combined Rate = 1/5/12 = 12/5 hours = 2.4 hours or 2 hours and 24 minutes

Conclusion: Carla and Jeff will be able to complete the painting of the room together in approximately 2
hours and 24 minutes.

Problem 3.

Problem: Lucy can fill a swimming pool using her hose in 5 hours. Her neighbor, Tim, has a more
powerful hose and can fill the same pool in 3 hours. If they both use their hoses to fill the pool at the
same time, how long will it take to fill the pool?

Solution: First, calculate each person’s rate of filling the pool, then determine the combined rate.

1. Lucy’s Rate:

Rate of Lucy = 1 pool/5 hours = 1/5 pool per hour

2. Tim’s Rate:

Rate of Tim = 1 pool/3 hours = 1/3 pool per hour

3. Combined Rate: Sum up their rates to get the total filling rate:

Combined Rate = 1/5 + 1/3 = 3/15 + 5/15 = 8/15 pool per hour

4. Time Required Together: Find the reciprocal of their combined rate:

Time required = 1/Combined Rate = 1/8/15 = 15/8 hours = 1.875 hours or 1 hour and 52.5 minutes

Conclusion: Using both hoses, Lucy and Tim can fill the pool together in approximately 1 hour and 52.5
minutes.

Exercises

1. Nancy and Laura can decorate a hall together in 6 hours. Nancy can decorate the hall by herself in 9
hours. How long will it take Laura to decorate the hall alone?

A. 10 hours

B. 15 hours

C. 18 hours

D. 20 hours

2. Two mechanics, Alan and Bruce, can repair a truck engine together in 9 hours. Alan can repair the
engine by himself in 15 hours. How long will it take Bruce to repair the engine alone?

[Link] | [Link]
 80

A. 16 hours

B. 18 hours

C. 20 hours

D. 22.5 hours

3. Peter and Jenny can edit a manuscript together in 10 hours. Peter can edit the manuscript by himself
in 16 hours. How long will it take Jenny to edit the manuscript alone?

A. 20 hours

B. 24 hours

C. 26.67 hours

D. 22.5 hours

4. A large cistern can be filled by a large pipe in 10 hours and by a small pipe in 15 hours. How long will it
take to fill the cistern if both pipes are used simultaneously?

A. 5 hours

B. 6 hours

C. 7 hours

D. 8 hours

5. An inlet pipe can fill a swimming pool in 8 hours, and an outlet pipe can drain the pool in 12 hours. If
both pipes are opened simultaneously, how long will it take to fill the pool?

A. 12 hours

B. 18 hours

C. 24 hours

D. 20 hours

Answer

Solution.

1. Nancy and Laura Rate = 1⁄6 task per hour

Nancy Rate = 1⁄9 task per hour

[Link] | [Link]
 81

Laura Rate = ?

1
⁄9 + 1⁄x = 1⁄6
x
⁄9x + 9⁄9x = 1⁄6
x +9
⁄9x = 1⁄6
6(x+9) = 9x
6x + 54 = 9x
3x = 54
x = 54 ÷ 3 = 18 hours

2. Solution.

Alan and Bruce Rate = 1⁄9 task per hour

Alan Rate = 1⁄15 task per hour
Bruce Rate = ?

1
⁄15 + 1⁄x = 1⁄9
x
⁄15x + 15⁄15x = 1⁄9
x +15
⁄15x = 1⁄9
9(x+15) = 15x
9x + 135 = 15x
6x = 135
x = 135 ÷ 6 = 22.5 hours

3. Peter and Jenny Rate = 1⁄10 task per hour

Peter Rate = 1⁄16 task per hour
Jenny Rate = ?

1
⁄16 + 1⁄x = 1⁄10
x
⁄16x + 16⁄16x = 1⁄10
x +16
⁄16x = 1⁄10
10(x+16) = 16x
10x + 160 = 16x
6x = 160
x = 160 ÷ 6 = 26.67 hours

4. Large Pipe Rate = 1⁄10 task per hour

Small Pipe Rate = 1⁄15 task per hour

[Link] | [Link]
 82

1
⁄10 + 1⁄15 = 1⁄x
3
⁄30 + 2⁄30 = 1⁄x
5
⁄30 = 1⁄x
5x = 30
x = 30 ÷ 5 = 6 hours

5. Inlet Pipe Rate = 1⁄8 task per hour

Outlet Pipe Rate = 1⁄12 task per hour
1
⁄8 - 1⁄12 = 1⁄x
3
⁄24 - 2⁄24 = 1⁄x
1
⁄24 = 1⁄x
x = 24 hours

[Link] | [Link]
 1

Table of Contents
Adverbs 2
Commonly Confused Words 10
Filipino Words 17
Foreign Words 20
Idiomatic Expressions 24
Parallelism 34
Prepositions 37
Punctuations 51
Reading Comprehension 54
Subject-Verb Agreement 65
Synonyms and Antonyms 70
Using Either/Neither in Grammar 78
Vocabulary 81
Word Roots, Prefixes, Suffixes 86

[Link] | [Link]
 2

Adverbs
Definition: What is an Adverb
An adverb is a part of speech that modifies verbs, adjectives, other adverbs, or entire
sentences. Adverbs provide additional information about how, when, where, to what extent, or
under what conditions something happens.
Types of Adverbs:
1. Adverbs of Manner: Describe how an action is performed.
Example: She sings beautifully. (“beautifully” modifies “sings”)
2. Adverbs of Time: Indicate when an action occurs.
Example: We will meet tomorrow. (“tomorrow” modifies “will meet”)
3. Adverbs of Place: Indicate where an action occurs.
Example: The children are playing outside. (“outside” modifies “are playing”)
4. Adverbs of Frequency: Indicate how often an action occurs.
Example: She always arrives early. (“always” modifies “arrives”)
5. Adverbs of Degree: Indicate the intensity or degree of an action, adjective, or another adverb.
Example: The test was extremely difficult. (“extremely” modifies “difficult”)
6. Adverbs of Reason: Explain why an action occurs.
Example: He therefore decided to leave early. (“therefore” modifies “decided”)
Forming Adverbs:
Most adverbs are formed by adding “-ly” to an adjective.
Example: Quick (adjective) → Quickly (adverb)
Position of Adverbs:
The position of adverbs can vary depending on what they are modifying.
Adverbs modifying verbs usually come after the verb.
Example: She ran quickly.
Adverbs modifying adjectives or other adverbs usually come before the word they modify.
Example: She is very talented. (modifying adjective “talented”)
Example: He runs quite slowly. (modifying adverb “slowly”)
Commonly Confused Adverbs and Adjectives:
Good (adjective) vs. Well (adverb)
Example: She is a good singer. (adjective modifying noun “singer”)
Example: She sings well. (adverb modifying verb “sings”)
Understanding adverbs and their usage helps in creating more precise and detailed sentences,
thereby enhancing clarity and expressiveness in writing and speaking.

[Link] | [Link]
 3

Common Adverbs

1. Carefully 11. Loudly

• Usage: “Carefully” describes performing an • Usage: “Loudly” describes doing something
action with attention, caution, and precision to with a high volume or intensity, making a
avoid mistakes or accidents. strong sound.
• Example: She carefully wrapped the fragile • Example: The band played loudly at the
gift in tissue paper to ensure it wouldn’t break concert, filling the stadium with their energetic
during transport. music.
2. Quickly 12. Carelessly
• Usage: “Quickly” means doing something in • Usage: “Carelessly” means performing an
a fast or rapid manner, with speed and action without paying attention or taking
efficiency. proper care, often resulting in mistakes or
• Example: The chef chopped the vegetables accidents.
quickly to save time while preparing dinner. • Example: He carelessly knocked over the
glass of water, spilling it all over the table.
3. Cautiously
• Usage: “Cautiously” suggests being careful
13. Reluctantly
or wary, especially when proceeding in
uncertain or risky situations. • Usage: “Reluctantly” suggests doing
• Example: The hiker cautiously navigated the something with hesitation or unwillingness,
rocky trail, mindful of loose stones and often due to not wanting to do it.
slippery surfaces. • Example: She reluctantly agreed to attend
the party, even though she would have
4. Boldly
preferred to stay home.
• Usage: “Boldly” signifies doing something
with confidence, courage, or without fear of
14. Clearly
consequences.
• Example: She boldly confronted her fears • Usage: “Clearly” signifies doing something
and delivered a passionate speech in front of in a way that is easy to understand, perceive,
the audience. or see.
• Example: The teacher explained the
5. Quietly
concept clearly, using simple examples to
• Usage: “Quietly” describes doing something illustrate her point.
in a hushed or subdued manner, without
making much noise.
15. Proudly
• Example: The librarian walked quietly
among the bookshelves, ensuring not to • Usage: “Proudly” describes doing
disturb the readers. something with a sense of satisfaction,
accomplishment, or pride.
• Example: She proudly displayed her artwork
6. Patiently
on the wall, excited to share it with others.
• Usage: “Patiently” suggests waiting calmly
and without complaint, especially in situations
16. Happily
where delay or frustration is expected.

[Link] | [Link]
 4

• Example: He patiently waited for his turn in • Usage: “Happily” means doing something
line, knowing that rushing wouldn’t make the with joy, contentment, or pleasure.
line move any faster. • Example: The children played happily in the
park, laughing and chasing each other
around.
7. Anxiously
• Usage: “Anxiously” describes feeling 17. Nervously
nervous, worried, or eagerly anticipating
something. • Usage: “Nervously” suggests doing
• Example: She waited anxiously for the something with anxiety, fear, or
results of her exam, hoping that she had apprehension.
performed well. • Example: He tapped his foot nervously as
he waited for the interview to begin, worried
about how it would go.
8. Happily
• Usage: “Happily” signifies doing something
18. Quietly
with joy, contentment, or pleasure.
• Example: The children played happily in the • Usage: “Quietly” describes doing something
park, laughing and chasing each other in a hushed or subdued manner, without
around. making much noise.
• Example: The librarian walked quietly
9. Slowly
among the bookshelves, ensuring not to
• Usage: “Slowly” means doing something at disturb the readers.
a leisurely or unhurried pace, without rushing.
• Example: He walked slowly through the 19. Proudly
garden, taking in the beauty of each flower
and plant. • Usage: “Proudly” describes doing
something with a sense of satisfaction,
10. Suddenly
accomplishment, or pride.
• Usage: “Suddenly” indicates that something • Example: She proudly displayed her artwork
happens quickly and unexpectedly, catching on the wall, excited to share it with others.
someone by surprise.
• Example: Suddenly, a loud noise startled 20. Happily
the cat, causing it to jump up and run away.
• Usage: “Happily” means doing something
with joy, contentment, or pleasure.
• Example: The children played happily in the
park, laughing and chasing each other
around.

Exercises
[Link] the sentence, “She ________ wrapped the fragile gift in tissue paper to ensure it wouldn’t
break during transport,” which adverb best fits the blank?

[Link] | [Link]
 5

A) Carelessly
B) Boldly
C) Carefully
D) Reluctantly
Correct Answer: C) Carefully
Explanation: “Carefully” means performing an action with attention and precision to avoid
mistakes or accidents.
2. In the sentence, “The chef chopped the vegetables ________ to save time while preparing
dinner,” which adverb best fits the blank?
A) Slowly
B) Quickly
C) Loudly
D) Patiently
Correct Answer: B) Quickly
Explanation: “Quickly” means doing something in a fast or rapid manner.
3. In the sentence, “The hiker ________ navigated the rocky trail, mindful of loose stones and
slippery surfaces,” which adverb best fits the blank?
A) Happily
B) Anxiously
C) Cautiously
D) Proudly
Correct Answer: C) Cautiously
Explanation: “Cautiously” suggests being careful or wary in uncertain or risky situations.
4. In the sentence, “She ________ confronted her fears and delivered a passionate speech in
front of the audience,” which adverb best fits the blank?
A) Reluctantly
B) Boldly
C) Quietly
D) Nervously
Correct Answer: B) Boldly
Explanation: “Boldly” signifies doing something with confidence and courage.
5. In the sentence, “The librarian walked ________ among the bookshelves, ensuring not to
disturb the readers,” which adverb best fits the blank?
A) Quickly
B) Loudly
C) Quietly
D) Clearly
Correct Answer: C) Quietly

[Link] | [Link]
 6

Explanation: “Quietly” describes doing something in a hushed manner without making much
noise.
6. In the sentence, “He ________ waited for his turn in line, knowing that rushing wouldn’t make
the line move any faster,” which adverb best fits the blank?
A) Happily
B) Patiently
C) Anxiously
D) Suddenly
Correct Answer: B) Patiently
Explanation: “Patiently” means waiting calmly and without complaint.
7. In the sentence, “She waited ________ for the results of her exam, hoping that she had
performed well,” which adverb best fits the blank?
A) Nervously
B) Cautiously
C) Proudly
D) Anxiously
Correct Answer: D) Anxiously
Explanation: “Anxiously” describes feeling nervous or eagerly anticipating something.
8. In the sentence, “The children played ________ in the park, laughing and chasing each other
around,” which adverb best fits the blank?
A) Quietly
B) Happily
C) Boldly
D) Reluctantly
Correct Answer: B) Happily
Explanation: “Happily” signifies doing something with joy and pleasure.
9. In the sentence, “He walked ________ through the garden, taking in the beauty of each
flower and plant,” which adverb best fits the blank?
A) Slowly
B) Quickly
C) Boldly
D) Anxiously
Correct Answer: A) Slowly
Explanation: “Slowly” means doing something at a leisurely or unhurried pace.
10. In the sentence, “________, a loud noise startled the cat, causing it to jump up and run
away,” which adverb best fits the blank?
A) Suddenly
B) Reluctantly
C) Patiently

[Link] | [Link]
 7

D) Loudly
Correct Answer: A) Suddenly
Explanation: “Suddenly” indicates that something happens quickly and unexpectedly.
11. In the sentence, “The band played ________ at the concert, filling the stadium with their
energetic music,” which adverb best fits the blank?
A) Quietly
B) Slowly
C) Loudly
D) Carefully
Correct Answer: C) Loudly
Explanation: “Loudly” describes doing something with high volume or intensity.
12. In the sentence, “He ________ knocked over the glass of water, spilling it all over the table,”
which adverb best fits the blank?
A) Carefully
B) Quickly
C) Carelessly
D) Boldly
Correct Answer: C) Carelessly
Explanation: “Carelessly” means performing an action without attention, often leading to
mistakes.
13. In the sentence, “She ________ agreed to attend the party, even though she would have
preferred to stay home,” which adverb best fits the blank?
A) Happily
B) Boldly
C) Reluctantly
D) Patiently
Correct Answer: C) Reluctantly
Explanation: “Reluctantly” suggests doing something with hesitation or unwillingness.
14. In the sentence, “The teacher explained the concept ________, using simple examples to
illustrate her point,” which adverb best fits the blank?
A) Clearly
B) Loudly
C) Slowly
D) Happily
Correct Answer: A) Clearly
Explanation: “Clearly” means doing something in an easy-to-understand manner.
15. In the sentence, “She ________ displayed her artwork on the wall, excited to share it with
others,” which adverb best fits the blank?

[Link] | [Link]
 8

A) Patiently
B) Reluctantly
C) Proudly
D) Anxiously
Correct Answer: C) Proudly
Explanation: “Proudly” describes doing something with a sense of satisfaction or pride.
16. In the sentence, “The children played ________ in the park, laughing and chasing each
other around,” which adverb best fits the blank?
A) Happily
B) Boldly
C) Slowly
D) Anxiously
Correct Answer: A) Happily
Explanation: “Happily” means doing something with joy and pleasure.
17. In the sentence, “He tapped his foot ________ as he waited for the interview to begin,
worried about how it would go,” which adverb best fits the blank?
A) Proudly
B) Quickly
C) Nervously
D) Reluctantly
Correct Answer: C) Nervously
Explanation: “Nervously” suggests doing something with anxiety, fear, or apprehension.
18. In the sentence, “The librarian walked ________ among the bookshelves, ensuring not to
disturb the readers,” which adverb best fits the blank?
A) Quietly
B) Loudly
C) Boldly
D) Happily
Correct Answer: A) Quietly
Explanation: “Quietly” describes doing something in a hushed manner without making much
noise.
19. In the sentence, “She ________ displayed her artwork on the wall, excited to share it with
others,” which adverb best fits the blank?
A) Nervously
B) Proudly
C) Reluctantly
D) Patiently
Correct Answer: B) Proudly
Explanation: “Proudly” describes doing something with a sense of satisfaction or pride.

[Link] | [Link]
 9

20. In the sentence, “The children played ________ in the park, laughing and chasing each
other around,” which adverb best fits the blank?
A) Happily
B) Boldly
C) Slowly
D) Anxiously
Correct Answer: A) Happily
Explanation: “Happily” means doing something with joy and pleasure.

[Link] | [Link]
 10

Commonly Confused Words

A-B M-P
• Accept (verb): To receive willingly. • Moral (adjective): Concerned with
the principles of right and wrong
o Sentence: She was happy to
behavior.
accept the job offer.
o Sentence: The moral
• Except (preposition/conjunction):
implications of the decision
Other than; but.
were clear.
o Sentence: Everyone went to
• Morale (noun): The confidence,
the party except Paul.
enthusiasm, and discipline of a
• Advice (noun): Guidance or person or group.
recommendations concerning prudent
o Sentence: Team morale was
future action.
boosted by the win.
o Sentence: She gave me some
• Principal (adjective/noun): First in
good advice on saving money.
order of importance; the head of a
• Advise (verb): To recommend or school.
inform.
o Sentence: The principal
o Sentence: The consultant will speaker was late. / He is the
advise us on how to proceed. principal of the high school.

• Affect (verb): To influence something. • Principle (noun): A fundamental truth

or proposition that serves as the
o Sentence: The weather can foundation for a system of belief.
greatly affect your mood.
o Sentence: She stood firm on
• Effect (noun): The result or outcome her principles.
of a cause.
• Palate (noun): The roof of the mouth,
o Sentence: The effect of the separating the cavities of the nose
new policy was noticeable and the mouth in vertebrates.
immediately.
o Sentence: Spicy food can
• Allusion (noun): An indirect irritate the palate.
reference.
• Palette (noun): A board on which an
o Sentence: The novel’s title is artist mixes paints.
an allusion to Shakespeare’s
works. o Sentence: The artist chose
colors from his palette
• Illusion (noun): A false idea or belief. carefully.
o Sentence: He was under the • Pallet (noun): A flat transport
illusion that he was invincible. structure that supports goods in a
• Altogether (adverb): Completely, stable fashion.
totally.

[Link] | [Link]
 11

o Sentence: I am altogether o Sentence: The warehouse

tired of the situation. was stacked with wooden
pallets.
• All together (phrase): Everyone in
the same place or all at once. • Peak (noun): The pointed top of a
mountain.
o Sentence: Let’s sing the song
all together now. o Sentence: We reached the
peak just before sunrise.
C-D
• Peek (verb): To look quickly or
• Complement (verb/noun): furtively.
Something that completes or goes
well with something. o Sentence: He took a peek at
the gifts hidden in the closet.
o Sentence: This wine is a
perfect complement to the • Pique (noun/verb): A feeling of
cheese. irritation or resentment; to stimulate
interest or curiosity.
• Compliment (verb/noun): An
expression of praise or admiration. o Sentence: Her curiosity was
piqued by the mysterious
o Sentence: He complimented letter.
her on her excellent
performance. Q-T
• Council (noun): An advisory or • Quiet (adjective): Making little or no
legislative body. noise.
o Sentence: The city council o Sentence: The library is a
approved the new zoning quiet place.
laws.
• Quite (adverb): To a certain or fairly
• Counsel (noun/verb): Advice, significant extent or degree.
especially given formally or legally; to
advise. o Sentence: The movie was
quite interesting.
o Sentence: She sought the
• Stationary (adjective): Not moving or
counsel of her attorney.
not intended to be moved.
• Desert (verb): To abandon.
o Sentence: The car remained
o Sentence: He would never stationary in traffic.
desert his friends.
• Stationery (noun): Writing and other
• Dessert (noun): The sweet course office materials.
eaten at the end of a meal.
o Sentence: She bought some
o Sentence: For dessert, we new stationery for school.
had chocolate cake.
• Than (conjunction): Used in
E-F comparisons.

[Link] | [Link]
 12

• Elicit (verb): To draw out a response o Sentence: He is taller than I

or reaction. am.
o Sentence: The teacher’s • Then (adverb): At that time;
question elicited a lively subsequently.
discussion.
o Sentence: We had dinner and
• Illicit (adjective): Forbidden by laws then went to a movie.
or rules.
• There (adverb): In, at, or to that place
o Sentence: He was arrested or position.
for his illicit activities.
o Sentence: We plan to go
• Ensure (verb): To make certain that there early.
something shall occur.
• Their (possessive adjective):
o Sentence: The pilot ensured Belonging to or associated with the
that the plane was ready people or things previously
before takeoff. mentioned.
• Insure (verb): To secure or protect o Sentence: Their house is at
someone against risk. the end of the street.
o Sentence: She decided to • They’re (contraction): They are.
insure her home against
floods. o Sentence: They’re coming
over for dinner tonight.
• Farther (adverb): At a greater
• To (preposition): Expressing motion
distance.
in the direction of (a particular
o Sentence: He threw the ball location).
farther than anyone else.
o Sentence: We are going to
• Further (adverb): More or additional. the park.
o Sentence: Further studies are • Too (adverb): To a higher degree
needed to confirm the theory. than is desirable, permissible, or
possible; also.
G-H
o Sentence: She was too tired
• Grate (verb): To shred food into small
to continue. / I would like to go
pieces.
too.
o Sentence: Could you grate
• Two (numeral): Equivalent to the sum
the cheese for the pasta?
of one and one; one less than three;
• Great (adjective): Of an extent, 2.
amount, or intensity considerably
o Sentence: I have two sisters.
above average.
U-W
o Sentence: We had a great
time at the party. • Weather (noun): The state of the
atmosphere at a place and time as

[Link] | [Link]
 13

• Historic (adjective): Famous or regards heat, cloudiness, dryness,

important in history. sunshine, wind, rain, etc.
o Sentence: The moon landing o Sentence: The weather today
was a historic event. is sunny.
• Historical (adjective): Concerning • Whether (conjunction): Expressing a
history; based on past events. doubt or choice between alternatives.
o Sentence: She is studying o Sentence: I don’t know
historical documents from the whether to laugh or cry.
Civil War.
• Which (determiner): Asking for
I-L information specifying one or more
people or things from a definite set.
• Its (possessive adjective):
Belonging to or associated with a o Sentence: Which types of
thing previously mentioned. movies do you like?
o Sentence: The company • Witch (noun): A woman thought to
changed its policy. have magic powers, especially evil
ones.
• It’s (contraction): It is or it has.
o Sentence: The story is about
o Sentence: It’s been raining all
a witch who casts spells on
day.
the villagers.
• Lead (verb): To be in charge or
• Who’s (contraction): Who is or who
command.
has.
o Sentence: She will lead the
o Sentence: Who’s coming to
project team.
the party?
• Led (verb, past tense of lead):
• Whose (possessive adjective):
Directed or guided.
Belonging to or associated with which
o Sentence: He led the group person.
through the wilderness.
o Sentence: Whose coat is
• Lead (noun): A heavy metal. this?

o Sentence: Lead is toxic if Y-Z

ingested.
• Your (possessive adjective):
• Loose (adjective): Not firmly or Belonging to or associated with the
tightly fixed. person or people that the speaker is
addressing.
o Sentence: The knot was too
loose. o Sentence: Is this your book?

• Lose (verb): To be deprived of or • You’re (contraction): You are.

cease to retain something.
o Sentence: You’re going to be
late if you don’t hurry.

[Link] | [Link]
 14

o Sentence: I hope I don’t lose

my keys.

Exercises
Question 1
Question: Please place the books over ___ on the table. Choices:
a) their
b) there
c) they’re
d) thare
Answer: b) there
Explanation: “There” is used to indicate a place or position.
Question 2
Question: ___ going to the park later if it doesn’t rain. Choices:
a) Their
b) There
c) They’re
d) Thair
Answer: c) They’re
Explanation: “They’re” is a contraction of “they are,” indicating a future action by a group.
Question 3
Question: I can’t find my keys; do you know where ___ are? Choices:
a) their
b) there
c) they’re
d) ther
Answer: b) there
Explanation: “There” refers to the location of the keys in this context.
Question 4
Question: The new regulations will ___ the way we do business. Choices:
a) affect
b) effect
c) efect
d) affact
Answer: a) affect
Explanation: “Affect” is a verb meaning to influence something.
Question 5
Question: The ___ of the new law was immediately felt by the industry. Choices:
a) affect

[Link] | [Link]
 15

b) effect
c) efect
d) affact
Answer: b) effect
Explanation: “Effect” is a noun referring to the result or outcome of a cause.
Question 6
Question: ___ really excited about the upcoming holiday. Choices:
a) Their
b) There
c) They’re
d) Thair
Answer: c) They’re
Explanation: “They’re” is the contraction for “they are,” used here to express the emotions of a
group.
Question 7
Question: All the employees should ensure that ___ workspaces are clean. Choices:
a) their
b) there
c) they’re
d) ther
Answer: a) their
Explanation: “Their” is a possessive pronoun indicating ownership of the workspaces by the
employees.
Question 8
Question: The heavy rain could badly ___ the weekend sports event. Choices:
a) affect
b) effect
c) efect
d) affact
Answer: a) affect
Explanation: “Affect” is used as a verb meaning to influence negatively in this context.
Question 9
Question: We expect ___ to be good weather for our trip next week. Choices:
a) their
b) there
c) they’re
d) thair
Answer: b) there
Explanation: “There” is used as an introductory subject for the verb “to be,” indicating the
existence of good weather.
Question 10

[Link] | [Link]
 16

Question: The team hopes ___ hard work will pay off in the competition. Choices:
a) their
b) there
c) they’re
d) ther
Answer: a) their
Explanation: “Their” is a possessive pronoun used here to denote ownership of the hard work
by the team.

[Link] | [Link]
 17

Filipino Words
1. Ang kanilang mga galit na damdamin ay biglang __________ sa gitna ng mainit na
pagtatalo.
A. bagwis
B. dingas
C. sambulat
D. alimuom

2. Sa kanyang malalim na __________, napagtanto niya ang tunay na kahulugan ng mga

bagay na nangyari sa kanyang buhay.
A. lirip
B. dingas
C. dayupot
D. haplit

3. Matapos ang malakas na ulan, naamoy nila ang sariwang __________ mula sa lupa.
A. marahuyo
B. alimuom
C. banyuhay
D. salimbayan

4. Ang __________ na narinig ng lahat ay tanda ng kanyang matinding kalungkutan matapos

ang pagkawala ng mahal sa buhay.
A. talaghay
B. bagwis
C. panaghoy
D. balintuna

5. Ang __________ ay bumabalot sa kanyang damdamin habang inaalala niya ang mga alaala
ng kanyang kabataan na hindi na maibabalik.

[Link] | [Link]
 18

A. alimuom
B. himutok
C. salamisim
D. panaghoy

6. Ang ____________ ng gabi ay nadarama niya tuwing nag-iisa siya sa kanyang silid.
A. saya
B. lumbay
C. ingay
D. liwanag

7. Ang ____________ na nararamdaman niya ay hindi maipaliwanag matapos ang pagkawala

ng kanyang mahal sa buhay.
A. saya
B. pighati
C. galit
D. takot

8. Ginamit niya ang kanyang katawan bilang ____________ upang protektahan ang bata mula
sa aksidente.
A. sandata
B. sandigan
C. sanggalang
D. sandok

Answers
1. Sambulat means a sudden outburst, which describes the sudden explosion of emotions
during a heated argument.
2. Lirip means deep understanding or realization, which fits the context of profound reflection.
3. Alimuom is the earthy scent that rises from the ground after rain.

[Link] | [Link]
 19

4. Panaghoy means a mournful cry or lament, especially during a moment of great sorrow.
5. Salamisim refers to nostalgia or longing for the past, which fits the description of someone
reminiscing about old memories.
6. Ang tamang sagot ay lumbay, na tumutukoy sa kalungkutan o melankolya.
7. Ang tamang sagot ay pighati, na tumutukoy sa malalim na kalungkutan o dalamhati.
8. Ang tamang sagot ay langitngit, na tumutukoy sa tunog na ginagawa ng mga bagay na
nagagasgas o nagkikiskisan.

[Link] | [Link]
 20

Foreign Words

1. He agreed to the proposal with the caveat that no one would lose their job. What does caveat
mean?
A. A guarantee
B. A warning or caution
C. An approval
D. An exception

2. The CEO gave the new manager carte blanche to implement any changes needed. What
does carte blanche mean?
A. Strict instructions
B. Limited authority
C. Complete freedom
D. Detailed guidelines

3. She presented bona fide documents to prove her identity. What does bona fide mean?
A. Forged
B. Genuine
C. Misleading
D. Incomplete

4. His conclusion was based on a priori assumptions rather than empirical evidence. What does
a priori mean?
A. From personal experience
B. Based on theoretical deduction
C. After thorough testing
D. With great doubt

[Link] | [Link]
 21

5. They decided to dine al fresco, enjoying their meal in the open air. What does al fresco
mean?
A. Inside a cozy room
B. With a large group
C. In the open air
D. At a fancy restaurant

6. The pasta was cooked perfectly al dente, with just the right amount of firmness. What does al
dente mean?
A. Overcooked
B. Slightly undercooked
C. Cooked but still firm
D. Soft and mushy

7. The committee was formed ad hoc to address the immediate crisis. What does ad hoc mean?
A. With great care
B. For a specific purpose or situation
C. In a secret manner
D. For an indefinite time

8. The politician was accused of a quid pro quo arrangement with the businessman. What does
quid pro quo mean?
A. A bribe
B. Something for something
C. A misunderstanding
D. A favor

9. The movie wasn't bad per se, but it lacked originality. What does per se mean?
A. By itself
B. In fact
C. As expected

[Link] | [Link]
 22

D. In general

10. The board decided to maintain the status quo and make no changes. What does status quo
mean?
A. Current state of affairs
B. Financial situation
C. Political stance
D. Long-term goals

Answers
1. Answer: A warning or caution

Explanation:
Caveat is a Latin term that means a warning or caution. It is used to specify conditions or
stipulations in agreements or proposals.

2. Answer: Complete freedom

Explanation:
Carte blanche is a French term that translates to "blank check." It means giving someone
complete freedom or authority to act as they see fit.

3. Answer: Genuine

Explanation:
Bona fide is a Latin term that means "in good faith." It is used to describe something that is
genuine or authentic.

4. Answer: Based on theoretical deduction

Explanation:
A priori is a Latin term meaning "from the former." It refers to knowledge or assumptions that are
based on theoretical deduction rather than empirical evidence or personal experience.

5. Answer: In the open air

Explanation:
Al fresco is an Italian term that means "in the open air." It is used to describe dining outside.

6. Answer: Cooked but still firm

Explanation:

[Link] | [Link]
 23

Al dente is an Italian term that means "to the tooth." It describes pasta that is cooked to be firm
to the bite, not overcooked or mushy.

7. Answer: For a specific purpose or situation

Explanation:
Ad hoc is a Latin term meaning "for this" or "for a specific purpose or situation." It refers to
something created or done for a particular purpose as needed.

8. Answer: Something for something

Explanation:
Quid pro quo is a Latin phrase that means "something for something." It refers to an
arrangement where something is given or received in return for something else. In this context,
the politician and the businessman are accused of making a reciprocal agreement.

9. Answer: By itself

Explanation:
Per se is a Latin phrase that means "by itself" or "in and of itself." It is used to indicate that
something is being considered in isolation from other factors. In this context, the phrase means
that the movie wasn't bad on its own, but it had other issues, such as a lack of originality.

10. Answer: Current state of affairs

Explanation:
Status quo is a Latin phrase that means the existing state of affairs. It refers to maintaining the
current condition or situation without making changes.

[Link] | [Link]
 24

Idiomatic Expressions

1. Bite off more than you can chew 16. Throw in the towel
Meaning: To take on more responsibilities Meaning: To give up
than one can handle
Sentence: After several failed attempts, he
Sentence: She realized she had bitten off decided to throw in the towel.
more than she could chew when she took on
17. Beating around the bush
three projects at once.
Meaning: Avoiding the main topic
2. Kick the can down the road
Sentence: Stop beating around the bush and
Meaning: To postpone or delay dealing with a
tell me what happened.
problem
18. Let off the hook
Sentence: The government decided to kick
the can down the road rather than address Meaning: To be released from blame or
the budget crisis. responsibility
3. Hit the ground running Sentence: The teacher let him off the hook for
not doing his homework this time.
Meaning: To start something and proceed at
a fast pace with enthusiasm 19. Break the bank
Sentence: After the training, the new Meaning: To cost too much
employees were ready to hit the ground
running. Sentence: Buying a new car will break the
bank.
4. In the same boat
20. A dime a dozen
Meaning: In the same situation as others
Meaning: Very common and not valuable
Sentence: We’re all in the same boat when it
comes to job security. Sentence: These toys are a dime a dozen at
any store.
5. Burn bridges
21 Catch-22
Meaning: To destroy relationships
Meaning: A no-win situation
Sentence: It’s never a good idea to burn
bridges, especially in a small industry. Sentence: It’s a catch-22; you can’t get a job
without experience, and you can’t get
6. Go the extra mile experience without a job.
Meaning: To make a special effort
Sentence: She’s always willing to go the 22. Cut to the chase
extra mile to help a friend.
Meaning: Get to the point
7. Hit the books
Sentence: We don’t have much time, so I’ll
Meaning: To study hard cut to the chase.
23. Every cloud has a silver lining

[Link] | [Link]
 25

Sentence: With exams coming up, it’s time to Meaning: Every bad situation has some good
hit the books. aspect to it
8. Jump the gun Sentence: Even though you lost your job,
remember that every cloud has a silver lining.
Meaning: To start something too early
24. The elephant in the room
Sentence: They jumped the gun with the
product launch and faced many issues. Meaning: An obvious problem that no one
wants to discuss
9. The ball is rolling
Sentence: We need to address the elephant
Meaning: Something has started and is in the room and discuss the budget cuts.
progressing
25. Cry wolf
Sentence: We’ve got the ball rolling on the
new project. Meaning: To raise a false alarm
10. Cut corners Sentence: If you cry wolf too often, people
will stop believing you.
Meaning: To do something the easiest or
cheapest way 26. Miss the boat
Sentence: Don’t cut corners on this project; Meaning: To miss an opportunity
quality is important.
Sentence: We missed the boat on investing
11. Under one’s belt in that company early.
Meaning: To have achieved or gained 27. Pull someone’s leg
experience in something
Meaning: To joke with someone
Sentence: With two years of experience
Sentence: Don’t take him seriously; he’s just
under her belt, she felt confident applying for
pulling your leg.
the new job.
28. Speak of the devil
12. Play it by ear
Meaning: The person you were talking about
Meaning: To act without a plan; to improvise
appears
Sentence: We don’t have a plan for the
weekend; we’ll just play it by ear. Sentence: Speak of the devil, here comes
John.
13. Bark up the wrong tree
29. Through thick and thin
Meaning: To pursue a mistaken or misguided
Meaning: In good times and bad times
line of thought or course of action
Sentence: They’ve been friends through thick
Sentence: If you think I can help you with
and thin.
that, you’re barking up the wrong tree.
30. When pigs fly
14. Take it with a grain of salt
Meaning: Something that will never happen
Meaning: To not take something too seriously
Sentence: He’ll clean his room when pigs fly.

[Link] | [Link]
 26

Sentence: You should take his advice with a

grain of salt; he’s not always accurate.
15. Go cold turkey
Meaning: To suddenly stop a bad habit
Sentence: She went cold turkey on smoking
and hasn’t had a cigarette since.

Exercises
Question 1
Question: She realized she had ________ when she took on three projects at once.
Choices:
a) hit the sack
b) bitten off more than she could chew
c) spilled the beans
d) jumped on the bandwagon
Answer: b) bitten off more than she could chew
Explanation: This idiom means to take on more responsibility than one can manage, which fits
the context of overloading oneself with work.
Question 2
Question: The government decided to ________ rather than address the budget crisis.
Choices:
a) go cold turkey
b) break the ice
c) kick the can down the road
d) cry wolf
Answer: c) kick the can down the road
Explanation: This idiom describes postponing a decision, hoping that the problem will be
resolved later or by others, fitting the context of avoiding immediate action on the budget.
Question 3
Question: After the training, the new employees were ready to ________.
Choices:
a) hit the ground running
b) jump the gun
c) cut corners
d) throw in the towel
Answer: a) hit the ground running

[Link] | [Link]
 27

Explanation: This expression means to immediately work hard and successfully at a new
activity, suitable for describing new employees starting effectively.
Question 4
Question: We’re all ________ when it comes to job security.
Choices:
a) in the same boat
b) on the ball
c) biting the bullet
d) letting the cat out of the bag
Answer: a) in the same boat
Explanation: This idiom means everyone is in the same situation, which accurately reflects a
shared concern about job security among a group.
Question 5
Question: It’s never a good idea to ________, especially in a small industry.
Choices:
a) break the bank
b) burn bridges
c) hit the books
d) miss the boat
Answer: b) burn bridges
Explanation: This phrase means to destroy one’s path, connections, or opportunities, and is
commonly advised against to maintain professional relationships.
Question 6
Question: She’s always willing to ________ to help a friend.
Choices:
a) hit the ground running
b) go the extra mile
c) let off the hook
d) break the bank
Answer: b) go the extra mile
Explanation: This idiom means to do more than what is expected, which aptly describes
someone who puts extra effort into helping others.
Question 7
Question: With exams coming up, it’s time to ________.
Choices:
a) bite the bullet
b) hit the books
c) spill the beans
d) jump on the bandwagon
Answer: b) hit the books

[Link] | [Link]
 28

Explanation: This phrase means to begin studying seriously, which is appropriate for the
context of preparing for upcoming exams.
Question 8
Question: They ________ with the product launch and faced many issues.
Choices:
a) hit the sack
b) played it by ear
c) jumped the gun
d) threw in the towel
Answer: c) jumped the gun
Explanation: This idiom means to do something too soon or prematurely, fitting for a scenario
where hastiness in launching a product led to problems.
Question 9
Question: We’ve got ________ on the new project.
Choices:
a) the ball rolling
b) cut corners
c) hit the nail on the head
d) spilled the beans
Answer: a) the ball rolling
Explanation: This means to start something so that it continues, appropriate for initiating
momentum on a project.
Question 10
Question: Don’t ________ on this project; quality is important.
Choices:
a) cut corners
b) let sleeping dogs lie
c) play it by ear
d) hit the ground running
Answer: a) cut corners
Explanation: This idiom means to do something the cheapest or easiest way by not complying
with regulations or rules, advised against here to emphasize the importance of quality.
Question 11
Question: With two years of experience ________, she felt confident applying for the new job.
Choices:
a) under her belt
b) on the ball
c) breaking the ice
d) cutting corners
Answer: a) under her belt

[Link] | [Link]
 29

Explanation: “Under her belt” means having gained experience or achievements in a particular
area, which increases her confidence in her qualifications.
Question 12
Question: We don’t have a plan for the weekend; we’ll just ________.
Choices:
a) play it by ear
b) cry over spilled milk
c) cut to the chase
d) jump the gun
Answer: a) play it by ear
Explanation: “Play it by ear” means to decide how to proceed as situations develop, rather than
having a fixed plan, fitting the context of an unplanned weekend.
Question 13
Question: If you think I can help you with that, you’re ________.
Choices:
a) cutting to the chase
b) barking up the wrong tree
c) letting off the hook
d) playing it by ear
Answer: b) barking up the wrong tree
Explanation: “Barking up the wrong tree” means making a mistaken assumption or pursuing
the wrong course of action, implying the help sought is misdirected.
Question 14
Question: You should ________; he’s not always accurate.
Choices:
a) cut corners
b) play it by ear
c) take his advice with a grain of salt
d) hit the nail on the head
Answer: c) take his advice with a grain of salt
Explanation: “Take his advice with a grain of salt” means to not take what someone says too
seriously or to view it skeptically, especially appropriate given his inaccuracy.
Question 15
Question: She ________ on smoking and hasn’t had a cigarette since.
Choices:
a) hit the books
b) went cold turkey
c) cried wolf
d) let sleeping dogs lie
Answer: b) went cold turkey

[Link] | [Link]
 30

Explanation: “Went cold turkey” means to suddenly stop a habit or addiction, here referring to
quitting smoking abruptly.
Question 16
Question: After several failed attempts, he decided to ________.
Choices:
a) break the ice
b) cry over spilled milk
c) throw in the towel
d) let sleeping dogs lie
Answer: c) throw in the towel
Explanation: “Throw in the towel” means to give up after repeated failures, indicating
resignation from continued attempts.
Question 17
Question: Stop ________ and tell me what happened.
Choices:
a) barking up the wrong tree
b) playing it by ear
c) beating around the bush
d) hitting the nail on the head
Answer: c) beating around the bush
Explanation: “Beating around the bush” means to avoid getting to the point or speaking
indirectly, appropriate here for urging straightforwardness.
Question 18
Question: The teacher ________ for not doing his homework this time.
Choices:
a) let him off the hook
b) hit the ground running
c) played it by ear
d) cut corners
Answer: a) let him off the hook
Explanation: “Let him off the hook” means to excuse someone from a responsibility or penalty,
fitting for a teacher forgiving a student’s oversight.
Question 19
Question: Buying a new car will ________.
Choices:
a) break the bank
b) break the ice
c) play it by ear
d) miss the boat
Answer: a) break the bank

[Link] | [Link]
 31

Explanation: “Break the bank” means to cost a lot of money, often leading to financial strain,
relevant to the context of an expensive purchase like a car.
Question 20
Question: These toys are ________ at any store.
Choices:
a) a dime a dozen
b) cutting corners
c) breaking the bank
d) crying wolf
Answer: a) a dime a dozen
Explanation: “A dime a dozen” means something is very common and easily obtainable,
implying the toys are widely available and not unique.
Question 21
Question: It’s a ________; you can’t get a job without experience, and you can’t get experience
without a job.
Choices:
a) beating around the bush
b) catch-22
c) dime a dozen
d) barking up the wrong tree
Answer: b) catch-22
Explanation: “Catch-22” refers to a paradoxical situation from which an individual cannot
escape because of contradictory rules or limitations. It perfectly describes the dilemma of
needing a job to get experience and needing experience to get a job.
Question 22
Question: We don’t have much time, so I’ll ________.
Choices:
a) cry wolf
b) cut to the chase
c) miss the boat
d) jump the gun
Answer: b) cut to the chase
Explanation: “Cut to the chase” means to get to the point without wasting time, appropriate for
a situation where time is limited.
Question 23
Question: Even though you lost your job, remember that ________.
Choices:
a) the ball is rolling
b) every cloud has a silver lining
c) crying wolf

[Link] | [Link]
 32

d) hit the ground running

Answer: b) every cloud has a silver lining
Explanation: “Every cloud has a silver lining” means that there is a hopeful or positive aspect to
every unpleasant situation, encouraging optimism even after a job loss.
Question 24
Question: We need to address ________ and discuss the budget cuts.
Choices:
a) the elephant in the room
b) the ball rolling
c) cutting corners
d) barking up the wrong tree
Answer: a) the elephant in the room
Explanation: “The elephant in the room” refers to an obvious problem or difficult issue that
people do not want to talk about but is central to the discussion, fitting the context of needing to
discuss budget cuts openly.
Question 25
Question: If you ________ too often, people will stop believing you.
Choices:
a) play it by ear
b) cut to the chase
c) cry wolf
d) break the bank
Answer: c) cry wolf
Explanation: “Cry wolf” means to raise false alarms so frequently that people stop taking them
seriously, relevant to warning about the consequences of repeatedly lying or exaggerating.
Question 26
Question: We ________ on investing in that company early.
Choices:
a) played it by ear
b) hit the ground running
c) missed the boat
d) broke the bank
Answer: c) missed the boat
Explanation: “Missed the boat” means to miss an opportunity, aptly describing a situation
where an early investment opportunity was lost.
Question 27
Question: Don’t take him seriously; he’s just ________.
Choices:
a) barking up the wrong tree
b) pulling your leg

[Link] | [Link]
 33

c) crying over spilled milk

d) hitting the sack
Answer: b) pulling your leg
Explanation: “Pulling your leg” means to joke or tease someone in a playful manner, indicating
not to take his words seriously as they are meant in jest.
Question 28
Question: ________, here comes John.
Choices:
a) Beating around the bush
b) Pulling your leg
c) Speak of the devil
d) Jumping the gun
Answer: c) Speak of the devil
Explanation: “Speak of the devil” is used when the person you have just been talking about
arrives or is mentioned, fitting for John’s sudden appearance.
Question 29
Question: They’ve been friends ________.
Choices:
a) under the weather
b) on the ball
c) through thick and thin
d) barking up the wrong tree
Answer: c) through thick and thin
Explanation: “Through thick and thin” means in all circumstances, no matter how difficult,
describing a strong and enduring friendship.
Question 30
Question: He’ll clean his room ________.
Choices:
a) when pigs fly
b) under the weather
c) on the ball
d) through thick and thin
Answer: a) when pigs fly
Explanation: “When pigs fly” is an expression used to indicate that something will never
happen, humorously suggesting the improbability of him cleaning his room.

[Link] | [Link]
 34

Parallelism
Introduction to Parallelism
• Definition: Parallelism involves using the same pattern of words to show that two or
more ideas have the same level of importance. This can happen at the level of words,
phrases, or clauses.
• Purpose: Ensures coherence and balance in sentences, making them easier to read
and understand.
1. The Importance of Parallelism
• Clarity and Flow: Helps maintain a clear and smooth flow in writing by aligning
grammatical structures.
• Enhanced Readability: Parallel structures are pleasing to read and can make the text
more persuasive.
• Error Prevention: Recognizing and applying parallelism helps avoid common
grammatical errors in writing.
2. Identifying Parallelism
• Types of Parallelism:
o Word Parallelism: Involves repeating single words of the same type (nouns with
nouns, verbs with verbs, etc.).
o Phrase Parallelism: Involves repeating phrases of similar structures.
o Clause Parallelism: Ensures that clauses are structured in a similar way.
• Common Contexts for Parallelism: Lists, comparisons, and contrasts are typical
contexts where parallelism is expected.
3. Tips for Writing with Parallelism
• Consistency is Key: Always check for consistency in tense, structure, and voice.
• Use Conjunctions to Help: Words like ‘and’, ‘or’, ‘but’ often necessitate parallel
structures.
• Revise for Parallelism: Always look back over your writing to ensure that parallelism is
maintained where it should be.
4. Further Reading and Resources
• Books: List books that focus on advanced grammar and style, including sections on
parallelism.
• Websites: Provide links to online exercises and tutorials on parallelism.
• Tools: Recommend grammar checking tools that can help identify parallelism errors.

[Link] | [Link]
 35

Practice Test on Parallelism

Question 1 : “Julia enjoys reading books, jogging in the park, and to bake cookies.”
Choices: A. Julia enjoys reading books, jogging in the park, and baking cookies.
B. Julia enjoys to read books, jogging in the park, and baking cookies.
C. Julia enjoys to read books, to jog in the park, and baking cookies.
D. Julia enjoys reading books, to jog in the park, and to bake cookies.
Correct Answer: A. Julia enjoys reading books, jogging in the park, and baking cookies.
Explanation: The original sentence lacks parallel structure because it mixes gerunds (reading,
jogging) with an infinitive (to bake). The corrected sentence uses only gerunds, thus maintaining
parallel structure: reading books, jogging in the park, and baking cookies. This ensures that
each element of the list conforms to a similar grammatical structure, which is crucial for clear
and effective writing.
Question 2 : “He wanted to buy a new shirt, looking for a pair of shoes, and to see a movie.”
Choices:
A. He wanted to buy a new shirt, to find a pair of shoes, and to see a movie.
B. He wanted buying a new shirt, finding a pair of shoes, and seeing a movie.
C. He wants to buy a new shirt, to look for a pair of shoes, and seeing a movie.
D. He wants to buy a new shirt, look for a pair of shoes, and to see a movie.
Correct Answer: A. He wanted to buy a new shirt, to find a pair of shoes, and to see a movie.
Question 3 : “The teacher asked the students to read quietly, write neatly, and they should be
listening attentively.”
Choices:
A. The teacher asked the students to read quietly, write neatly, and listen attentively.
B. The teacher asked the students reading quietly, writing neatly, and listening attentively.
C. The teacher asked the students that they read quietly, write neatly, and listen attentively.
D. The teacher asked the students to read quietly, they write neatly, and to listen attentively.
Correct Answer: A. The teacher asked the students to read quietly, write neatly, and listen
attentively.
Question 4: They focused on training hard and (win) ____ the championship.
Choices:
A. to win
B. winning
C. None
D. None
Answer: A. to win
Solution: “Training” in this context is part of the phrase “focused on training,” which should be
paralleled with “to win,” maintaining the infinitive structure.
Question 5: She advised me to save money and (invest) ____ wisely for the future.
Choices:
A. to invest
B. investing

[Link] | [Link]
 36

C. None
D. None
Answer: A. to invest
Solution: “To save” is an infinitive that should be matched with “to invest” for parallel structure.
Question 6. She will receive (A) an award. She is talented (B), creative, and has innovation
(C). No Error (D)
Choices:
A. She will receive
B. is talented
C. has innovation
D. No Error
Answer: C. has innovation
Solution: “Has innovation” breaks the parallel structure. To maintain parallelism with the
adjectives “talented” and “creative,” it should be revised to “innovative.”
Question 7. Portia will pass (A) her exams. She has been studying diligently (B), reviewing
thoroughly, and is extremely prepared (C). No Error (D)
Choices:
A. Portia will pass
B. studying diligently
C. is extremely prepared
D. No Error
Answer: C. is extremely prepared
Solution: The phrase “is extremely prepared” breaks the parallelism established by the gerund
phrases “studying diligently” and “reviewing thoroughly.” It should be corrected to “extremely
prepared” to maintain the parallel structure.

[Link] | [Link]
 37

Prepositions

About Without
Meaning: Concerning; in relation to Meaning: Not having
Sentence: We talked about the new movie. Sentence: She left without her keys.
Above Up
Meaning: At a higher place or position Meaning: From a lower to a higher point
Sentence: The picture hangs above the Sentence: She climbed up the hill.
fireplace.
With
Across
Meaning: Accompanied by
Meaning: From one side to the other
Sentence: He is going with his friend.
Sentence: She walked across the street.
Over
After
Meaning: Extending directly upward from
Meaning: Following in time; later than
Sentence: The bird flew over the house.
Sentence: We went to the park after lunch.
Since
Against
Meaning: From a time in the past until the
Meaning: In opposition to present
Sentence: The team played against their Sentence: He has lived here since 2010.
rivals.
Through
Along
Meaning: Moving in one side and out of the
Meaning: Moving in a constant direction on a other side
path
Sentence: She walked through the door.
Sentence: We walked along the beach.
To
Among
Meaning: Expressing motion in the direction
Meaning: In the middle of; surrounded by of a particular location
Sentence: She was among friends. Sentence: We are going to the store.
Around Under
Meaning: On every side of Meaning: Directly below
Sentence: We looked around the room. Sentence: The cat is under the bed.
At Until
Meaning: In a specific place or position Meaning: Up to the point in time or the event
mentioned

[Link] | [Link]
 38

Sentence: She is at the office. Sentence: We stayed until midnight.

Before Beside
Meaning: Earlier than; in front of Meaning: Next to
Sentence: We arrived before the show Sentence: She sat beside her mother.
started.
Between
Behind
Meaning: In the space separating two things
Meaning: At the back of
Sentence: The ball is between the two chairs.
Sentence: The dog hid behind the sofa.
Beyond
Below
Meaning: At or to the further side of
Meaning: At a lower place or position
Sentence: The house is beyond the hill.
Sentence: The temperature dropped below
Despite
freezing.
Meaning: In spite of
Beneath
Meaning: Lower than; under Sentence: We went for a walk despite the
rain.
Sentence: The cat is beneath the table.
During
By
Meaning: Throughout the duration of
Meaning: Close to; next to
Sentence: She fell asleep during the movie.
Sentence: The book is by the lamp.
Except
Within
Meaning: Not including; other than
Meaning: Inside; inside the limits of
Sentence: Everyone was invited except John.
Sentence: Stay within the boundaries.
For
Near
Meaning: Intended to belong to or be used in
Meaning: Close to connection with
Sentence: The school is near the park. Sentence: This gift is for you.
Of From
Meaning: Expressing the relationship Meaning: Used to specify a starting point
between a part and a whole
Sentence: She traveled from Paris to London.
Sentence: The cover of the book is red.
In
Off
Meaning: Inside of; within
Meaning: Away from a place or position
Sentence: The keys are in the drawer.
Sentence: She jumped off the diving board.

[Link] | [Link]
 39

On Into
Meaning: Resting or being supported by a Meaning: Moving inside of something
surface
Sentence: She walked into the room.
Sentence: The book is on the table.
Onto
Meaning: Moving to a location on the surface
of
Sentence: The cat jumped onto the counter.
Out
Meaning: Moving from inside to the outside
Sentence: She walked out of the room.

Exercises
[Link] talked ________ the new movie.
a) about
b) above
c) across
d) after
Answer: a) about
Explanation: “About” indicates the topic of the conversation.

2. The picture hangs ________ the fireplace.

a) against
b) about
c) above
d) among
Answer: c) above
Explanation: “Above” specifies a position higher than the fireplace.

[Link] | [Link]
 40

3. She walked ________ the street.

a) across
b) after
c) among
d) around
Answer: a) across
Explanation: “Across” indicates moving from one side of the street to the other.

4. We went to the park ________ lunch.

a) at
b) along
c) among
d) after
Answer: d) after
Explanation: “After” indicates the park visit follows lunch.

5. The team played ________ their rivals.

a) along
b) among
c) against
d) at
Answer: c) against
Explanation: “Against” indicates opposition to the rivals.

6. We walked ________ the beach.

a) about
b) along
c) above
d) against
Answer: b) along

[Link] | [Link]
 41

Explanation: “Along” indicates movement following the path of the beach.

7. She was ________ friends.

a) among
b) around
c) at
d) about
Answer: a) among
Explanation: “Among” indicates being surrounded by friends.

8. We looked ________ the room.

a) about
b) at
c) around
d) along
Answer: c) around
Explanation: “Around” indicates looking in all directions within the room.

9. She is ________ the office.

a) after
b) at
c) across
d) above
Answer: b) at
Explanation: “At” specifies the exact location of the office.

10. We arrived ________ the show started.

a) after
b) before
c) behind

[Link] | [Link]
 42

d) below
Answer: b) before
Explanation: “Before” indicates arriving earlier than the show started.

11. The dog hid ________ the sofa.

a) at
b) beside
c) behind
d) below
Answer: c) behind
Explanation: “Behind” indicates the dog’s position relative to the sofa.

12. The temperature dropped ________ freezing.

a) about
b) below
c) across
d) at
Answer: b) below
Explanation: “Below” specifies a temperature lower than freezing.

13. The cat is ________ the table.

a) at
b) about
c) across
d) beneath
Answer: d) beneath
Explanation: “Beneath” indicates the cat’s position under the table.

14. She sat ________ her mother.

a) about

[Link] | [Link]
 43

b) above
c) beside
d) among
Answer: c) beside
Explanation: “Beside” indicates sitting next to her mother.

15. The ball is ________ the two chairs.

a) between
b) among
c) below
d) behind
Answer: a) between
Explanation: “Between” indicates the ball’s position separating the two chairs.

16. The house is ________ the hill.

a) at
b) behind
c) beyond
d) below
Answer: c) beyond
Explanation: “Beyond” indicates a location further than the hill.

17. The book is ________ the lamp.

a) after
b) by
c) behind
d) across
Answer: b) by
Explanation: “By” indicates the book’s location next to the lamp.

[Link] | [Link]
 44

18. We went for a walk ________ the rain.

a) despite
b) during
c) between
d) except
Answer: a) despite
Explanation: “Despite” indicates doing something even though it was raining.

19. She fell asleep ________ the movie.

a) between
b) despite
c) during
d) from
Answer: c) during
Explanation: “During” specifies the time period when she fell asleep.

20. Everyone was invited ________ John.

a) except
b) despite
c) during
d) for
Answer: a) except
Explanation: “Except” indicates excluding John from the invitation.

21. This gift is ________ you.

a) from
b) for
c) to
d) with
Answer: b) for

[Link] | [Link]
 45

Explanation: “For” indicates the intended recipient of the gift.

22. She traveled ________ Paris to London.

a) with
b) from
c) about
d) in
Answer: b) from
Explanation: “From” indicates the starting point of her travel.

23. The keys are ________ the drawer.

a) off
b) in
c) at
d) onto
Answer: b) in
Explanation: “In” indicates the location of the keys inside the drawer.

23. She walked ________ the room.

a) into
b) in
c) with
d) by
Answer: a) into
Explanation: “Into” indicates movement from outside to inside the room.

24. The school is ________ the park.

a) of
b) for
c) near

[Link] | [Link]
 46

d) onto
Answer: c) near
Explanation: “Near” indicates the school’s proximity to the park.

25. The cover ________ the book is red.

a) with
b) of
c) to
d) from
Answer: b) of
Explanation: “Of” indicates the relationship between the cover and the book.

26. She jumped ________ the diving board.

a) off
b) at
c) of
d) in
Answer: a) off
Explanation: “Off” indicates moving away from the diving board.

27. The book is ________ the table.

a) in
b) on
c) of
d) under
Answer: b) on
Explanation: “On” indicates the book’s position resting on the table.

28. The cat jumped ________ the counter.

a) onto

[Link] | [Link]
 47

b) on
c) to
d) about
Answer: a) onto
Explanation: “Onto” indicates the cat’s movement to a position on the counter.

29. She walked ________ of the room.

a) off
b) out
c) of
d) onto
Answer: b) out
Explanation: “Out” indicates movement from inside to outside the room.

30. The bird flew ________ the house.

a) above
b) about
c) over
d) at
Answer: c) over
Explanation: “Over” indicates the bird’s flight above the house.

31. He has lived here ________ 2010.

a) through
b) from
c) since
d) at
Answer: c) since
Explanation: “Since” indicates the starting point of the time he has lived here.

[Link] | [Link]
 48

32. She walked ________ the door.

a) from
b) through
c) to
d) at
Answer: b) through
Explanation: “Through” indicates passing from one side of the door to the other.

33. We are going ________ the store.

a) under
b) through
c) to
d) with
Answer: c) to
Explanation: “To” indicates the destination of their movement.

34. The cat is hiding ________ the bed.

a) at
b) to
c) under
d) on
Answer: c) under
Explanation: “Under” indicates the cat’s position beneath the bed.

35. We stayed there ________ midnight.

a) with
b) until
c) from
d) in
Answer: b) until

[Link] | [Link]
 49

Explanation: “Until” specifies the end point of the time they stayed.

36. We walked ________ the hill.

a) under
b) up
c) at
d) across
Answer: b) up
Explanation: “Up” indicates ascending the hill.

37. He went to the store ________ his friend.

a) to
b) with
c) of
d) about
Answer: b) with
Explanation: “With” indicates accompaniment by his friend.

38. Stay ________ the boundaries.

a) at
b) within
c) from
d) in
Answer: b) within
Explanation: “Within” indicates staying inside the boundaries.

39. He left ________ the keys.

a) up
b) under
c) without

[Link] | [Link]
 50

d) off
Answer: c) without
Explanation: “Without” indicates leaving and not taking the keys

[Link] | [Link]
 51

Punctuations
1. Commas (,)
Purpose:
• Separate items in a list.
• Enclose clauses or phrases that add additional information.
• Set off introductory elements.
• Separate adjectives that equally describe a noun.
Examples:
• I bought eggs, milk, butter, and bread.
• My brother, who lives in New York, is visiting.
• After the show, we went to a restaurant.
• It was a long, exhausting day.
2. Semicolons (;)
Purpose:
• Link independent clauses without using a conjunction.
• Separate items in a list when the items themselves contain commas.
Examples:
• She loves painting; she sells her artwork online.
• We visited London, UK; Paris, France; and Berlin, Germany.
3. Colons (:)
Purpose:
• Introduce a list, a quote, or an expansion.
• Separate two independent clauses when the second explains or summarizes the first.
Examples:
• You need three things to succeed: a wish, a plan, and a commitment.
• He got what he worked for: a promotion.
4. Apostrophes (’)
Purpose:
• Indicate possession.
• Form contractions.

[Link] | [Link]
 52

Examples:
• Jessica’s car is over there.
• It’s (it is) likely to rain today.
• Don’t (do not) forget your keys.
5. Quotation Marks (“ ”)
Purpose:
• Enclose direct speech.
• Highlight titles of certain works or phrases.
• Indicate irony or special emphasis.
Examples:
• She said, “Meet me at noon.”
• The short story “The Lottery” is controversial.
• He is so “excited” to see his dentist.
6. Parentheses (())
Purpose:
• Enclose supplementary or explanatory material that is not essential.
• Include additional information without disrupting the main sentence.
Examples:
• He finally decided (after much deliberation) to take the job.
• Our meeting time (see the schedule) has been moved.
7. Dashes (—)
Purpose:
• Set off parenthetical elements with more emphasis than commas.
• Indicate an abrupt change in thought or break in sentence structure.
Examples:
• Everything I need—peace, love, and comfort—is here.
• I need this report—oh, before you leave—by tomorrow.
8. Hyphens (-)
Purpose:
• Join words or parts of words (like in compound words).

[Link] | [Link]
 53

• Avoid ambiguity or form compound adjectives before nouns.

Examples:
• A well-known author
• Long-term planning
• Twenty-four
9. Ellipses (…)
Purpose:
• Indicate omitted material in a quote.
• Suggest trailing off of thought or speech.
Examples:
• “To be or not to be, that is the question…”
• Well, I’m not sure…
10. Exclamation Points (!)
Purpose:
• Express strong emotion or a command.
• Indicate a forceful remark or interjection.
Examples:
• Stop!
• Wow! That’s amazing!

[Link] | [Link]
 54

Reading Comprehension
Tips in Answering Reading Comprehension Questions

[Link] the Passage Carefully:

Take your time to read the passage thoroughly. Pay attention to the main ideas, supporting
details, and the overall structure of the text.
2. Identify the Purpose:
Determine the author’s purpose for writing the passage. Are they trying to inform, persuade,
entertain, or explain something?
3. Note Key Details:
Highlight or underline key points, facts, and figures mentioned in the passage. These details
often serve as the basis for specific questions.
4. Understand the Questions:
Read the questions carefully before attempting to answer them. Ensure you understand what
each question is asking.
5. Refer Back to the Passage:
Always refer back to the passage when answering questions. This helps ensure accuracy and
prevents misinterpretation.
6. Look for Context Clues:
Use context clues to understand the meaning of unfamiliar words or phrases. This can help with
questions about vocabulary or the meaning of specific lines.
6. Eliminate Wrong Answers:
Use the process of elimination to narrow down the answer choices. Remove any options that
are clearly incorrect or irrelevant to the passage.
7. Pay Attention to Question Types:
Be aware of different types of questions, such as main idea, detail, inference, vocabulary, and
author’s purpose. Each type requires a different approach.
8. Use Your Own Words:
When explaining or summarizing parts of the passage, try to use your own words. This
demonstrates your understanding of the text.
9. Practice Active Reading:
Engage with the text by asking yourself questions as you read. What is the main point? How
does this detail support the main idea? What is the author trying to convey here?
10. Stay Focused:

[Link] | [Link]
 55

Avoid getting distracted by minor details that do not contribute to the overall understanding of
the passage. Stay focused on the main ideas and how they are developed.
11. Manage Your Time:
Allocate your time wisely. Spend enough time reading the passage, but also ensure you have
ample time to answer all the questions.
12. Review Your Answers:
If time permits, review your answers before submitting. Check for any mistakes or questions you
may have misunderstood.
13. Practice Regularly:
Regular practice with a variety of passages and question types can improve your reading
comprehension skills and speed.

Reading Comprehension Practice Test

Passage 1.
In recent years, urban farming has emerged as a popular trend among city dwellers. This
movement seeks to address several issues, including food security, environmental sustainability,
and community building. Urban farms are often located on rooftops, vacant lots, and even in
abandoned buildings. These spaces are transformed into green oases where vegetables, fruits,
and herbs are grown. Urban farming not only provides fresh produce but also fosters a sense of
community and connection to nature. Furthermore, it reduces the carbon footprint by decreasing
the distance food travels from farm to table.
Question 1 What is the primary purpose of urban farming according to the passage?
1. A) To increase property values
2. B) To promote technology in agriculture
3. C) To address food security and environmental sustainability
4. D) To encourage rural migration
Correct Answer: C) To address food security and environmental sustainability
Explanation: The passage highlights that urban farming is aimed at addressing food security
and environmental sustainability, making it the primary purpose.
Question 2 Where are urban farms commonly located?
1. A) In suburban areas
2. B) On rooftops and vacant lots
3. C) In rural farmlands
4. D) In commercial shopping centers

[Link] | [Link]
 56

Correct Answer: B) On rooftops and vacant lots

Explanation: The text mentions that urban farms are often set up on rooftops and in vacant lots,
thus providing specific locations for these farms.
Question 3: Which of the following is a benefit of urban farming mentioned in the passage?
1. A) Higher crop yields compared to traditional farming
2. B) Reducing the carbon footprint by decreasing food travel distance
3. C) Increasing the use of synthetic fertilizers
4. D) Encouraging the use of genetically modified organisms
Correct Answer: B) Reducing the carbon footprint by decreasing food travel distance
Explanation: The passage specifically states that urban farming reduces the carbon footprint by
minimizing the distance food travels from farm to table, which is a direct environmental benefit.
Passage 2
Marie Curie was a pioneering physicist and chemist who made groundbreaking contributions to
science. She was the first woman to win a Nobel Prize and remains the only person to win
Nobel Prizes in two different scientific fields: Physics and Chemistry. Curie’s research on
radioactivity, a term she coined, led to significant advancements in the understanding of atomic
structure. Despite facing numerous challenges, including gender discrimination and limited
resources, her perseverance and dedication to science were unwavering. Curie’s legacy
continues to inspire scientists around the world.
Question 1 What distinction does Marie Curie hold in the scientific community?
1. A) First person to win a Nobel Prize in Literature
2. B) Only person to win Nobel Prizes in two different scientific fields
3. C) First person to discover the structure of DNA
4. D) Only person to win a Nobel Prize in Medicine and Physics
Correct Answer: B) Only person to win Nobel Prizes in two different scientific fields
Explanation: Marie Curie is noted for being the only person to win Nobel Prizes in two distinct
scientific fields, Physics and Chemistry.
Question 2 Which term did Marie Curie coin?
1. A) Radioactivity
2. B) Quantum mechanics
3. C) Genetics
4. D) Thermodynamics
Correct Answer: A) Radioactivity

[Link] | [Link]
 57

Explanation: The passage specifies that Curie coined the term “radioactivity,” marking a major
advancement in her research.
Question 3 What challenges did Marie Curie face during her career?
1. A) Lack of interest in her research
2. B) Insufficient educational background
3. C) Gender discrimination and limited resources
4. D) Opposition from other scientists
Correct Answer: C) Gender discrimination and limited resources
Explanation: The passage acknowledges that Curie faced gender discrimination and limited
resources, highlighting significant obstacles in her scientific journey.
Passage 3
The Amazon rainforest is one of the most biodiverse regions on Earth, home to millions of
species of plants, animals, and insects. It plays a critical role in regulating the planet’s climate
by absorbing carbon dioxide and producing oxygen. However, deforestation poses a severe
threat to this vital ecosystem. Large swaths of the forest are cleared for agriculture, mining, and
logging, leading to habitat loss and increased carbon emissions. Conservation efforts are
essential to protect the Amazon and its invaluable contributions to global environmental health.
Question 1 : What is a critical role of the Amazon rainforest mentioned in the passage?
1. A) Providing a habitat for endangered species
2. B) Absorbing carbon dioxide and producing oxygen
3. C) Serving as a major tourist attraction
4. D) Providing resources for industrial development
Correct Answer: B) Absorbing carbon dioxide and producing oxygen
Explanation: The passage emphasizes that the Amazon rainforest plays a critical role in
regulating the planet’s climate by absorbing carbon dioxide and producing oxygen. This is
crucial for maintaining the balance of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.
Question 2: What is one of the main threats to the Amazon rainforest?
1. A) Natural disasters
2. B) Deforestation for agriculture, mining, and logging
3. C) Climate change
4. D) Overpopulation of native species
Correct Answer: B) Deforestation for agriculture, mining, and logging

[Link] | [Link]
 58

Explanation: The passage identifies deforestation for agriculture, mining, and logging as a
severe threat to the Amazon rainforest. This leads to habitat loss and increased carbon
emissions, which are detrimental to the ecosystem.
Question 3 : Why are conservation efforts important for the Amazon rainforest?
1. A) To increase tourism in the region
2. B) To promote industrial development
3. C) To protect its contributions to global environmental health
4. D) To replace native species with new ones
Correct Answer: C) To protect its contributions to global environmental health
Explanation: Conservation efforts are crucial to protect the Amazon’s invaluable contributions to
global environmental health. The passage highlights that the rainforest’s role in climate
regulation and biodiversity makes its preservation essential for maintaining ecological balance.
Passage 4
The phenomenon of dark matter remains one of the most enigmatic topics in modern
astrophysics. Despite its name, dark matter is not simply an absence of light; rather, it is a type
of matter that does not interact with electromagnetic forces, making it invisible to current
detection methods. Its existence is inferred from its gravitational effects on visible matter, such
as galaxies and galaxy clusters. Observations suggest that dark matter constitutes about 27%
of the universe’s mass-energy content. The exact nature of dark matter is still unknown,
prompting numerous theories and experiments aimed at uncovering its secrets.
Question 1: What makes dark matter difficult to detect directly?
1. A) It emits harmful radiation
2. B) It does not interact with electromagnetic forces
3. C) It is located only in distant galaxies
4. D) It is too small to be observed
Correct Answer: B) It does not interact with electromagnetic forces
Explanation: Dark matter does not interact with electromagnetic forces, which means it does not
emit, absorb, or reflect light. This makes it invisible and undetectable by traditional methods that
rely on electromagnetic observation.
Question 2: How is the existence of dark matter primarily inferred?
1. A) Through its interaction with light
2. B) By detecting its thermal emissions
3. C) By its gravitational effects on visible matter
4. D) By observing its chemical composition

[Link] | [Link]
 59

Correct Answer: C) By its gravitational effects on visible matter

Explanation: The presence of dark matter is inferred from its gravitational influence on visible
matter, such as galaxies and galaxy clusters. This gravitational effect indicates that there is
more mass present than what can be seen directly.
Question 3 What percentage of the universe’s mass-energy content is believed to be constituted
by dark matter?
1. A) 5%
2. B) 14%
3. C) 27%
4. D) 73%
Correct Answer: C) 27%
Explanation: Observations suggest that dark matter makes up about 27% of the universe’s
mass-energy content, highlighting its significant presence despite being invisible and
mysterious.
Passage 5
The development of quantum computing represents a paradigm shift in computational
technology. Unlike classical computers that use bits as the smallest unit of data, quantum
computers use quantum bits, or qubits. Qubits can exist in multiple states simultaneously,
thanks to the principles of superposition and entanglement. This allows quantum computers to
process a vast amount of information at unprecedented speeds. Applications of quantum
computing are expected to revolutionize fields such as cryptography, material science, and
complex system simulations. However, significant technical challenges remain, including error
correction and qubit coherence.
Question 1 : What is the fundamental unit of data in a quantum computer?
1. A) Bit
2. B) Byte
3. C) Qubit
4. D) Quantum byte
Correct Answer: C) Qubit
Explanation: Quantum computers use qubits as their fundamental unit of data. Unlike classical
bits, qubits can represent multiple states simultaneously, enabling more complex and faster
computations.
Question 2: What principle allows qubits to exist in multiple states simultaneously?
1. A) Quantum decoherence
2. B) Quantum superposition

[Link] | [Link]
 60

3. C) Quantum entanglement
4. D) Quantum tunneling
Correct Answer: B) Quantum superposition
Explanation: Quantum superposition is the principle that allows qubits to exist in multiple states
at once. This is a key feature that enables quantum computers to perform many calculations
simultaneously.
Question 3 : Which of the following fields is expected to be revolutionized by quantum
computing?
1. A) Classical mechanics
2. B) Cryptography
3. C) Literature
4. D) Photography
Correct Answer: B) Cryptography
Explanation: Quantum computing is expected to revolutionize cryptography by enabling much
faster processing of complex algorithms, which could significantly improve data encryption and
security.
Passage 6
Climate change poses a significant threat to global biodiversity, with far-reaching impacts on
ecosystems and species. As temperatures rise, many species are forced to migrate to cooler
areas, leading to shifts in population distributions. Some species may not be able to adapt
quickly enough, resulting in increased risks of extinction. Additionally, climate change
exacerbates other environmental stressors, such as habitat loss, pollution, and overexploitation
of resources. Conservation strategies must integrate climate adaptation measures to enhance
the resilience of ecosystems and ensure the survival of vulnerable species.
Question 1: What effect does climate change have on species’ population distributions?
1. A) It stabilizes population distributions
2. B) It forces species to migrate to cooler areas
3. C) It reduces the need for migration
4. D) It increases species’ adaptation speed
Correct Answer: B) It forces species to migrate to cooler areas
• Explanation: Climate change causes temperatures to rise, forcing many species to
migrate to cooler areas to survive. This shift in population distribution is a direct
response to the changing climate conditions.
Question 2: What additional environmental stressors are exacerbated by climate change?
1. A) Urbanization and industrialization

[Link] | [Link]
 61

2. B) Habitat loss, pollution, and overexploitation

3. C) Technological advancements and innovation
4. D) Agricultural expansion and deforestation
Correct Answer: B) Habitat loss, pollution, and overexploitation
Explanation: Climate change worsens other environmental stressors like habitat loss, pollution,
and overexploitation of resources, compounding the challenges faced by ecosystems and
species.
Question 3: What is a key component of conservation strategies in the context of climate
change?
1. A) Economic development
2. B) Climate adaptation measures
3. C) Industrial growth
4. D) Urban planning
Correct Answer: B) Climate adaptation measures
Explanation: To address the impacts of climate change, conservation strategies must include
climate adaptation measures. These measures help enhance the resilience of ecosystems and
ensure the survival of species vulnerable to climate change.
Passage 7
The philosophy of existentialism explores the meaning of human existence in an often
indifferent or even absurd universe. Existentialist thinkers such as Jean-Paul Sartre and Albert
Camus argue that individuals must create their own meaning and purpose through their actions
and choices. This philosophy emphasizes personal freedom, responsibility, and the inherent
subjectivity of human experience. Existentialism emerged in the mid-20th century as a response
to the disillusionment and existential crises that followed the two World Wars, challenging
traditional notions of morality and purpose.
Questions 1: What does existentialism emphasize regarding human experience?
1. A) Objective truths
2. B) Personal freedom and responsibility
3. C) Predetermined fate
4. D) Collective decision-making
Correct Answer: B) Personal freedom and responsibility
Explanation: Existentialism emphasizes the importance of personal freedom and responsibility,
highlighting that individuals must take charge of creating their own meaning and purpose in life.
Question 2 According to existentialist thinkers, how must individuals find meaning and purpose?

[Link] | [Link]
 62

1. A) Through societal norms and values

2. B) By adhering to religious doctrines
3. C) Through their actions and choices
4. D) By following predetermined paths
Correct Answer: C) Through their actions and choices
Explanation: Existentialist thinkers argue that individuals must find meaning and purpose
through their own actions and choices, rather than relying on societal norms, religious doctrines,
or predetermined paths.
Question 3 : What historical events contributed to the emergence of existentialism?
1. A) The Renaissance and the Industrial Revolution
2. B) The Enlightenment and the Scientific Revolution
3. C) The two World Wars
4. D) The Cold War and the Space Race
Correct Answer: C) The two World Wars
• Explanation: The two World Wars led to widespread disillusionment and existential
crises, which contributed to the emergence of existentialism as a philosophical
movement challenging traditional notions of morality and purpose.
Passage 8
The Philippine eagle, also known as the monkey-eating eagle, is one of the largest and most
powerful birds of prey in the world. This critically endangered species is native to the Philippines
and is found primarily in the forests of Mindanao, Luzon, Leyte, and Samar. The Philippine
eagle faces several threats, including deforestation, hunting, and habitat destruction.
Conservation efforts are crucial to prevent its extinction. Various organizations, both local and
international, are working tirelessly to protect and preserve the remaining population through
breeding programs, habitat restoration, and public awareness campaigns. Despite these efforts,
the survival of the Philippine eagle remains uncertain due to ongoing environmental and socio-
economic challenges.
Question 1: Where is the Philippine eagle primarily found?
A) In urban areas
B) In the forests of Mindanao, Luzon, Leyte, and Samar
C) On coastal regions
D) In agricultural fields
Correct Answer: B) In the forests of Mindanao, Luzon, Leyte, and Samar
Explanation: The Philippine eagle is native to the forests of Mindanao, Luzon, Leyte, and
Samar. It thrives in forested environments where it can hunt and nest.
Question 2: What are the main threats to the Philippine eagle?

[Link] | [Link]
 63

A) Urbanization and industrialization

B) Climate change and pollution
C) Deforestation, hunting, and habitat destruction
D) Overpopulation and traffic congestion
Correct Answer: C) Deforestation, hunting, and habitat destruction
Explanation: The primary threats to the Philippine eagle include deforestation, hunting, and
habitat destruction. These activities reduce their natural habitat and put them at risk of
extinction.
Question 3 : What strategies are being used to protect the Philippine eagle?
A) Industrial development and economic incentives
B) Breeding programs, habitat restoration, and public awareness campaigns
C) Technological advancements and innovation
D) Agricultural expansion and deforestation
Correct Answer: B) Breeding programs, habitat restoration, and public awareness campaigns
Explanation: Conservation strategies for the Philippine eagle include breeding programs, habitat
restoration, and public awareness campaigns. These efforts aim to increase their population and
protect their natural habitats.
Passage 9
The Banaue Rice Terraces, often referred to as the “Eighth Wonder of the World,” are a
testament to the ingenuity and perseverance of the Ifugao people. Carved into the mountains of
Ifugao province over 2,000 years ago, these terraces demonstrate advanced agricultural
techniques and sustainable farming practices. The rice terraces are not only an important
cultural and historical landmark but also a vital source of livelihood for the local communities.
However, the Banaue Rice Terraces face numerous challenges, including soil erosion, climate
change, and the migration of younger generations to urban areas. Efforts to preserve this
UNESCO World Heritage site involve community-based initiatives, government support, and
international collaboration.
Question 1 : What do the Banaue Rice Terraces demonstrate about the Ifugao people?
A) Their technological advancements in modern agriculture
B) Their expertise in building urban infrastructure
C) Their advanced agricultural techniques and sustainable farming practices
D) Their proficiency in coastal management
Correct Answer: C) Their advanced agricultural techniques and sustainable farming practices
Explanation: The Banaue Rice Terraces showcase the Ifugao people’s advanced agricultural
techniques and sustainable farming practices, highlighting their ingenuity and perseverance in
creating these impressive structures.
Question 2: What are the main challenges faced by the Banaue Rice Terraces?
A) Overfishing and water pollution
B) Soil erosion, climate change, and migration of younger generations to urban areas

[Link] | [Link]
 64

C) Deforestation and industrialization

D) Traffic congestion and air pollution
Correct Answer: B) Soil erosion, climate change, and migration of younger generations to urban
areas
Explanation: The Banaue Rice Terraces face significant challenges such as soil erosion, climate
change, and the migration of younger generations to urban areas, which threaten their
preservation and sustainability.
Question 3: What efforts are being made to preserve the Banaue Rice Terraces?
A) Promoting technological innovations in agriculture
B) Encouraging urban development projects
C) Community-based initiatives, government support, and international collaboration
D) Expanding industrial activities in the region
Correct Answer: C) Community-based initiatives, government support, and international
collaboration
Explanation: Preservation efforts for the Banaue Rice Terraces include community-based
initiatives, government support, and international collaboration. These efforts aim to address the
challenges and ensure the terraces’ sustainability and cultural heritage.

[Link] | [Link]
 65

Subject-Verb Agreement
1. A singular subject takes a singular verb.
Example: “The cat runs fast.”
2. A plural subject takes a plural verb.
Example: “The cats run fast.”
3. When subjects are joined by “and,” the verb is plural.
Example: “Ted and Mary are going to the movies.”
4. When subjects are joined by “or” or “nor,” the verb agrees with the subject closest to
it.
Example: “Either the teacher or the students have to clean the classroom.”

5. Singular indefinite pronouns (e.g., anyone, everyone, each) take singular verbs.
Example: “Everyone knows the rules.”
6. Plural indefinite pronouns (e.g., few, many) take plural verbs.
Example: “Many are called, but few are chosen.”
7. Some indefinite pronouns can be singular or plural depending on the context (e.g., all,
some).
Example: “All of the cake is gone.” / “All of the cakes are gone.”
8. Collective nouns (e.g., team, committee) are usually singular when referring to the
group as a whole.
Example: “The team wins the match.”
9. They can be plural if referring to individuals within the group.
Example: “The team are arguing among themselves.”
10. When the subject is an expression of quantity (e.g., a lot of, a number of), the verb
agrees with the noun in the expression.
Example: “A lot of the pie is left.” / “A lot of the pies are left.”
Titles and Names:
11. Titles of books, movies, and other works are singular even if they are in plural form.
Example: “The Chronicles of Narnia is a popular series.”
12. Ignore any intervening words or phrases between the subject and the verb.
Example: “The box of chocolates is on the table.”
13. “There” and “here” subjects: The verb agrees with the real subject after it.

[Link] | [Link]
 66

Example: “There is a book on the table.” / “There are books on the table.”
14. “Each” and “every” subjects are singular.
Example: “Each student is required to submit their work.”
15. Words like “news,” “mathematics,” and “economics” are singular.
Example: “The news is on at six.”

Exercises on Subject-Verb Agreement

DIRECTIONS: Choose the correct verb in these sentences.
[Link] teacher (explain, explains) the lesson clearly.
Answer: explains
Explanation: “The teacher” is a singular subject, so it requires a singular verb.
2. Many students (participates, participate) in after-school activities.
Answer: participate
Explanation: “Many students” is a plural subject, necessitating a plural verb.
3. Either my mother or my father (drives, drive) me to school.
Answer: drives
Explanation: When using “either/or” or “neither/nor,” the verb agrees with the nearer subject,
which in this case is “my father,” a singular noun.
4. The children (likes, like) going to the zoo.
Answer: like
Explanation: “The children” is a plural subject, so it takes a plural verb.
5. Everyone (want, wants) to go on vacation.
Answer: wants
Explanation: “Everyone” is a singular indefinite pronoun, so it requires a singular verb.
6. Neither of the solutions (seem, seems) effective.
Answer: seems
Explanation: “Neither” is singular, and it takes a singular verb even when followed by a plural
noun.
7. The group of tourists (was, were) walking through the museum.
Answer: was

[Link] | [Link]
 67

Explanation: “The group” is a collective noun that is treated as a singular entity when the group
acts as a unit.
8. This news (is, are) too good to be true.
Answer: is
Explanation: “News,” despite ending in -s, is a singular noun and takes a singular verb.
9. My glasses (was, were) on the table.
Answer: were
Explanation: “Glasses” refers to a pair, which is treated as plural.
10. Each of the players (has, have) a jersey.
Answer: has
Explanation: “Each” is a singular indefinite pronoun that implies every single one out of a group,
requiring a singular verb.
11. The committee (has, have) made its decision.
Answer: has
Explanation: “The committee” is a collective noun treated as singular when it acts as a unit.
12. Neither the manager nor the employees (is, are) satisfied with the new policy.
Answer: are
Explanation: The verb agrees with the nearer subject, “the employees,” which is plural.
13. Each of the books (was, were) carefully wrapped.
Answer: was
Explanation: “Each” is singular, so it takes a singular verb, even though “books” is plural.
14. The data (suggests, suggest) that the new drug is effective.
Answer: suggest
Explanation: “Data” is plural, so it takes a plural verb.
15. A number of students (has, have) volunteered for the event.
Answer: have
Explanation: “A number of” is treated as plural, so it takes a plural verb.
16. The jury (deliberates, deliberate) for several hours before reaching a verdict.
Answer: deliberates
Explanation: “The jury” is a collective noun treated as singular when referring to the group as a
unit.

[Link] | [Link]
 68

17. Neither the president nor the vice presidents (was, were) able to attend the meeting.
Answer: were
Explanation: The verb agrees with the nearer subject, “the vice presidents,” which is plural.
18. The team (wins, win) when everyone works together.
Answer: wins
Explanation: “The team” is a collective noun treated as singular when referring to the group as a
unit.
19. Mathematics (is, are) a difficult subject for many students.
Answer: is
Explanation: “Mathematics” is singular despite ending in -s, so it takes a singular verb.
20. Neither of the solutions (solve, solves) the problem completely.
Answer: solves
Explanation: “Neither” is singular, so it takes a singular verb, even when followed by a plural
noun.
21. The committee, along with its members, (meets, meet) every Thursday.
Answer: meets
Explanation: The main subject “committee” is singular, and the phrase “along with its members”
does not affect the verb form.
22. Neither the coach nor the players (was, were) ready for the game.
Answer: were
Explanation: The verb agrees with the nearer subject, “the players,” which is plural.
23. The number of applications (has, have) increased this year.
Answer: has
Explanation: “The number of” is treated as singular, so it takes a singular verb.
24. A high percentage of the population (believes, believe) in climate change.
Answer: believes
Explanation: “A high percentage of the population” is treated as a singular entity because it
refers to one large group.
25. The majority of the evidence (points, point) to the suspect’s guilt.
Answer: points
Explanation: “The majority of the evidence” is treated as singular, so it takes a singular verb.

[Link] | [Link]
 69

26. Either the teacher or the students (has, have) to arrange the chairs.
Answer: have
Explanation: The verb agrees with the nearer subject, “the students,” which is plural.
27. The orchestra (performs, perform) twice a year.
Answer: performs
Explanation: “The orchestra” is a collective noun treated as singular when referring to the group
as a unit.
28. Every one of the team members (is, are) expected to attend the meeting.
Answer: is
Explanation: “Every one” is singular, so it takes a singular verb.
29. Either of the solutions (works, work) for this problem.
Answer: works
Explanation: “Either” is singular, so it takes a singular verb.
30. The faculty, as well as the students, (was, were) pleased with the new library.
Answer: was
Explanation: The main subject “faculty” is singular, and the phrase “as well as the students”
does not affect the verb form.

[Link] | [Link]
 70

Synonyms and Antonyms

1. Word: Ameliorate [Link]: Adroit

Synonym: Improve Synonym: Skillful
Antonym: Worsen Antonym: Clumsy
Sample Sentence: The new policies were Sample Sentence: He was adroit at handling
designed to ameliorate working conditions. negotiations, always reaching a fair deal.
2. Word: Benevolent 17. Word: Camaraderie
Synonym: Kind Synonym: Friendship
Antonym: Cruel Antonym: Hostility
Sample Sentence: The benevolent neighbor Sample Sentence: The camaraderie among
often helped the elderly with their groceries. the team members was evident during their
successful project.
3. Word: Candid
18. Word: Cursory
Synonym: Honest
Synonym: Superficial
Antonym: Deceptive
Antonym: Thorough
Sample Sentence: She gave a candid
interview about her experiences. Sample Sentence: She gave the report a
cursory glance before the meeting.
4. Word: Daunting
19. Word: Disparage
Synonym: Intimidating
Synonym: Belittle
Antonym: Encouraging
Antonym: Praise
Sample Sentence: The task ahead was
daunting, but she felt prepared to tackle it. Sample Sentence: It’s unkind to disparage
someone’s efforts, even if they fall short.
5. Word: Eloquent
20. Word: Eclectic
Synonym: Articulate
Synonym: Diverse
Antonym: Inarticulate
Antonym: Uniform
Sample Sentence: His eloquent speech
captivated the audience. Sample Sentence: Her taste in music is
eclectic, ranging from classical to hip hop.
6. Word: Furtive
21. Word: Elucidate
Synonym: Secretive
Synonym: Clarify
Antonym: Open
Antonym: Obscure
Sample Sentence: He took a furtive glance at
the clock, hoping no one would notice.

[Link] | [Link]
 71

7. Word: Gregarious Sample Sentence: The teacher’s explanation

helped elucidate the complex concept.
Synonym: Sociable
22. Word: Facilitate
Antonym: Reserved
Synonym: Assist
Sample Sentence: She was a gregarious
person who enjoyed meeting new people. Antonym: Hinder
8. Word: Hapless Sample Sentence: The new software will
facilitate the project management process.
Synonym: Unlucky
23. Word: Galvanize
Antonym: Fortunate
Synonym: Stimulate
Sample Sentence: The hapless traveler
missed his flight due to a sudden storm. Antonym: Deter
9. Word: Imminent Sample Sentence: The coach’s speech
managed to galvanize the team into action.
Synonym: Impending
24. Word: Harbinger
Antonym: Distant
Synonym: Forerunner
Sample Sentence: The dark clouds indicated
that a storm was imminent. Antonym: Follower
10. Word: Juxtapose Sample Sentence: The dark clouds were a
harbinger of the coming storm.
Synonym: Compare
25. Word: Innocuous
Antonym: Separate
Synonym: Harmless
Sample Sentence: The artist chose to
juxtapose bright colors with dark shades to Antonym: Harmful
create a striking contrast.
Sample Sentence: The dog seemed fierce,
but it was actually quite innocuous.
11. Word: Reticent 26. Word: Languid
Synonym: Reserved Synonym: Lethargic
Antonym: Talkative Antonym: Energetic
Sample Sentence: He was reticent about his Sample Sentence: He felt languid after the
plans, not sharing much with anyone. long, hot day.
12. Word: Sanguine 27. Word: Malleable
Synonym: Optimistic Synonym: Flexible
Antonym: Pessimistic Antonym: Rigid
Sample Sentence: Despite the challenges, Sample Sentence: The clay was malleable,
she remained sanguine about the future. easily shaped into different forms.

[Link] | [Link]
 72

13. Word: Trepidation 28. Word: Obdurate

Synonym: Fear Synonym: Stubborn
Antonym: Confidence Antonym: Compliant
Sample Sentence: He approached the Sample Sentence: Despite the protests, the
podium with some trepidation. mayor remained obdurate in his decision.
14. Word: Urbane 29. Word: Palpable
Synonym: Sophisticated Synonym: Tangible
Antonym: Unsophisticated Antonym: Intangible
Sample Sentence: His urbane manners made Sample Sentence: There was a palpable
him a favorite at social gatherings. sense of excitement in the room.
15. Word: Vestige 30. Word: Quintessential
Synonym: Remnant Synonym: Typical
Antonym: Whole Antonym: Atypical
Sample Sentence: The ruins were a vestige Sample Sentence: She was the
of the ancient civilization quintessential professional, always punctual
and prepared.

Exercises
Practice Questions
[Link]: Which word means the same as “benevolent”?
1. A) Cruel
2. B) Kind
3. C) Deceptive
4. D) Reserved
Correct Answer: B) Kind
2. Antonym: Which word is the opposite of “daunting”?
1. A) Intimidating
2. B) Secretive
3. C) Encouraging
4. D) Honest
Correct Answer: C) Encouraging

[Link] | [Link]
 73

3. Synonym: Which word means the same as “eloquent”?

1. A) Articulate
2. B) Inarticulate
3. C) Unlucky
4. D) Impending
Correct Answer: A) Articulate
4. Antonym: Which word is the opposite of “furtive”?
1. A) Secretive
2. B) Open
3. C) Sociable
4. D) Honest
Correct Answer: B) Open
5. Synonym: Which word means the same as “gregarious”?
1. A) Reserved
2. B) Secretive
3. C) Sociable
4. D) Unlucky
Correct Answer: C) Sociable

Practice Test for Synonyms and Antonyms - Civil Service Exam

1. Synonym: Which word means the same as “adroit”?
A) Clumsy
B) Skillful
C) Reserved
D) Pessimistic
Correct Answer: B) Skillful
Explanation: “Adroit” means being skillful and clever, especially in the use of hands or mind.
Thus, “skillful” is the synonym.
2. Antonym: Which word is the opposite of “camaraderie”?
A) Friendship
B) Harmless
C) Hostility
D) Fear
Correct Answer: C) Hostility

[Link] | [Link]
 74

Explanation: “Camaraderie” means a spirit of friendly good-fellowship. The opposite of this is

“hostility,” which denotes animosity or unfriendliness.
3. Synonym: Which word means the same as “cursory”?
A) Thorough
B) Superficial
C) Flexible
D) Tangible
Correct Answer: B) Superficial
Explanation: “Cursory” means done quickly and not thoroughly; therefore, “superficial” is the
synonym.
4. Antonym: Which word is the opposite of “disparage”?
A) Lethargic
B) Clarify
C) Praise
D) Compliant
Correct Answer: C) Praise
Explanation: “Disparage” means to belittle or speak down about something. The opposite is
“praise,” which means to express approval or admiration.
5. Synonym: Which word means the same as “eclectic”?
A) Diverse
B) Reserved
C) Forerunner
D) Stubborn
Correct Answer: A) Diverse
Explanation: “Eclectic” means deriving ideas, style, or taste from a broad and diverse range of
sources. Therefore, “diverse” is the synonym.
6. Antonym: Which word is the opposite of “elucidate”?
A) Clarify
B) Obscure
C) Belittle
D) Improve
Correct Answer: B) Obscure
Explanation: “Elucidate” means to make something clear. The opposite is “obscure,” which
means to make something unclear or difficult to understand.
7. Synonym: Which word means the same as “facilitate”?
A) Hinder
B) Detach
C) Assist
D) Resist
Correct Answer: C) Assist

[Link] | [Link]
 75

Explanation: “Facilitate” means to make an action or process easier. Thus, “assist,” which
means to help, is the synonym.
8. Antonym: Which word is the opposite of “galvanize”?
A) Stimulate
B) Prevent
C) Deter
D) Recede
Correct Answer: C) Deter
Explanation: “Galvanize” means to stimulate into action. The opposite is “deter,” which means to
discourage from taking action.
9. Synonym: Which word means the same as “harbinger”?
A) Follower
B) Friend
C) Forerunner
D) Successor
Correct Answer: C) Forerunner
Explanation: “Harbinger” means something that signals the approach of another. Thus,
“forerunner” is the synonym.
10. Antonym: Which word is the opposite of “innocuous”?
A) Harmless
B) Lethargic
C) Flexible
D) Harmful
Correct Answer: D) Harmful
Explanation: “Innocuous” means not harmful or offensive. The opposite is “harmful.”
11. Synonym: Which word means the same as “languid”?
A) Energetic
B) Lethargic
C) Sophisticated
D) Flexible
Correct Answer: B) Lethargic
Explanation: “Languid” means displaying or having a disinclination for physical exertion or effort;
slow and relaxed. Thus, “lethargic” is the synonym.
12. Antonym: Which word is the opposite of “malleable”?
A) Rigid
B) Flexible
C) Skillful
D) Friendly
Correct Answer: A) Rigid
Explanation: “Malleable” means easily influenced or pliable. The opposite is “rigid,” which
means inflexible or stiff.

[Link] | [Link]
 76

13. Synonym: Which word means the same as “obdurate”?

A) Pessimistic
B) Talkative
C) Sophisticated
D) Stubborn
Correct Answer: D) Stubborn
Explanation: “Obdurate” means stubbornly refusing to change one’s opinion or course of action.
Therefore, “stubborn” is the synonym.

14. Antonym: Which word is the opposite of “palpable”?

A) Flexible
B) Intangible
C) Harmless
D) Tangible
Correct Answer: B) Intangible
Explanation: “Palpable” means able to be touched or felt. The opposite is “intangible,” which
means not able to be touched or felt.
15. Synonym: Which word means the same as “quintessential”?
A) Typical
B) Skillful
C) Reserved
D) Optimistic
Correct Answer: A) Typical
Explanation: “Quintessential” means representing the most perfect or typical example of a
quality or class. Thus, “typical” is the synonym.
16. Antonym: Which word is the opposite of “reticent”?
A) Reserved
B) Talkative
C) Optimistic
D) Clumsy
Correct Answer: B) Talkative
Explanation: “Reticent” means not revealing one’s thoughts or feelings readily. The opposite is
“talkative,” which means inclined to talk a lot.
17. Synonym: Which word means the same as “sanguine”?
A) Clumsy
B) Optimistic
C) Hostility
D) Rigid
Correct Answer: B) Optimistic
Explanation: “Sanguine” means optimistic or positive, especially in an apparently bad or difficult
situation. Thus, “optimistic” is the synonym.
18. Antonym: Which word is the opposite of “trepidation”?

[Link] | [Link]
 77

A) Fear
B) Friendliness
C) Confidence
D) Forerunner
Correct Answer: C) Confidence
Explanation: “Trepidation” means a feeling of fear or agitation about something that may
happen. The opposite is “confidence.”
19. Synonym: Which word means the same as “urbane”?
A) Lethargic
B) Sophisticated
C) Flexible
D) Tangible
Correct Answer: B) Sophisticated
Explanation: “Urbane” means suave, courteous, and refined in manner. Thus, “sophisticated” is
the synonym.
20. Antonym: Which word is the opposite of “vestige”?
A) Remnant
B) Whole
C) Typical
D) Hostility
Correct Answer: B) Whole
Explanation: “Vestige” means a trace of something that is disappearing or no longer exists. The
opposite is “whole,” which means something that is complete

[Link] | [Link]
 78

Simplified Rules in Using Either/Neither in Grammar

1. When using “either…or” or “neither…nor,” make the verb agree with the subject that is
closest to it.
Example: “Either the boys or the girl runs every day.” (“girl” is singular, so “runs”)
Example: “Neither the girl nor the boys run every day.” (“boys” is plural, so “run”)
2. When “either” or “neither” is used alone, treat it as singular.
Example: “Either of the choices is fine.”
Example: “Neither of the options is good.”
3. Use “either” to talk about one of two positive choices.
Example: “You can either stay here or come with us.”
4. Use “neither” to talk about rejecting both options.
Example: “Neither answer is correct.”
5. Start sentences with “either” or “neither” to show choices or exclusions.
Example: “Either you go, or you stay.”
Example: “Neither of us is attending the meeting.”
6. If “either” or “neither” is followed by “of,” use a singular verb.
Example: “Either of the two roads leads to the city.”
Example: “Neither of the books is interesting.”

Exercises
[Link] of the candidates (was, were) qualified for the position.
Answer: was
Explanation: “Neither” is used with a singular verb when referring to two things or people, as it
implies ‘not one and not the other.’
2. Either Sam or his brothers (is, are) going to sell the car.
Answer: are
Explanation: When “either/or” or “neither/nor” link two subjects, the verb agrees with the closer
subject. Here, “his brothers” is plural, so the verb is plural.
3. Neither of the reports (contains, contain) the necessary data.
Answer: contains
Explanation: “Neither of” is followed by a singular verb when it precedes a plural noun indicating
that none of the individual elements in the group performs the action.
4. Do either of you (have, has) the time?

[Link] | [Link]
 79

Answer: have
Explanation: When “either” is used in a question format addressing multiple people, it is treated
as plural, especially with “you.”
5. Neither Italy nor France (is, are) hosting the next conference.
Answer: is
Explanation: Similar to rule 2, the verb should agree with the subject closer to it. “France” is
singular, so the verb is singular.
6. Either my manager or my colleagues (reports, report) on the progress tomorrow.
Answer: report
Explanation: The verb agrees with “my colleagues” which is closer to it and is plural.
7. Neither the manager nor his assistant (was, were) available to speak.
Answer: was
Explanation: The verb should agree with the closer subject, “his assistant,” which is singular.
8. It is surprising that neither the laptops nor the smartphone (is, are) charged.
Answer: is
Explanation: The verb agrees with the nearest subject, “the smartphone,” which is singular.
9. Either you or I (am, are) responsible for locking up.
Answer: am
Explanation: The verb should agree with the closer subject when “I” is part of the subjects joined
by “either/or.”
10. Either solution (works, work) for us.
Answer: works
Explanation: “Either” used with a singular noun will take a singular verb, implying one or the
other, not both.
11. Neither of the theories (explains, explain) the phenomena completely.
Answer: explains
Explanation: “Neither” is singular, so it takes a singular verb even though “theories” is plural.
12. Either the CEO or the board members (has, have) to make the final decision.
Answer: have
Explanation: The verb agrees with the nearer subject, “the board members,” which is plural.
13. Neither the teacher nor the students (was, were) prepared for the unexpected exam.

[Link] | [Link]
 80

Answer: were
Explanation: The verb agrees with the nearer subject, “the students,” which is plural.
14. Neither of the solutions (seems, seem) to be effective in the long run.
Answer: seems
Explanation: “Neither” is singular, so it takes a singular verb.
15. Either the documents or the folder (is, are) missing from the desk.
Answer: is
Explanation: The verb agrees with the nearer subject, “the folder,” which is singular.
16. Neither the manager nor his assistants (know, knows) how to operate the new system.
Answer: know
Explanation: The verb agrees with the nearer subject, “his assistants,” which is plural.
17. Either of the proposals (is, are) acceptable to the committee.
Answer: is
Explanation: “Either” is singular, so it takes a singular verb.
18. Neither of the authors (was, were) available for the book signing event.
Answer: was
Explanation: “Neither” is singular, so it takes a singular verb.
19. Neither the employees nor the supervisor (has, have) received the new guidelines.
Answer: has
Explanation: The verb agrees with the nearer subject, “the supervisor,” which is singular.
20. Either the results or the methodology (is, are) flawed in the study.
Answer: is
Explanation: The verb agrees with the nearer subject, “the methodology,” which is singular.

[Link] | [Link]
 81

Vocabulary

1. Inevitable 31. Ineffable

Definition: Certain to happen; unavoidable. Definition: Too great or extreme to be
expressed or described in words.
Sample Sentence: It was inevitable that they
would run into each other at the small town Sample Sentence: The beauty of the
event. mountains was ineffable and left everyone
speechless.
2. Meticulous
32. Bellicose
Definition: Very careful and precise.
Definition: Demonstrating aggression and
Sample Sentence: She was meticulous in her willingness to fight.
research, leaving no detail unchecked.
Sample Sentence: His bellicose attitude
3. Reluctant
made him unpopular among his peers.
Definition: Unwilling and hesitant.
33. Daunting
Sample Sentence: He was reluctant to go to
Definition: Seeming difficult to deal with in
the party because he didn’t know anyone
anticipation; intimidating.
there.
Sample Sentence: The task ahead was
4. Obsolete
daunting, but she felt prepared to tackle it.
Definition: Out of date; no longer in use.
34. Eloquent
Sample Sentence: Many people consider
Definition: Fluent or persuasive in speaking
typewriters obsolete in the age of computers.
or writing.
5. Ambiguous
Sample Sentence: His eloquent speech
Definition: Open to more than one captivated the audience.
interpretation; unclear.
35. Furtive
Sample Sentence: The directions were
Definition: Attempting to avoid notice or
ambiguous, so we got lost on the way.
attention, typically because of guilt or a belief
6. Resilient that discovery would lead to trouble;
secretive.
Definition: Able to withstand or recover
quickly from difficult conditions. Sample Sentence: He took a furtive glance at
the clock, hoping no one would notice.
Sample Sentence: After the setback, she
proved to be resilient by bouncing back 36. Gregarious
quickly.
Definition: Fond of company; sociable.
7. Impediment
Sample Sentence: She was a gregarious
Definition: A hindrance or obstruction in doing person who enjoyed meeting new people.
something.
37. Hapless
Definition: Unfortunate.

[Link] | [Link]
 82

Sample Sentence: His speech impediment Sample Sentence: The hapless traveler
made public speaking difficult. missed his flight due to a sudden storm.
8. Apathetic 38. Imminent
Definition: Showing or feeling no interest, Definition: About to happen.
enthusiasm, or concern.
Sample Sentence: The dark clouds indicated
Sample Sentence: She was apathetic about that a storm was imminent.
the election and didn’t bother to vote.
39. Juxtapose
9. Exemplary
Definition: To place different things side by
Definition: Serving as a desirable model; side for comparison or contrast.
representing the best of its kind.
Sample Sentence: The artist chose to
Sample Sentence: His behavior was juxtapose bright colors with dark shades to
exemplary, setting a good example for others. create a striking contrast.
10. Scrutinize 40. Obfuscate
Definition: Examine or inspect closely and Definition: Render obscure, unclear, or
thoroughly. unintelligible.
Sample Sentence: The detective scrutinized Sample Sentence: The politician tried to
the crime scene for any clues. obfuscate the issue with confusing
statements.
11. Ubiquitous
41. Erudite
Definition: Present, appearing, or found
everywhere. Definition: Having or showing great
knowledge or learning.
Sample Sentence: Smartphones have
become ubiquitous in modern society. Sample Sentence: The erudite professor
could answer any question on the subject.
12. Vindicate
42. Munificent
Definition: Clear (someone) of blame or
suspicion. Definition: More generous than is usual or
necessary.
Sample Sentence: The evidence will
vindicate her and prove she was innocent. Sample Sentence: The munificent donation
helped the charity reach its goal.
13. Cognizant
43. Obfuscate
Definition: Having knowledge or being aware
of. Definition: Render obscure, unclear, or
unintelligible.
Sample Sentence: She was cognizant of the
risks involved in the project. Sample Sentence: The politician tried to
obfuscate the issue with confusing
14. Obsequious
statements.
Definition: Obedient or attentive to an 44. Pulchritude
excessive or servile degree.

[Link] | [Link]
 83

Sample Sentence: The waiter’s obsequious Definition: Beauty.

behavior made the customers uncomfortable.
Sample Sentence: The pulchritude of the
15. Perfidious landscape took their breath away.
Definition: Deceitful and untrustworthy. 45. Quixotic
Sample Sentence: The perfidious actions of Definition: Exceedingly idealistic; unrealistic
the spy were eventually discovered. and impractical.
16. Ameliorate Sample Sentence: His quixotic plans to save
the world were admired but seen as
Definition: To make something better or less impractical.
severe.
46. Sagacious
Sample Sentence: The new policies were
designed to ameliorate the working Definition: Having or showing keen mental
conditions for employees. discernment and good judgment; wise.
17. Benevolent Sample Sentence: The sagacious leader was
respected for his wise decisions.
Definition: Well-meaning and kindly.
47. Truculent
Sample Sentence: The benevolent neighbor
often helped the elderly with their groceries. Definition: Eager or quick to argue or fight;
aggressively defiant.
18. Candid
Sample Sentence: His truculent behavior
Definition: Truthful and straightforward; frank.
often got him into trouble.
Sample Sentence: She gave a candid
48 .Ubiquity
interview about her experiences.
Definition: The state of being everywhere or
19. Perfunctory
in many places simultaneously.
Definition: Carried out with a minimum of
Sample Sentence: The ubiquity of social
effort or reflection.
media has changed how we communicate.
Sample Sentence: His perfunctory apology
49. Vicissitude
did not seem sincere.
Definition: A change of circumstances or
20. Sycophant
fortune, typically one that is unwelcome or
Definition: A person who acts obsequiously unpleasant.
towards someone important in order to gain
Sample Sentence: They remained friends
advantage.
through the vicissitudes of life.
Sample Sentence: The sycophant constantly 50. Zenith
flattered his boss to get a promotion.
Definition: The time at which something is
most powerful or successful.
21. Enigmatic
Sample Sentence: The empire was at its
zenith during the 19th century.

[Link] | [Link]
 84

Definition: Difficult to interpret or understand; 51. Aberration

mysterious.
Definition: A departure from what is normal,
Sample Sentence: The Mona Lisa’s smile is usual, or expected, typically one that is
famously enigmatic. unwelcome.
22. Voracious Sample Sentence: The sudden snowstorm
was an aberration for the area.
Definition: Having a very eager approach to
an activity. 52. Conflagration
Sample Sentence: He has a voracious Definition: An extensive fire that destroys a
appetite for books, reading several each great deal of land or property.
week.
Sample Sentence: The conflagration spread
23. Inundate rapidly, destroying several homes.
Definition: Overwhelm (someone) with things 53 Lugubrious
or people to be dealt with.
Definition: Looking or sounding sad and
Sample Sentence: She was inundated with dismal.
emails after her promotion was announced.
Sample Sentence: His lugubrious expression
24. Capricious revealed his deep sorrow.
Definition: Given to sudden and 54. Ostentatious
unaccountable changes of mood or behavior.
Definition: Characterized by vulgar or
Sample Sentence: His capricious nature pretentious display; designed to impress or
made it hard to predict what he would do attract notice.
next.
Sample Sentence: Her ostentatious dress
25. Ostentatious attracted everyone’s attention at the party.
Definition: Characterized by vulgar or 55. Acrimonious
pretentious display; designed to impress or
Definition: (Typically of speech or a debate)
attract notice.
angry and bitter.
Sample Sentence: Her ostentatious dress
attracted everyone’s attention at the party. Sample Sentence: The discussion turned
acrimonious as the two sides refused to
26. Acrimonious compromise.
Definition: (Typically of speech or a debate) 56. Ephemeral
angry and bitter.
Definition: Lasting for a very short time.
Sample Sentence: The discussion turned
Sample Sentence: The beauty of the sunset
acrimonious as the two sides refused to
was ephemeral, fading away within minutes.
compromise.
57. Recalcitrant
27. Conundrum
Definition: A confusing and difficult problem or
question.

[Link] | [Link]
 85

Sample Sentence: Solving the conundrum Definition: Having an obstinately

required both logical thinking and creativity. uncooperative attitude towards authority or
discipline.
28. Ephemeral
Sample Sentence: The recalcitrant student
Definition: Lasting for a very short time.
refused to follow the school’s rules.
Sample Sentence: The beauty of the sunset 58. Ineffable
was ephemeral, fading away within minutes.
Definition: Too great or extreme to be
29. Recalcitrant
expressed or described in words.
Definition: Having an obstinately
Sample Sentence: The beauty of the
uncooperative attitude towards authority or
mountains was ineffable and left everyone
discipline.
speechless.
Sample Sentence: The recalcitrant student
59. Munificent
refused to follow the school’s rules.
Definition: More generous than is usual or
30. Sycophant
necessary.
Definition: A person who acts obsequiously
Sample Sentence: The munificent donation
towards someone important in order to gain helped the charity reach its goal.
advantage.
60. Esoteric
Sample Sentence: The sycophant constantly
flattered his boss to get a promotion. Definition: Intended for or likely to be
understood by only a small number of people
with a specialized knowledge or interest.
Sample Sentence: The lecture on quantum
mechanics was so esoteric that only a few
students could follow it.

[Link] | [Link]
 86

Word Roots, Prefixes and Suffixes

Building on the fundamental concepts of word roots, prefixes, and suffixes, here’s an expanded
list to help deepen vocabulary knowledge and understanding of English word formation. This list
includes definitions and examples for each prefix and suffix, which can aid in decoding a vast
array of complex words.
Common Prefixes
1. Anti- (against, opposite): antibiotic, anticlimactic
2. Co- (together, with): cooperate, coauthor
3. De- (down, away, reverse): deactivate, degrade
4. Dis- (not, opposite of): disagree, disappear
5. Ex- (out of, away from): exhale, exclude
6. Intra- (within): intramural, intravenous
7. Mis- (wrongly): misinterpret, misuse
8. Non- (not): nonsense, nonprofit
9. Over- (excessively): overeat, overact
10. Pre- (before): precaution, preview
11. Re- (again): rewrite, rebuild
12. Sub- (under, below): submarine, subtext
13. Super- (above, beyond): superhuman, supernatural
14. Trans- (across, change): transport, translucent
15. Un- (not): unseen, unknown
Common Suffixes
1. -able, -ible (capable or worthy of): enjoyable, perceptible
2. -al, -ial (relating to): educational, territorial
3. -ed (past tense for verbs): walked, jumped
4. -en (made of): wooden, golden
5. -er, -or (one who, that which): baker, translator
6. -ing (verb form/present participle): running, swimming
7. -ism (a belief or ideology): capitalism, nihilism
8. -ist (one who practices or is concerned with something): scientist, artist
9. -ity, -ty (state of): equality, safety

[Link] | [Link]
 87

10. -less (without): hopeless, fearless

11. -logy (study of): biology, meteorology
12. -ment (action or process): payment, agreement
13. -ness (state of being): happiness, sadness
14. -ous, -eous, -ious (characterized by): dangerous, courageous, ambitious
15. -s, -es (plural of nouns): books, boxes

Practice Test on Word Roots, Prefixes, Suffixes

Question 1:
The root “path” in “pathology” implies:
• Choice A: Study
• Choice B: Treatment
• Choice C: Disease
• Choice D: Feeling
• Answer: C
• Solution:
The root “path” means “disease,” making “pathology” the study of diseases.
Question 2:
The suffix “-cracy” as in “democracy” indicates:
• Choice A: Government by
• Choice B: Fear of
• Choice C: Rule by
• Choice D: Love for
• Answer: C
• Solution:
The suffix “-cracy” means “rule by,” thus “democracy” is government by the people.
Question 3:
What does the prefix “mono-” signify in “monochrome”?
• Choice A: Many
• Choice B: Single
• Choice C: Color

[Link] | [Link]
 88

• Choice D: Light
• Answer: B
• Solution:
The prefix “mono-” means “single,” so “monochrome” refers to a single color or shades
of one color.
Question 4:
The suffix “-phile” in “bibliophile” means:
• Choice A: Fear of
• Choice B: Study of
• Choice C: Lover of
• Choice D: Full of
• Answer: C
• Solution:
The suffix “-phile” means “lover of,” making a “bibliophile” a lover of books.

[Link] | [Link]