Don Jose Ecleo Memorial Foundation College of Science

and Technology
Justiniana Edera, San Jose, Dinagat Province

LearninginModule

Disclaimer: This Learning Module is compiled for the purpose of Educational Continuity and Professional Enhancement
design for MoDel- the New Normal of Don Josenian Education.

No parts of the Lesson Contents are originally authored by the Instructor. All topics and citations are based from the books
and other references stipulated in the course syllabi for further readings.
 Don Jose Ecleo Memorial Foundation College of
Science and Technology
Justiniana Edera, San Jose, Dinagat Province

A MESSAGE FROM YOUR INSTRUCTOR

Good Day Dear Students!

This is Mark Benn V. Marzan, your instructor for this course

– “Social Science and Philosophy (Gender and Society).”

COVID-19 Pandemic burdens almost all facets of life –

especially the students’ steadiness of learning. To be able to pursue
educational continuity is a challenge to both the students and the
instructors. While you’re reading this message, I am hopeful that
you are doing well amidst this pandemic. I know that you are trying
hard to cope up with your studies in the new normal due to the
sudden occurrence of this life-threatening virus.
For this Academic Year, 2021-2022, conducting face-to-face classes is still discouraged
and is strictly prohibited. Indeed, education is important, but as long as this pandemic isn’t over,
your safety must be of utmost priority. This module is purposefully intended for you to learn all
the lessons covered in this course, wherein you can read and answer all the required activities in
your own pace and convenience.
GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS:
1. Together with this module is an “Assessment of Learning” workbook. After thoroughly
reading and understanding the contents of every chapter in this module, you may proceed
answering the worksheets to assess your level of understanding. Please bear in mind,
“Copying your classmates’ answer is an insult to your own capabilities!” Kaya mo yan,
di magsalig ha? ☺”
2. Prior to the commencement of this course, a messenger group chat will be created. Keep
an eye on our official messenger group chat for important announcements, especially
deadlines of submission. ”Duaw-duaw sa GC panagsa ha?☺”
3. For deadline extensions, two (2) days is the maximum allowance. “If dili gyud
makasubmit sa gihatag na extension, magpahibalo ngano ha?☺”
4. Whenever you’re visiting the school, wear your mask and observe social distancing. “Dili
magsupak sa protocol ha?☺”

As your instructor, I would be very empathetic and considerate. If you are experiencing
any difficulties answering or submitting your requirements, please unhesitatingly approach me
ahead of time.

“Do not strive for high grades, strive for high learning instead!” Best of luck
students! Thank you, keep safe and May God bless us always.

MARK BENN V. MARZAN

College Instructor
 Instructor’s Profile

College Instructor, HMTM

Personal Information
Birthdate: May 14, 1999
Birthplace: San Jose, Surigao del Norte
Age: 22 y/o
Sex: Male
P-3 Aurelio, San Jose
Province of Dinagat Islands Religion: Catholic
Civil Status: Single
Globe : +639164850996
TNT : +639468638256
Educational Background
Gmail: Tertiary: Bachelor of Science in Hotel and Restaurant
markbennmarzan@[Link]
Management
Facebook & Messenger: Don Jose Ecleo Memorial Foundation College of
Mark Benn Viloan Marzan
Science and Technology
2018-2019
Secondary: Jade B. Ecleo – Aurelio National High School
2014-2015
Elementary: Aurelio Elementary School
2010-2011

Eligibility
➢ Career Service – Professional
Civil Service Commission
➢ Food and Beverage Services NC II
Technical Education and Skills Development Authority
Instructor’s Profile

Trainings and Seminars

✓ Food and Beverage Services NC II
Technical Education and Skills Livelihood Authority (TESDA)

✓ Trainer’s Training on Sexually Healthy and Personally Empowered (SHAPE)

Adolescents – Module Series
AHD Program – Commission on Population (POPCOM)

✓ On-the-Job Training on Hotel and Restaurant Management

Sarrossa International Hotel and Residential Suites, Cebu City

✓ Seminar on Food Safety: Introduction to Food Safety, GM Crops (GMO’s) and

Sanitation Standard Operating Procedures (SSOP’s)
Technical Education and Skills Livelihood Authority (TESDA)

✓ Tourism Industry Skills Program – Front Office Skills Training

Department of Tourism

✓ Consumer Advocacy Seminar

Department of Trade and Industry (DTI)

✓ Festival Management and Capability Building Enhancement Training and

Contemporary Dance Workshop
Department of Tourism

✓ Seminar on Sexual Orientation, Gender Identity and Expression (SOGIE)

Rainbow Rights Philippines

✓ Campus Journalism and Student Leadership Training

Department of Education, Division of Dinagat Islands

✓ Seminar on Values Formation and Human Behaviour

Don Jose Ecleo Memorial Foundation, College of Science and Technology

✓ Seminar on Healthy Lifestyle and Drug Prevention

Don Jose Ecleo Memorial Foundation College of Science and Technolog
 COURSE SYLLABUS FOR RISK MANAGEMENT AS APPLIED TO
Don Jose Ecleo Memorial Foundation
College of Science and Technology THC 102 SAFETY, SECURITY AND SANITATION
Justiniana Edera, San Jose, Dinagat Province
Prepared by: MARK BENN V. MARZAN
Section/Department HMTM Department
DJEMFCST envisions to be the leading frontier of learning, Reviewed by: HAZEL R. BERTE, MBA
and innovation in instruction, research and extension to transform
students into an empowered, holistically developed and Effective Date AY 2021-2022
locally-globally competitive graduates. Approved by: MARICHU M. ESNARDO, MA

INSTITUTIONAL VISION AND MISISION

Vision
DJEMFCST envisions to be the leading frontier of learning, and innovation in instruction, research and extension to transform students into
an empowered, holistically developed and locally-globally competitive graduates.

Mission
DJEMFCST is committed and dedicated to:
➢ Foster a safe, secured and supportive academic environment that promotes diverse education;
➢ Mold students the value of self-discipline, integrity, compassion for others and loyalty to Alma Mater;
➢ Develop students with active and creative minds through discovery, intellectual simulation and research;
➢ Practice professional career to uphold the value of learning, leadership and service; and
➢ Build strong, positive linkages with industries, communities and other stakeholders for them to be actively involved in our students’
learning.

PROGRAM VISION, MISSION AND GOALS

Vision
The Tourism Management and Hospitality Department of DJEMFCST as the only higher education institution in the Island province aims to
develop competent future leaders and professionals through practical training and education in the field of tourism and hospitality industry
while forming camaraderie, understanding and goodwill

iv | C O U R S E S Y L L A B U S
 COURSE SYLLABUS FOR RISK MANAGEMENT AS APPLIED TO
Don Jose Ecleo Memorial Foundation
College of Science and Technology THC 102 SAFETY, SECURITY AND SANITATION
Justiniana Edera, San Jose, Dinagat Province
Prepared by: MARK BENN V. MARZAN
Section/Department HMTM Department
DJEMFCST envisions to be the leading frontier of learning, Reviewed by: HAZEL R. BERTE, MBA
and innovation in instruction, research and extension to transform
students into an empowered, holistically developed and Effective Date AY 2021-2022
locally-globally competitive graduates. Approved by: MARICHU M. ESNARDO, MA

Mission
The DJEMFCST ‘s Tourism Management and Hospitality Management Department is committed to provide an excellent undergraduate
education that incorporates management and business theories and practices in the hospitality and tourism industry through coursework,
internships and industry interactions to meet the current trends in the hospitality industry.

Goals and Objective

➢ To provide students a quality education in the operational management of hospitality and tourism industry with focus on the
administrative aspect of tour operating business, entrepreneurship and tourism processes;
➢ To produce competent graduates equipped with proper training and exposure, social responsibility and sound values desired in the
practice of the profession;
➢ To develop graduates who possess traits and competencies expected of future managers, entrepreneurs, and leaders in the industry so
as to assist in the development, growth, and professionalization of the hospitality and tourism industry;
➢ To mold the students with right values and attitudes on camaraderie, teamwork, cooperation, honesty, patience and strong dedication
to work through, among others, laboratory activities and participation in tourism related competitions and educational trips;
➢ To inculcate knowledge and skills in students to help them become productive and responsible members of society.

Program Intended Learning Outcomes

The graduates of BS Tourism and BS Hospitality Management should be able to:
➢ Demonstrate knowledge of tourism industry, local tourism products and services
➢ Interpret and apply relevant laws related to tourism industry
➢ Observe and perform risk mitigation activities
➢ Utilize information technology applications for tourism and hospitality
➢ Manage and market a service-oriented business organization
➢ Demonstrate administrative and managerial skills in a service-oriented business organization

v|C OURSE SYLLABUS

 COURSE SYLLABUS FOR RISK MANAGEMENT AS APPLIED TO
Don Jose Ecleo Memorial Foundation
College of Science and Technology THC 102 SAFETY, SECURITY AND SANITATION
Justiniana Edera, San Jose, Dinagat Province
Prepared by: MARK BENN V. MARZAN
Section/Department HMTM Department
DJEMFCST envisions to be the leading frontier of learning, Reviewed by: HAZEL R. BERTE, MBA
and innovation in instruction, research and extension to transform
students into an empowered, holistically developed and Effective Date AY 2021-2022
locally-globally competitive graduates. Approved by: MARICHU M. ESNARDO, MA

➢ Prepare and monitor industry specific financial transactions and reports

➢ Perform human capital development functions of a tourism-oriented organization
➢ Utilize various communication channels proficiently in dealing with guest and colleagues

Course Code: THC 102 Unit Credit: 3 units

RISK MANAGEMENT AS APPLIED TO SAFETY, No. of Hours: 54 hours

Course Title:
SECURITY AND SANITATION Cycle: 5th Cycle – Month of December
Course Description:

This course will develop students’ knowledge, skills, and values on the basic principles of personal hygiene, food safety, and sanitation
as applied in tourism and hospitality industry. They will be able to recognize the different foodborne illnesses caused by exposure to potential
hazards during food service operations.

This course is designed to introduce the students to the value of safety, security and sanitation principles and sound practices. Using
the Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) as guidelines, the students are oriented towards the proper handling of food from
preparation, production to service.

vi | C O U R S E S Y L L A B U S
 COURSE SYLLABUS FOR RISK MANAGEMENT AS APPLIED TO
Don Jose Ecleo Memorial Foundation
College of Science and Technology THC 102 SAFETY, SECURITY AND SANITATION
Justiniana Edera, San Jose, Dinagat Province
Prepared by: MARK BENN V. MARZAN
Section/Department HMTM Department
DJEMFCST envisions to be the leading frontier of learning, Reviewed by: HAZEL R. BERTE, MBA
and innovation in instruction, research and extension to transform
students into an empowered, holistically developed and Effective Date AY 2021-2022
locally-globally competitive graduates. Approved by: MARICHU M. ESNARDO, MA

GRADING POLICY:
Grading Criteria:

Major Exams 40%

Oral recitation 20%
Quizzes 15%
Course Output/Project 25%
Total 100%

ACADEMIC MISCONDUCT:
All students are expected to be academically honest. Cheating, lying and other forms of immoral and unethical behavior will not
be tolerated. Any student found guilty of cheating in examinations or plagiarism in submitted course requirements will (at a minimum)
receive an F or failure in the course requirements or in the course. Plagiarism and cheating refer to the use of unauthorized books, notes
or otherwise securing help in a test; copying test, assignments, reports or term papers, representing the work of another person as one’s
own; collaborating without authority, with another student during an examination or in preparing academic work; signing another
student’s name on an attendance sheet; or otherwise practicing scholastic dishonesty.
POLICY ON ABSENCES:
The allowed number of absences for students enrolled in a – 1 ½ class session- based on student handbook. Request for excused
absences or waiver of absences must be presented upon reporting back to class. Special examinations will be allowed only in special class,
such as prolonged illness. It is the responsibility of the student to monitor her own tardy incidents and absences that might accumulate
leading to a grade of “FA”. It is also her responsibility to consult with the teacher, chair or dean should her case be of special nature.

vii | C O U R S E S Y L L A B U S
 COURSE SYLLABUS FOR RISK MANAGEMENT AS APPLIED TO
Don Jose Ecleo Memorial Foundation
College of Science and Technology THC 102 SAFETY, SECURITY AND SANITATION
Justiniana Edera, San Jose, Dinagat Province
Prepared by: MARK BENN V. MARZAN
Section/Department HMTM Department
DJEMFCST envisions to be the leading frontier of learning, Reviewed by: HAZEL R. BERTE, MBA
and innovation in instruction, research and extension to transform
students into an empowered, holistically developed and Effective Date AY 2021-2022
locally-globally competitive graduates. Approved by: MARICHU M. ESNARDO, MA

NETIQUETTE GUIDELINES:
Netiquette is a set of rules for behaving properly online. Your instructor and fellow students wish to foster a safe online learning
environment. All opinions and experiences, no matter how different or controversial they may be perceived, must be respected in the
tolerant spirit of academic discourse. You are encouraged to comment, question, or critique an idea but you are not to attack an individual.
Working as a community of learners, we can build a polite and respectful course community. For this course, “MESSENGER” will be the
online application/platform to be used so the students and the instructor can build rapport during the course duration. All-important
announcements will be posted on the official Messenger Group Chat.
The following netiquette tips will enhance the learning experience for everyone in the course:
➢ Do not dominate any discussion.
➢ Give other students the opportunity to join the discussion.
➢ Do not use offensive language. Present ideas appropriately.
➢ Be cautious in using Internet language. For example, do not capitalize all letters since this suggests shouting.
➢ Popular emoticons such as 😊 can be helpful to convey your tone but do not overdo or overuse them
➢ Avoid using vernacular and/or slang language. This could possibly lead to misinterpretation.
➢ Never make fun of someone’s ability to read or write.
➢ Share tips with other students.
➢ Keep an open mind and be willing to express your minority opinion. Minority opinions have to be respected.
➢ Think and edit before you push the “Send” button.
➢ Do not hesitate to ask for feedback.
➢ Using humor is acceptable.

viii | C O U R S E S Y L L A B U S
 COURSE SYLLABUS FOR RISK MANAGEMENT AS APPLIED TO
Don Jose Ecleo Memorial Foundation
College of Science and Technology THC 102 SAFETY, SECURITY AND SANITATION
Justiniana Edera, San Jose, Dinagat Province
Prepared by: MARK BENN V. MARZAN
Section/Department HMTM Department
DJEMFCST envisions to be the leading frontier of learning, Reviewed by: HAZEL R. BERTE, MBA
and innovation in instruction, research and extension to transform
students into an empowered, holistically developed and Effective Date AY 2021-2022
locally-globally competitive graduates. Approved by: MARICHU M. ESNARDO, MA

References:
Mary Jean C. Ang & Hannah A. Balanon (2010). Food Safety and Sanitation. C&E Publishing, Inc.
John Ian Inawat. Risk Management as Applied to Safety, Security and Sanitation. [Link]
U.S. Food and Drug Administration. HACCP Principles and Application Guidelines

Online References/Websites:
• [Link]
guidelines#:~:text=Seven%20basic%20principles%20are%20employed,and%20record%2Dkeeping%20and%20documentatio
n.
• [Link]
• [Link]
• [Link]

ix | C O U R S E S Y L L A B U S
 COURSE SYLLABUS FOR RISK MANAGEMENT AS APPLIED TO
Don Jose Ecleo Memorial Foundation
College of Science and Technology THC 102 SAFETY, SECURITY AND SANITATION
Justiniana Edera, San Jose, Dinagat Province
Prepared by: MARK BENN V. MARZAN
Section/Department HMTM Department
DJEMFCST envisions to be the leading frontier of learning, Reviewed by: HAZEL R. BERTE, MBA
and innovation in instruction, research and extension to transform
students into an empowered, holistically developed and Effective Date AY 2021-2022
locally-globally competitive graduates. Approved by: MARICHU M. ESNARDO, MA

COURSE OUTLINE / SCHEDULE

MIDTERM
Week Activities, Assessment
Topics Learning Objectives (LO) Resources
No. Tasks and Requirements

Chapter 1 At the end of this topic the students are expected to: ➢ Written examination ➢ Reference module
Introduction to Risk - Identification ➢ Books
Management as Applied ➢ Gain an understanding on food safety and the importance of safety, security and - Essay/Discussion ➢ Internet
to Safety, Security and risk management; ➢ Laptop/
Sanitation ➢ Recognize the difference between hazard and risk; ➢ Oral Questioning Computer/Phone
➢ Define what is risk analysis and communication;
➢ Understand the risk management process; and
Week 1

➢ List the five steps of risk assessment

Chapter 2 At the end of this topics the students are expected to: ➢ Written examination ➢ Reference module
The Basics of Food Safety - Multiple Choice ➢ Books
and Sanitation ➢ Describe conditions that pose occupational hazards in the service industry; - Essay/Discussion ➢ Internet
➢ Know the common injuries and accidents in the food service industry; ➢ Laptop/
➢ Practice personal hygiene habits when handling food; ➢ Case Study Computer/Phone
➢ Perform the proper handwashing technique; and
➢ Understand the role of a food service manager as a part of the food industry ➢ Oral Questioning
healthcare system

x|C OURSE SYLLABUS

 COURSE SYLLABUS FOR RISK MANAGEMENT AS APPLIED TO
Don Jose Ecleo Memorial Foundation
College of Science and Technology THC 102 SAFETY, SECURITY AND SANITATION
Justiniana Edera, San Jose, Dinagat Province
Prepared by: MARK BENN V. MARZAN
Section/Department HMTM Department
DJEMFCST envisions to be the leading frontier of learning, Reviewed by: HAZEL R. BERTE, MBA
and innovation in instruction, research and extension to transform
students into an empowered, holistically developed and Effective Date AY 2021-2022
locally-globally competitive graduates. Approved by: MARICHU M. ESNARDO, MA

Chapter 3 At the end of this topic the students are expected to: ➢ Written examination ➢ Reference module
Foodborne Illnesses and - Identification ➢ Books
Potential Hazards in Food ➢ Define and recognize the different foodborne illnesses; - Definition of Terms ➢ Internet
Service Operations ➢ Identify the health hazards posed by biological, chemical, and physical - True or False ➢ Laptop/
Week 2

contaminants to food; - Essay/Discussion Computer/Phone

➢ Understand how microorganisms and chemical and physical hazards are
acquired during food handling; and ➢ Case Study
➢ Develop measures to prevent foodborne illnesses and cross-contamination in a
food service facility. ➢ Demonstration (Video):
Handwashing Technique

➢ Oral Questioning

FINAL

Chapter 4 At the end of this topic the students are expected to: ➢ Written examination ➢ Reference module
The Food Product Flow - Matching Type ➢ Books
Week 3

➢ Understand the correct ways in purchasing and receiving foods; - Essay/Discussion ➢ Internet
➢ Know the appropriate method of storing food; - Evaluation ➢ Laptop/
➢ Recognize the significance of time and temperature as factors affecting food - True or False Computer/Phone
safety; and
➢ Demonstrate sanitation practices in thawing, preparing, and cooking of food. ➢ Case Study

➢ Oral Questioning

xi | C O U R S E S Y L L A B U S
 COURSE SYLLABUS FOR RISK MANAGEMENT AS APPLIED TO
Don Jose Ecleo Memorial Foundation
College of Science and Technology THC 102 SAFETY, SECURITY AND SANITATION
Justiniana Edera, San Jose, Dinagat Province
Prepared by: MARK BENN V. MARZAN
Section/Department HMTM Department
DJEMFCST envisions to be the leading frontier of learning, Reviewed by: HAZEL R. BERTE, MBA
and innovation in instruction, research and extension to transform
students into an empowered, holistically developed and Effective Date AY 2021-2022
locally-globally competitive graduates. Approved by: MARICHU M. ESNARDO, MA

Chapter 5 At the end of this topics the students are expected to: ➢ Written examination ➢ Reference module
Hazard Analysis and - Definition of Terms ➢ Books
Critical Control Point ➢ Understand the importance of the HACCP system as a food protection tool; - Essay/Discussion ➢ Internet
(HACCP) ➢ Identify the types of potentially hazardous foods that commonly require the ➢ Laptop/
HACCP system to ensure product safety; and ➢ Case Study Computer/Phone
➢ Comprehend the principles involved in implementing an HACCP system.
➢ Oral Questioning

Chapter 6 At the end of this topic the students are expected to: ➢ Written examination ➢ Reference module
Cleaning and Sanitizing - Identification ➢ Books
Operations ➢ Define cleaning, sanitizing and food contact surfaces; - Essay/Discussion ➢ Internet
➢ Know the purpose of cleaning and sanitizing; ➢ Laptop/
➢ Delineate the steps adopted in proper cleaning process; and ➢ Research Activity: Pest Control Computer/Phone
➢ Identify the cleaning chemicals and different cleaners to be used during a
Week 4

cleaning and sanitizing operations. ➢ Oral Questioning

Chapter 7 At the end of this topics the students are expected to: ➢ Written examination ➢ Reference module
First Aid Training Tips - Matching Type ➢ Books
and Procedures for Any ➢ Define and describe the importance of first aid training to food service workers; - Essay/Discussion ➢ Internet
Emergency: The Basics ➢ Demonstrate ways on how to respond during emergency situations; ➢ Laptop/
➢ Perform the basic first aid procedures; and ➢ Demonstration (Video): First Computer/Phone
➢ Delineate and list the important contents of the first aid kit in the food service Aid Procedure
industry
➢ Oral Questioning

xii | C O U R S E S Y L L A B U S
Cover Page - - - - - - - - - i
Instructor’s Profile - - - - - - - - ii
Course Syllabus - - - - - - - - iii
_____________________________________________________________________

Chapter 1 – INTRODUCTION TO RISK MANAGEMENT AS APPLIED TO

SAFETY, SECURITY, AND SANITATION

Introduction - - - - - - - - - 1
Risk vs. Hazard - - - - - - - - - 2
Risk Analysis and Communication - - - - - - 2
Risk Management Process - - - - - - - 2
Health Hazard - - - - - - - - 3
Goal of Food Risk Management - - - - - - 4

Chapter 2 – THE BASICS OF FOOD SAFETY AND SANITATION

Occupational Safety Hazards in the Food Service Industry - - - 5
Common Injuries and Accidents in the Food Service Industry - - 6
Reasons for Occupational Safety and Health Standards - - - 7
Employee Health and Personal Hygiene - - - - - 8
Healthy Food Handler - - - - - - - 8
Proper Attire - - - - - - - - 9
Personal Habits of Food Workers - - - - - - 10
Hand Washing - - - - - - - - 11
Employee Illnesses - - - - - - - - 13
Education and Training - - - - - - - 13
Management and Supervisory Responsibilities of a Food Manager - - 13

Chapter 3 – FOODBORNE ILLNESSES AND POTENTIAL HAZARDS IN FOOD

SERVICE OPERATIONS
Sources of Food Safety Hazard - - - - - - 16

13 | C O U R S E S Y L L A B U S
 Potentially Hazardous Food - - - - - - - 17
Symptoms of Foodborne Illnesses - - - - - - 18
Risk Factors of Foodborne Illnesses - - - - - - 18
Treatment of Foodborne Illnesses - - - - - - 18
Socio-Economic Effects of Foodborne Illnesses - - - - 19
Points to Remember Regarding Potential Hazards - - - - 19
Biological Hazards - - - - - - - - 20
Classification of Foodborne Illnesses - - - - - 20
Types of Microorganisms - - - - - - - 21
Microbial Forms - - - - - - - - 21
Bacterial Growth - - - - - - - - 22
Bacterial, Viral, and Parasitic Foodborne Hazards - - - - 25
Foodborne Illnesses caused by Bacteria - - - - 25
Foodborne Illnesses caused by Viruses - - - - 27
Foodborne Illnesses caused by Parasites - - - - 28
Foodborne Illnesses caused by Fungi - - - - 30
Foodborne Illnesses caused by Prions - - - - 35
How to Control Microbial Growth - - - - - - 35
Prevention of Foodborne Illnesses - - - - - - 35
Chemical Hazards - - - - - - - - 36
Added Chemicals - - - - - - - - 38
Poisonous Substances - - - - - - - 38
Adverse Food Reactions - - - - - - - 39
Chemical Detection and Monitoring - - - - - 39
Physical Hazards - - - - - - - - 40
Main Types of Physical Hazards in Food - - - - - 40
Choking and Preventive Measures - - - - - - 41
Prevention in Common Physical Hazards - - - - - 42
Detection and Elimination of Physical Hazards - - - - 42

Chapter 4 – THE FOOD PRODUCT FLOW

Food Flow - - - - - - - - - 43
Purchasing - - - - - - - - - 43
Guidelines to Purchasing Food - - - - - - 44

14 | C O U R S E S Y L L A B U S
 Receiving - - - - - - - - - 45
General Principles when Receiving Food - - - - - 45
Storing - - - - - - - - - 46
Thawing - - - - - - - - - 49
Preparing - - - - - - - - - 49
Keeping Food out of the Temperature Danger Zone - - - 50
Cooking - - - - - - - - - 51
Holding - - - - - - - - - 53
Serving - - - - - - - - - 54
Service Temperatures - - - - - - - 55
Cooling - - - - - - - - - 56
Reheating - - - - - - - - - 57
Transportation of Food - - - - - - - 58

Chapter 5 – HAZARD ANALYSIS AND CRITICAL CONTROL POINT (HACCP)

HACCP Highlights - - - - - - - - 61
Benefits of an HACCP-Based Food Safety Program - - - - 61
Prerequisite Programs - - - - - - - 63
Developing an HACCP Plan - - - - - - - 64
Seven Principles in an HACCP System - - - - - 66
Principle 1 - - - - - - - - - 66
Principle 2 - - - - - - - - - 70
Principle 3 - - - - - - - - - 71
Principle 4 - - - - - - - - - 72
Principle 5 - - - - - - - - - 74
Principle 6 - - - - - - - - - 74
Principle 7 - - - - - - - - - 76
Implementation and Maintenance of the HACCP Plan - - - 76

Chapter 6 – CLEANING AND SANITATIZING OPERATIONS

Cleaning and Sanitation - - - - - - - 77
Cleaning - - - - - - - - - 77
Sanitizing - - - - - - - - - 77
Food Contact Surfaces - - - - - - - 77
The Purpose of Cleaning - - - - - - - 78

15 | C O U R S E S Y L L A B U S
 Sanitation Standard Operating Procedures (SSOPs) - - - - 78
General Cleaning Sequence - - - - - - - 78
Preparing the Area, Equipment, and Personnel for Cleaning - - 78
Material Safety Data Sheet - - - - - - - 79
Step 1 - - - - - - - - 79
Step 2 - - - - - - - - 79
Step 3 - - - - - - - - 80
Step 4 - - - - - - - - 80
Step 5 - - - - - - - - 80
Step 6 - - - - - - - - 81
Cleaning Chemical - - - - - - - - 81
Selecting a Cleaner - - - - - - - - 83
Morning Clean-up - - - - - - - - 83
During Working Hours - - - - - - - 84
Clean in Place (CIP) - - - - - - - - 84
Clean out of Place - - - - - - - - 85

Chapter 7 – FIRST AID TRAINING TIPS AND PROCEDURES FOR

ANY EMERGENCY: THE BASICS

Ten Basic First Aid Training Tips and Procedures - - - - 86
First Aid Kit - - - - - - - - - 91
First Aid Kit Contents - - - - - - - 91

16 | C O U R S E S Y L L A B U S
Chapter
Introduction to Risk Management RISK MANAGEMENT
1 AS APPLIED TO SAFETY SECURITY AND SANITATION
Chapter 1

“The goal of the food safety professional should be to create a food safety
culture, not a food safety program.”

– Frank Yiannas

INTRODUCTION
At the end of this chapter, the Food Safety is one of the critical issues in events. Risk
students are expected; is high because of food poisoning which may lead to death.

❖ Gain an understanding on food Safety, security and risk management is in charge of

safety and the importance of security operations, emergency preparedness and planning, as
safety, security and risk well as occupational health and safety.
management;
❖ Recognize the difference FAO/WHO expert consultation in the important
between hazard and risk; subject area of the application of risk analysis to food safety,
❖ Define what is risk analysis and with the first, held in Geneva in 1995, having focused on the
communication; risk assessment component of risk analysis.
❖ Understand the risk management
process; and
In this current consultation, the experts were
❖ List the five steps of risk being asked to address a central issue in food safety.
assessment. Risk management, he observed, involves both the
identification of the standards of acceptable risk
appropriate to different types of food hazards, and the
establishment of procedures to ensure that the risks are kept within the limits set by
those standards.

Two important underlying considerations to the attention was the imperative to

keep the interest and the well-being of the consumer as a fundamental consideration at
all times. The ultimate objective of food safety standards is the protection of the
consumer, and it is essential not to lose sight of this.

The second important issue was that it is in the basic interest of everyone that
trade in food be facilitated. Risk from both chemical and biological hazards in food,
including the full range of acute and chronic adverse health effects.

Risk vs. Hazard

It is important to recognize the difference between “hazard” and “risk”. A hazard
is a biological, chemical or physical agent in, or condition of, food with the potential to
cause harm. In contrast, risk is an estimate of the probability and severity of the adverse
health effects in exposed populations, consequential to hazards in food. Understanding
the association between a reduction in hazards that may be associated with a food, and

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Introduction to Risk Management
1

the reduction in the risk to consumers of adverse health effects is of particular

importance in development of appropriate food safety controls.

Risk Analysis and Communication

Risk analysis is widely recognized as the fundamental methodology underlying
the development of food safety standards. As recognized in the 1995 consultation, risk
analysis is composed of three separate but integrated elements, namely risk assessment,
risk management and risk communication.

Risk Communication refers to the exchange of real-time information, advice and

opinions between experts and people facing threats to their health, economic or social
well-being. The ultimate purpose of risk communication is to enable people at risk to take
informed decisions to protect themselves and their loved ones.

Risk Communication is an important tool for disseminating information and

understanding about a risk management decision. This understanding and information
should allow stakeholders to make an informed conclusion about how the decision will
impact their interests and values.

What is health risk communication? Virtually every day, crisis and emergency risk
communication is needed somewhere in public health. Whenever a crisis occurs,
communicators must to be ready to provide information to help people make the best
possible decisions for their health and well- being.

Effective risk communication: Theory, tools, and practical skills for

communicating about risk. Risk communication is a tool for creating that understanding,
closing the gap between laypeople and experts, and helping everyone make more
informed choices.

Risk Management Process

Risk management is a four-step process for controlling exposure to health and
safety risks associated with hazards in the workplace.

➢ Step 1: Identify hazards. Examples of common hazards which can

lead to musculoskeletal disorders (MSD)
➢ Step 2: Assess the risk
➢ Step 3: Control the risk
➢ Step 4: Review risk control.

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Chapter
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1

The 5-steps of Risk Assessment

RISK MANAGEMENT PROCESS
➢Step 1 – Identify the hazards
➢Step 2 – Decide who might be harmed and
Establish the Context how.
➢ Step 3 – Evaluate the risks and decide on
precautions

Risk Assessment
}
Identify Risk
➢ Step 4 – Record your findings and implement
them.
Analyze Risk ➢Review your assessment and update if
necessary.
Evaluate Risk Once risks have been identified and
assessed, all techniques to manage the risk fall
Treat Risk
into one or more of these four major categories:

Monitor & Review ➢Avoidance (eliminate, withdraw from or not

become involved)
➢Reduction (optimize – mitigate)
➢ Sharing (transfer – outsource or insure)
➢ Retention (accept and budget)

Evaluation of risk management options is the weighing of available options for

managing a food safety issue in light of scientific information on risks and other factors,
and may include reaching a decision on an appropriate level of consumer protection.

Risk assessment a systematic process of evaluating the potential risks that may be
involved in a projected activity or undertaking.

Health Hazard
Health hazard means a chemical for which there is statistically significant
evidence based on at least one study conducted in accordance with established scientific
principles that acute or chronic health effects may occur in exposed employees.

Kind of naturally occurring toxins

➢ Aquatic bio toxins: Toxins formed by algae in the ocean and fresh water are
called algal toxins. Algal toxins: Toxins generated during blooms of particular
naturally occurring algal species. Shellfish such as mussels, scallops and
oysters are more likely to contain these toxins than fish

What are natural toxins in food? As opposed to man- made chemicals such as
pesticides, veterinary drugs or environmental pollutants that get into our food supply,
toxins can be present due to their natural occurrence in food. Natural toxins found
inherently in foods of plant and animal origins can be harmful when consumed in
sufficient quantities. The commonly eaten food listed below may contain natural toxins:

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1

➢ Apple and pear seeds

➢ The inner stony pit (kernel) of apricots and peaches contain a naturally
occurring Substance called amygdalin. Amygdalin can turn into hydrogen
cyanide in the stomach causing discomfort or illness. It can sometimes be fatal
➢ Kumara a member of the sweet potato family, can produce toxins in response
to injury, insect attack, and other stress. The most common toxin
ipomeamarone can make the kumara taste bitter. There have been report of
cattle death after they moldy kumara. The toxin levels are usually highest near
the area damage. It is recommended that any damage parts on kumara are
removed before cooking. Do not eat it if it tastes bitter after cooking.

The Goal of Food Risk Management

The primary goal of the management of risks associated with food is to protect the
public health by controlling such risks as effectively as possible through the selection and
implementation of appropriate measures.

You have just finished reading the contents

of this chapter – Introduction to Risk
Management!
To assess your level of understanding and
comprehension, you may now proceed to your
“Assessment of Learning Tasks and Worksheets” and
answer the exercises on page 5.
Good Luck!

You are now ready to proceed to the

next chapter. God bless and have a
nice day!

4|R ISK MANAGEMENT

Chapter
The Basics of Food Safety and Sanitation RISK MANAGEMENT
2 AS APPLIED TO SAFETY SECURITY AND SANITATION
Chapter 2

“Let your food be your medicine and your medicine be your food.”
– Hippocrates

OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY HAZARDS IN THE

FOOD SERVICE INDUSTRY
At the end of this chapter, the
students are expected; Occupational safety and health (OSH) is
increasingly recognized by governments and
❖ Describe conditions that pose international organizations as an important part of public
occupational hazards in the
health. People spend one-third or more of each day at
service industry;
❖ Know the common injuries and work, so working conditions necessarily have a strong
accidents in the food service effect on their health.
industry;
❖ Practice personal hygiene habits Occupational safety hazards are natural risks
when handling food; present in certain workplaces. Millions of workers are at
❖ Perform the proper handwashing risk from exposure to physical, chemical, biological, or
technique; and psychosocial hazards, sometimes, even a combination of
❖ Understand the role of a food
them.
service manager as a part of the
food industry healthcare system. Occupational health risks can be described as the
❖
possibility of suffering health impairments from
exposure to a hazard that originates in the working
environment. In risk-assessment literature, the term hazard typically refers to the source
of a risk. The likelihood of acquiring a health problem due to exposure distinguishes a
risk from a hazard, since the former is created by the latter. For example, a toxic chemical
that is hazard to human health cannot be considered a health risk unless humans are
exposed to it.

The Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA), the primary federal law
establishing safety standards in the workplace, requires employers to provide a safe
workplace by informing employees about potential hazards, training them to deal with
hazards, and recording workplace injuries. Slips and falls account for almost half the
workers’ compensation costs in the food service industry. An effective, well-rounded, foot
protection program is the answer to bringing that number down.

Common Injuries and Accidents in the Food Service Industry

Working in food service can be extremely rewarding and offers a wide range of
opportunities. From fast food spots to four-star restaurants and from serving or busing
tables to working behind the line as a sous chef or head chef, you can earn a fair income,

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2

learn a lot, and spend time with interesting people. Unfortunately, these jobs come with
risks and food service injuries are common.

Those who work in customer-facing roles can hurt themselves reaching across tables
to serve or clear. They can trip on a slippery fall, or even find themselves face-to-face with
robbers. Those who work in the kitchen are subject to the risk of burns and other injuries
from stoves and ovens, knives and electrical appliances, as well as exposure to hazardous
chemicals. Even the employees that work at drive-thru windows or who deliver food can
end up injured on the job.

For those who work in food service, some injuries are more common than others.

According to Cintas Corporation, one in every 20 on-the-job injuries occur at eating

and drinking establishments, and the top four restaurant injuries are:

➢ Lacerations and Punctures

These are a result of working with knives, as well as the risk from broken dishes.
➢ Burns
Restaurant workers face the constant risk of burns from hot stoves, fryers and
boiling water, as well as from touching hot plates and other hot surfaces. Though
many minor burns are treated on-site, others require medical attention.
➢ Sprains and Strains
These occur to both front of the house and kitchen employees, and usually result
from improper lifting and reaching.
➢ Eye Injuries
In most cases these are incidents that occur in the kitchen because of splashes
from grease, hot liquids and sanitizing chemicals

From the book Food Safety and Sanitation by Mary Jean Ang and Hannah Balanon,
they have identified 9 common work-related injuries in the food service industry, which
were as follows (some of these injuries are similar to what has been enumerated earlier):

➢ Burns
An injury acquired from contact with hot surfaces of an equipment (e.g., ranges,
ovens, coffeemakers, deep-fat fryers, pots, pans and steam tables), flames, hot
food, liquids, and faulty microwave ovens.
➢ Cuts
A skin opening from an accidental incision of sharp objects can cause exposure to
blood-borne pathogens such as Hepatitis and HIV.
➢ Slips, Trips and Falls
Open ranges, stove doors, kitchen doors, trolleys, stairs, defective ladders, foot
stools, and wet, cluttered, or slippery floors are common causes of these injuries.
➢ Fires
Accidental ignition of hot oils and greases, paper materials coming into contact
with hot stoves and ovens, faulty electrical equipment (e.g. cords, switches and

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2

power outlets), wet electrical equipment, and appliances are the usual cause of
fires.
➢ Ergonomic Risks
Injuries from repetitive motions; unchanging and/or poor posture when seating,
kneeling, and standing; incorrect lifting techniques; and forceful motions or grips
on objects cause ergonomic risks.
➢ Cleaning Chemicals
Cleaning products such as bleaches, oven cleaners, floor cleaners, stainless steel
cleaners, and ammonia solutions may require the use of rubber gloves. If there is
a risk of splashing chemicals near the eyes, a face mask or goggles may be
necessary. Skin irritation, dermatitis, or throat irritation may arise from the
frequent use of soap and detergents.
➢ CO Poisoning
Carbon monoxide is produced by the incomplete burning of solid, liquid, and
gaseous fuels, such a charcoal, and causes death if there is improper ventilation.
➢ Heat Stress
Heat exhaustion and heat stroke can result from prolonged exposure to hot
equipment (e.g. ovens and stoves)
➢ Cold Stress
Hyperthermia and similar risks can result from working in walk-in refrigerators
and freezers for prolonged periods of time, or handling frozen food without
preventive measures

Reasons for Occupational Safety and Health Standards

The reasons for establishing good occupational safety and health standards are as
follows:

➢ Moral
No employee nor others associated with the work environment should have to
risk injury at work.
➢ Economic
Many governments realize that poor occupational safety and health performance
results in extra costs for the state (e.g. social security payments to the
incapacitated, costs for medical treatment, and loss of the working capacity of the
worker). Private companies also sustain costs in the event of an accident at work
(e.g. legal fees, fines, compensatory damages, investigation time, lost production,
and lost goodwill from the workforce, customers, and the wider community).
➢ Legal
OSH requirements may be reinforced in civil law and/or criminal law; it is
accepted that without the extra encouragement of potential regulatory action or
litigation, many organizations would not act upon their implied moral obligation.

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2

EMPLOYEE HEALTH AND PERSONAL HYGIENE

Providing safe food begins during the hiring process. Studies show that many
cases of foodborne illnesses can be linked directly to the lack of attention to personal
hygiene, cleanliness, and food handling procedures. The center for Communicable
Disease issued a list of infectious and communicable diseases that are often transmitted
through food prepared by infected food handlers. Examples of biological agents that
cause these diseases are Hepatitis A virus, Salmonella typhi, and Norwalk-like virus.

The preventive measures that the food manager implements to ensure food safety
should begin during the hiring stage of food service industry workers. This strategy is
accomplished through the health screening and careful training of food service
employees after they have been hired.

The hiring process should be followed by an orientation and training on the

standards of proper hygiene established for food service operations. Personal hygiene is
simply the application of principles for maintaining health and personal cleanliness.

Policies should be designed, implemented, and monitored to cover employees’

illnesses, proper attire, and personal hygiene habits. The specific methods aimed to fulfill
the intent of these policies are frequently referred to as infection control procedures.

Healthy Food Handler

A clean, hygienic environment starts with a healthy food handler. For a food
handler to be considered healthy, he/she must be free from diseases that may
contaminate food, such as intestinal disorders (typhoid fever and hepatitis), respiratory
tract diseases (tuberculosis, sore throat, and colds), and skin diseases or disorders (boils,
lesions, and skin infections).

Proper Attire
➢ Hair Restraint

The presence of hair in

food indicates unhygienic
food preparation. Food
handlers must wear a hair
restraint at all times to
prevent hair from falling into
the food. Common hair
restraints include nets,
bonnets, and caps. Wearing a
hair restraint also eliminates
Source:
the contact of the hands with [Link]
the head, thereby preventing [Link]
contamination.

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Chapter
The Basics of Food Safety and Sanitation
2

• A hair restraint must be worn before hand washing and working.

• A hair restraint must be properly worn and should not let a single strand
of hair show.
➢ Work Clothes

Work clothes that include a kitchen uniform and an apron must be worn inside the
kitchen. Street clothes should never be worn to work as they may be sources of
contamination. Aprons help reduce the transfer of microbes to exposed food.

• Work clothes should always be clean. Clean uniforms are more appealing
to the customers.
• As much as possible, aprons should be of light color to easily reveal dirt.
• Never use the apron as a hand towel.
• Change the apron when soiled.
• A food worker must wash his/her hands after touching his/her apron.
• Remove the apron before leaving the food preparation area.

➢ Footwear

Because footwear can serve as a source of contamination, it is necessary to use

footwear exclusively for kitchen use. Footwear worn outside should not be worn in the
food preparation area to prevent the possibility of contamination.

Closed shoes should be worn at all times to prevent slipping or falling.

➢ Facial Masks

Facial masks prevent airborne microorganisms from the nose and mouth from
getting into the food when talking, coughing, or sneezing. These masks will also prevent
direct contact of the hands with the nose and mouth, both of which are sources of
contamination.

➢ Gloves

Gloves act as barriers between the hands and food. However, these must not be
made substitutes for proper hand washing.

• Proper hand washing prior to wearing of gloves should be observed.

• Gloves must be sanitized and changed every day or whenever necessary.
• Gloves must be devoid of any tear or holes as these are possible sources of
contamination.
• Never reuse or rewash disposable gloves, always throw them away after
use.

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Chapter
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2

Personal Habits of Food Workers

All of us carry disease-causing microorganisms on or in our bodies. These
microbes can be transferred to food. By staying healthy and keeping clean, one can help
prevent an outbreak of foodborne illnesses.

➢ Taking Daily Baths

Taking a bath daily is the most basic requirement among food handlers as it
ensures their cleanliness.
➢ Trimming of Nails
Trimmed nails are a requisite for food preparation. Untrimmed nails are not only
unsightly but also potential sources of contamination.
➢ Shaving and Haircuts for Males
As facial hair is a source of contamination, male food handlers are required to
shave as necessary. Short, neat haircuts must be maintained as well.
➢ Covering of wounds
Wounds or cuts must be properly covered with a moisture-proof bandage which
must be frequently changed to prevent the risk contamination.
➢ Wearing of Jewelry
Wearing of jewelry must be prohibited at all times. Aside from being a physical
hazard, jewelry may also become biological hazards as they have crevices that can
harbor microbial growth.
➢ Wearing of Nail Polish or False/Artificial Fingernails
Because nail can get into food, wearing of nail polish or false/artificial fingernails
should not be allowed among food handlers.
➢ Smoking and Eating
A high standard of cleanliness must be practiced by food handlers at all times. Any
unhygienic practice that could result in cross-contamination of food such as
smoking and eating inside the kitchen should not be allowed. Eating and smoking
areas must be set up outside the kitchen premises.
➢ Hand Washing
The single most important practice in preventing the spread of foodborne illness
is proper and frequent hand washing. Since person-to-person contamination can
play a significant role in the spread of some enteric pathogens, hand hygiene is a
critical element in any outbreak prevention and control strategy.
➢ Tasting of Food
A small amount of the food to be sampled must be transferred into a separate
bowl. The dish must be tasted with a clean spoon that must be immediately
washed after use. Never taste the food with the fingers.
➢ Storing Personal Belongings
Personal belongings like bags and clothes should be stored in lockers or cabinets
away from food preparation areas.

10 | R I S K MANAGEMENT
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2

➢ Other Personal Habits

Blowing air into plastic bags or using teeth for opening packages are prohibited in
food production. Blowing into food containers like plastic bags brings airborne
microorganisms in contact with the contents of the container. Opening packages
using one’s teeth are potential sources of contamination as well.
Other Personal Hygiene Habits to be addresses by policy include:
• Do not lick the fingers, or touch the nose, mouth, or hair while in the
production area.
• Never spit in the food handling area.
• Never apply makeup or spritz perfume in food-preparation areas
• Do not sin or lean on work tables or equipment.
• Do not allow unauthorized personnel in the production area.

Hand Washing
What types of disease can good hand washing prevent?

Diseases can spread through fecal-oral transmission. Infections which may be

transmitted through this route include salmonellosis, shigellosis, hepatitis A, giardiasis,
enterovirus, amoebiasis, and campylocbacteriosis. Because these diseases can spread
through the ingestion of even the tiniest particles of fecal material, hand washing after
using toilet cannot be overemphasized.

Diseases also spread through indirect contact with respiratory secretions.

Microorganisms which may be transmitted through this route include influenza,
streptococcus, respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), and the common cold. These diseases
may be spread indirectly by hands freshly soiled by respiratory discharges. These can be
avoided by washing the hands after coughing or sneezing and after shaking hands with
an individual who has been coughing or sneezing.

Diseases may also be acquired

when hands are contaminated with
urine, saliva, or other moist body fluids.
Microorganisms which may be
transmitted by these body substances
include cytomegalovirus,
staphylococcal organisms, and Epstein
- Barr virus. These germs may be
transferred from person-to-person or
indirectly by the contamination of food
or inanimate objects such as toys.

Steps in Proper Hand Washing:

1. Wet the hands with warm,

[Link]
running water. of-hand-washing/article_633047b1-2e5b-5b4f-a1c4-
[Link]

11 | R I S K MANAGEMENT
Chapter
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2

2. With soap, thoroughly wash the hands and lather up to the elbow.
3. Scrub thoroughly using a brush for the nails, then rinse.
4. Resoap and rub hands for at least 20 seconds. Pay special attention to the back of
the hands, wrists, between the fingers, and under the fingernails.
5. Hands should be rinsed well under running water.
6. Hands should be dried with a single-use towel or hot air dryer.
7. Turn off the faucet using a paper towel to prevent contaminating it again.
8. Use a disinfectant if available.

Wash the hands after the following activities

1. Coming on duty or entering the kitchen

2. Touching bare body parts other than clean hands and the clean, exposed portions
of arms
3. Using the toilet
4. Coughing, sneezing, using a handkerchief or disposable tissue, smoking, eating, or
drinking.
5. Handling soiled equipment or utensils
6. Handling money
7. Handling cleaning materials
8. Food preparation (This should be done as often as necessary to eradicate
microorganisms and to prevent cross-contamination when changing tasks).
9. Switching from working with raw food to working with ready-to-eat food.
10. Changing into uniform
11. Having a break
12. Leaving the kitchen

Employee Illnesses
Employees with symptoms of vomiting, diarrhea, fever, respiratory infection, or
sore throat should not report to work. Any employee suspected of having a
communicable disease as listed by the CDC should be referred to the employee health
center or their personal physician for clearance before returning to work.

Education and Training

Appropriate orientation on the hazards of the food industry, and adequate,
periodic training must be implemented for the food production personnel to fully
understand and their responsibilities toward food safety. Use of visual control or
reminders in the form of posters and signs is an effective way of reinforcing hygienic
habits in the kitchen.

MANAGEMENT AND SUPERVISORY RESPONSIBILITIES OF A FOOD MANAGER

Food managers, especially those responsible for providing food to the “at-risk”
population, have an important responsibility in the prevention of foodborne illness. They

12 | R I S K MANAGEMENT
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2

must educate and instill a sense of urgency to food service employees on the realities of
foodborne diseases. Food service managers themselves must be well educated on food
safety and related topics such as microbiology, epidemiology, food science, and standard
operating procedures. These are just a few of the requirements to effectively design an
integrated food safety program. To effect change, food service managers must take a
proactive role in designing a food safety plan that accomplishes food safety objectives.

A Food Manager is a person who:

1. Identifies hazards in the day-to-day operation of a food establishment that

prepares, serves, vends, or provides food for human consumption;
2. Develops or implements specific policies, procedures, or standards aimed at
preventing foodborne illnesses;
3. Coordinates training, supervises, or directs food preparation activities, and
takes corrective action as needed to protect the health of the customers; and
4. Conducts in-house self-inspection of daily operations on a periodic basis to see
that policies and procedures concerning food safety are being followed.
A certain Food Protection Manager is a person will have to be able to
demonstrate knowledge and skills in food protection management. He/She should also
be able to:

1. Identify foodborne illnesses;

2. Describe the relationship between time and temperature and the growth of
microorganisms that cause foodborne illnesses;
3. Describe the relationship between personal hygiene and food safety;
4. Describe methods on how to prevent food contamination when purchasing
and receiving.’
5. Recognize problems and potential solutions associated with the facility
equipment, and layout of a food establishment; and

Recognize problems and solutions associated with temperature control, cross-

contamination, housekeeping, and maintenance.

You have just finished reading the contents of this

chapter – The Basics of Food Safety and Sanitation!
To assess your level of understanding and comprehension,
you may now proceed to your “Assessment of Learning
Tasks and Worksheets” and answer the exercises on pages
6-8.
Good Luck!

You are now ready to proceed to the next chapter.

God bless and have a nice day!

13 | R I S K MANAGEMENT
Chapter
Foodborne Illnesses and Potential Hazards RISK MANAGEMENT
3 AS APPLIED TO SAFETY SECURITY AND SANITATION
Chapter 3

“Let your food be your medicine and your medicine be your food.”
– Hippocrates

A food safety hazard is a biological, chemical, or

physical agent or condition in food that could potentially
At the end of this chapter, the cause an adverse human health effect.
students are expected;
Food safety hazards can also be found in animal
❖ Define and recognize the
feed and feed ingredients. They can also cause adverse
different foodborne illnesses;
❖ Identify the health hazards posed human health effects since they can be transferred to
by biological, chemical, and human through the consumption of animal products.
physical contaminants to food;
❖ Understand how microorganisms A food safety hazard is a biological, chemical, or
and chemical and physical physical agent or condition in food that could potentially
hazards are acquired during food cause an adverse human health effect.
handling; and
❖ Develop measures to prevent Food safety hazards can also be found in animal
foodborne illnesses and cross- feed and feed ingredients. They can also cause adverse
contamination in a food service human health effects since they can be transferred to
facility. human through the consumption of animal products.

It is anything in food that can cause harm to the

consumer in the form of foodborne illnesses. Foodborne illnesses are defined as diseases,
either infectious or toxic in nature, caused by agents that enter the body through the
ingestion of food. Myriad microbes and toxic substances can contaminate foods. There
are more than 250 known foodborne diseases. Majority are infectious and caused by
bacteria, viruses, and parasites. Other foodborne diseases are poisonings caused by
toxins and chemicals contaminating the food. All foodborne microbes and toxins enter
the body through the gastrointestinal tract and often cause nausea and vomiting, which
are early symptoms of foodborne illness.

RISK POTENTIAL HAZARDS THAT CAN RESULT IN FOODBORNE ILLNESSES

BIOLOGICAL CHEMICAL PHYSICAL

• Bacteria • Pesticides • Foreign objects in food such

• Parasites and Helminthes • Natural Plant Toxins as
• Virus • Animal Toxins - Hair
• Fungi • Food Additives - Pebbles
• Prions • Medications - Glass Shards
• Radioactive Substances - Toothpick
• Alcohol - Plastic

14 | R I S K MANAGEMENT
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3

SOURCES OF FOOD SAFETY HAZARDS

Risks of hazard resulting in foodborne illnesses can arise from every step in the
food process, from production to consumption. Risk of one or more hazards are always
present in each step or area. Hazards can contaminate food through the following factors:
material, men, method, machine, money and environment.

Contamination is the unintended presence of a harmful substance in food while

cross-contamination is the transfer of such harmful substances from one food to another
through a non-food surface, such as cooking wares, equipment, and food workers.

General Categories of Contamination

➢ Inherent in Raw Material

Raw food materials may appear clean, but microorganisms, chemicals, even
foreign objects, may be found in the raw food as it is grown, harvested, caught,
or slaughtered. A study done on several raw food indicates that no uncooked
food should be considered completely safe from bacterial pathogens (Synder,
2004)
➢ Contamination through Time-Temperature Abuse
A food is said to have been time-temperature abused if it has been allowed to
stay long at temperatures favourable to the growth of microorganisms. This
temperature is referred to as the Temperature Danger Zone.
Contamination due to time-temperature abuse includes:
• Failure to hold or store food at the required cold or hot temperature;
• Failure to cook and/or reheat to temperature that will kill harmful
microorganisms; and
• Long interval between food preparation and serving without
appropriate temperature.
➢ Cross-contamination
Cross contamination occurs when microorganisms are transferred from a
contaminated food contact surface or food to a non-contaminated food contact
surface or food. Common cross-contamination instances are:
• Addition of a raw material to a cooked ingredient without being heated
or cooked;
• Contamination from the dirty apparel of food handlers; and
• Contamination of food surfaces.
➢ Poor Personal Hygiene
Individuals with poor personal hygiene practices can contaminate food and
food contact surfaces. The most common source of foodborne illness can be
traced to food handlers. Common personal hygiene violations that can result
foodborne illness include:
• Failure to wash hands properly
• Failure to follow proper hygiene habits

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3

• Working when sick

• Lack of training in personal hygiene practices

POTENTIALLY HAZARDOUS FOOD

Some types of food have the ability to support the rapid, progressive growth of
infections and toxin-producing microorganisms. These foods are called potentially
hazardous and have the following characteristics:

• A history of being involved in foodborne illness outbreaks. Salmonellosis

in peanut butter from the Peanut Corporation of America I Blakely, Georgia
has become one of the worst known outbreaks of foodborne diseases in
recent years. Nine are believed to have died and an estimated 22,500 fell ill
from the disease.
• A natural potential for contamination. Contamination occurs due to the
methods used to produce and process food. Examples are manually
handling food (fresh lumpia) and those that does not undergo heating
(salads and sandwiches).
• High moisture that supports bacterial growth. Food with high moisture are
likely to support microbial growth. Highly perishable (fresh) food and
canned fruits, vegetables, meat, fish, and milk are examples of PFP with
high moisture content.
• High protein and carbohydrate. These kinds of food provide a rich source
of bacterial food. These foods include meat, poultry, fish, dairy products,
and egg.
• Not acidic enough to inhibit the growth of microorganisms. Fresh fruits,
vegetables, and some seafood have low acidity levels that can sustain
microbial growth.

The FDA Food Code classifies the following as PHF:

• Animal products that are raw or heat-treated

• All cooked meat and poultry
• Cooked meat products with sauces and stocks, especially those with
tomatoes
• Dairy products like milk, cream, cheese, ice cream, and yogurt
• Cooked eggs and products made from eggs, like mayonnaise
• Cooked shellfish and other seafoods
• Cooked rice and beans, and baked or broiled potatoes
• Desserts consisting of eggs and milk
• Gravies and stuffing of meat and poultry
• Food products made with high-risk foods and exposed to more handling,
such as meatloaf, hamburgers, salads (pasta, coleslaw, and chicken, egg,
and tuna salads)

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• Chinese and Mexican dishes, some baked goods and cream fillings, French
toast, meringue, and eggnog
• Foods on plan origin that are heat treated or consist of raw seed sprouts
• Cut melons, and garlic and oil mixtures that are not modified in a way to
inhibit the growth of microorganisms

SYMPTOMS OF FOODBORNE ILLNESSES

In most cases, of foodborne illnesses, symptoms resemble intestinal flu and may
last for a few hours or even several days. Symptoms can range from mild to serious and
include:

• Abdominal cramps
• Nausea
• Vomiting
• Diarrhea, which is sometimes bloody
• Fever
• Dehydration
• Headache

RISK FACTORS OF FOODBORNE ILLNESSES

Some people are at a greater risk for bacterial infections because of their age or an
unhealthy immune system. Individuals who are susceptible to the effects of foodborne
illnesses are:

• Infants and young children

• Pregnant women
• Elderly persons over 65 years old
• Persons with debilitating illnesses or chronic diseases like cancer, diabetes
mellitus, and tuberculosis
• Persons whose immune systems are compromised as in cases of HIV/AIDS,
those who had organ transplants and multiple surgeries, and those
undergoing radiation and chemotherapy
• Malnourished individuals who are anemic, emaciated, and have depleted
body proteins
• Individuals with unhealthy lifestyles, such as poor eating habits, alcohol
and drug abuse, and smoking
• People under certain medications such as prolonged use of antibiotics,
antacids, thereby reducing the normal beneficial microflora of the
gastrointestinal tract.

TREATMENT OF FOODBORNE ILLNESSES

Most cases of foodborne illnesses are mild and can be treated by increasing fluid
intake, either orally or intravenously, to replace lost fluids and electrolytes. People who
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experience gastrointestinal or neurologic symptoms should seek medical attention. In the

most severe situations, hospitalization may be needed to receive supportive nutritional
and medical therapy. Maintaining adequate fluid and electrolyte balance and controlling
blood pressure are important.

SOCIO-ECONOMIC EFFECTS OF FOOD BORNE ILLNESSES

The distress suffered by the patient, his/her family members and the caregivers
cannot be calculated in monetary cost. The worst scenario is when the final result of the
episode of illness is death.

The following outline summarizes the various costly factors related to foodborne
illnesses:

1. Costs that may be incurred by the sick individual or caregiver/family

• Loss of income
• Loss of opportunities for advancement
• Medical expenses to cover physical rehabilitation and long-term care
• Cost of child and geriatric care
• Cost of special dietary needs
• Loss of productivity
• Loss leisure and travel opportunities
• Funeral expenses
2. Business and Industry Cost
• Legal liability cost
• Insurance cost
• Cost of recall or discarded product
• Poor publicity and decline of stock value
• Loss of reputation
• Cost of investigation, cleaning up, and education
• Loss of customers and business
3. Cost to the nation and government
• Expenses for plant or on-site inspection
• Legislation
• Medical cost
• Prosecution cost
• Healthcare/welfare benefits
• Losses from tourism and food export trade

POINTS TO REMEMBER REGARDING POTENTIAL HAZARDS IN FOOD SERVICE OPERATIONS

• Foodborne illnesses are acquired from eating food or drinking beverages
contaminated with bacteria, viruses, or parasites.

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• People at greater risk for foodborne illnesses include young children, pregnant
women and their unborn child, elderly, and people with lowered immunity
• Symptoms usually resemble intestinal flu. A doctor should immediately be
consulted if more serious problems occur or there is no improvement in the
condition.
• Treatment may range from the replacement of lost fluids and electrolytes for
mild cases of foodborne illnesses to hospitalization for severe conditions such
as haemolytic-uremic syndrome.
• Foodborne hazards can be classified as biological, chemical, or physical.
• Biological hazards can be caused by parasites, viruses, or bacteria.
• Chemical contaminants in foods can come from industrial and agricultural
sources, food processing, or the food itself.
• Toxic chemicals also come from biological sources such as molds and algae.
• Foreign objects present in food could constitute a physical hazard to the
consumer.
• The socio-economic effects of foodborne illnesses would include cost to the
victim, the food industry, and the government.

BIOLOGICAL HAZARDS
Biological hazards are acquired from disease-causing microorganisms and the
poisonous toxins they may produce. Biological hazards are by far the most dangerous
foodborne hazard in the food service and food retail businesses. These include harmful
microorganisms seen only under the microscope and the biological substance prion, a
protein molecule. Other living organisms, such as insects, rodents, farm animals, domestic
pets, birds, fish, and plants, also transmit diseases to human beings. Even healthy people
are sources of pathogenic microorganisms. Food handlers who do not wash hands
frequently and properly do not practice personal hygiene are the most common carriers.

Most of the foodborne and waterborne illnesses in food establishments are due to
disease-producing microorganisms. How to control them is the primary objective of food
and water safety. Many of these pathogenic microorganisms seriously affect the health of
an individual and some may even cause death, which is why safety measures should be
taken to prevent their growth and toxins production. Effective control of these microbial
hazards can be better implemented by those who understand the conditions of microbial
growth and their multiplication. Knowledge about the signs and symptoms associated
with a foodborne disease, its onset and duration, and the implicated food will help both
the consumer and food handler report illness cases and develop preventive measures.

A foodborne illness is generally classified as a foodborne infection, intoxication, or

toxin-mediated infection. Awareness of how different microbes cause a foodborne illness
will help in understanding how microbes contaminate food.

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Classification of Food Borne Illnesses

➢ Infection
Infection is the ingestion of a harmful microorganism in food. It occurs when a
living microorganism is ingested as a part of food. After ingestion, the
microorganisms attach themselves to the gastrointestinal tract and begins to
grow. This can lead to common foodborne illness symptoms like diarrhea. In some
instances, the microorganisms may be carried by the bloodstream from the
gastrointestinal tract to the other parts of the body. Foodborne viruses and
parasites are good examples of microorganisms that can cause infection.
➢ Intoxication
Intoxication is the ingestion of a harmful toxin produced in food. It arises when a
living microorganism that grows in food produces a toxin. The food is then
ingested and the toxin itself causes the illness. Some examples of bacteria that
causes intoxication are Clostridium botulinum and Staphylococcus aureus. An
intoxication may also occur due to the consumption of a toxic chemical, such as a
cleaning chemical.
➢ Toxin-Mediated Infection
Toxin mediated infection is the ingestion of a harmful microorganism in food that
produces a toxin in the human body. It takes place when a living microorganism is
consumed and the ingested microorganism produces a toxin in the body that leads
to illness. An example of a microorganism that produces a toxin in the body is the
Clostridium Perfringens.

It is important to understand that, under the right set of circumstances, anyone

can become ill due to the ingestion of contaminated food. A healthy adult may or may not
manifest any foodborne illness symptoms, and in most cases, the host will recover in a
few days. The risks and dangers associated with foodborne illnesses are much greater for
the elderly, infants, pregnant women and people who have weakened immune system.

Types of Microorganisms
• Beneficial Microorganisms
Beneficial Microorganisms are found in food production. Examples of these
microbes are those used in making bread, beer, yogurt, and cheese.
• Harmful Microorganisms
Harmful Microorganisms spoil food and cause diseases.

Microbial Forms
Bacteria

Of all microorganisms, bacteria provide the most common threat to food safety.
Bacteria are single-celled organisms and can cause illnesses in two-ways. Pathogenic

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(infectious; disease-causing) bacteria multiply rapidly in favourable conditions provided

by PHF, while toxigenic (poisonous) bacteria produce harmful toxins.

Most bacteria exist in vegetative state, cells grow, reproduce, and produce waste
just like any other living organism. However, some bacteria are able to produce
protective, thick-walled structures called spores. Spores do not reproduce, but they
enable the bacteria to survive some cooking and freezing temperatures and the
destructive effects of cleaning and sanitizing solutions. They even survive when there is
not enough food.

Bacteria are classified as either spoilage or pathogenic microorganisms.

• Spoilage bacteria break down foods making them look, taste, and smell bad.
They reduce the quality of food to unacceptable levels. When this happens,
the food will have to be thrown away.
• Pathogenic bacteria are disease-causing microorganisms that can make
people ill if they or their toxins are consumed through food.

Both spoilage and pathogenic bacteria must be controlled in food establishments.

The steps in keeping food safe from disease-causing bacteria will also improve the
culinary quality and shelf life of the food.

Bacterial Growth
Bacterial growth is proliferation of bacterium into two daughter cells, in a process
called binary fission. Providing no event occurs, the resulting daughter cells are
genetically identical to the original cell. Hence, bacterial growth occurs. Both daughter
cells from the division do not necessarily survive. However, if the number surviving
exceeds unity on average, the bacterial population undergoes exponential growth. The
measurement of an exponential bacterial growth curve in batch culture was traditionally
a part of the training of all microbiologists; the basic means requires bacterial
enumeration (cell counting) by direct and individual (microscopic, flow cytometry),
direct and bulk (biomass), indirect and individual (colony counting), or indirect and bulk
(most probable number, turbidity, nutrient uptake) methods. Models reconcile theory
with the measurements.

Phases of Bacterial Growth

➢ Lag Phase
During lag phase, bacteria adapt themselves to growth conditions. It is the period
where the individual bacteria are maturing and not yet able to divide. During the
lag phase of the bacterial growth cycle, synthesis of RNA, enzymes and other
molecules occurs. During the lag phase cells change very little because the cells do
not immediately reproduce in a new medium. This period of little to no cell
division is called the lag phase and can last for 1 hour to several days. During this
phase cells are not dormant.

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➢ Log Phase
The log phase (sometimes called the logarithmic phase or the exponential phase)
is a period characterized by cell doubling. The number of new bacteria appearing
per unit time is proportional to the present population. If growth is not limited,
doubling will continue at a constant rate so both the number of cells and the rate
of population increase doubles with each consecutive time period. For this type of
exponential growth, plotting the natural logarithm of cell number against time
produces a straight line. The slope of this line is the specific growth rate of the
organism, which is a measure of the number of divisions per cell per unit time. The
actual rate of this growth (i.e. the slope of the line in the figure) depends upon the
growth conditions, which affect the frequency of cell division events and the
probability of both daughter cells surviving. Under controlled conditions,
cyanobacteria can double their population four times a day and then they can
triple their population. Exponential growth cannot continue indefinitely, however,
because the medium is soon depleted of nutrients and enriched with wastes.
➢ Stationary Phase
The stationary phase is often due to a growth-limiting factor such as the depletion
of an essential nutrient, and/or the formation of an inhibitory product such as an
organic acid. Stationary phase results from a situation in which growth rate and
death rate are equal. The number of new cells created is limited by the growth
factor and as a result the rate of cell growth matches the rate of cell death. The
result is a “smooth,” horizontal linear part of the curve during the stationary
phase. Mutations can occur during stationary phase. Bridges et al. (2001)
presented evidence that DNA damage is responsible for many of the mutations
arising in the genomes of stationary phase or starving bacteria. Endogenously
generated reactive oxygen species appear to be a major source of such damages.
➢ Death Phase
At death phase (decline phase), bacteria die. This could be caused by lack of
nutrients, environmental temperature above or below the tolerance band for the
species, or other injurious conditions.

Bacterial Growth Requirement

➢ Food
Microorganisms like all living things, need food to grow. The presence of a suitable
food supply is the most important condition that affects bacterial growth. The food
must contain the appropriate nutrients needed for growth. Bacteria generally
prefer food that are high in protein like meat and dairy items.
➢ Acidity
Optimal acidity for bacteria tends to be around pH 6.5 to 7.0 with the exception of
acidophiles. Some bacteria can change the pH such as by excreting acid resulting
in sub-optimal conditions.

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➢ Temperature
Temperature is probably the most important factor that affects the growth of
bacteria in food. Most disease-causing bacteria grow within a temperature range
of 5°C to 60°C. This is the range where microbial growth and reproduction are at
their peak. This is commonly referred to as the Temperature Danger Zone.
Classification of Microorganisms according to Temperature Requirements
• Psychrophiles
Psychrophiles are extremophilic cold-loving bacteria or archaea with an
optimal temperature for growth at about 15 °C or lower (maximal
temperature for growth at 20 °C, minimal temperature for growth at 0 °C
or lower). Psychrophiles are typically found in Earth's extremely cold
ecosystems, such as polar ice-cap regions, permafrost, polar surface, and
deep oceans.
• Mesophiles
Mesophiles are bacteria that thrive at moderate temperatures, growing
best between 20° and 45 °C. These temperatures align with the natural
body temperatures of humans, which is why many human pathogens are
mesophiles.
• Thermophiles
Survive under temperatures of 45° - 60 °C
➢ Time
Because bacteria grow rapidly, it does not take long before many cells are
produced. A rule of thumb in the food industry is that bacteria need about four
hours, inclusive of the time food is between 5°C to 60°C, to grow to numbers high
enough to cause illness. Remember, a single bacterial cell can produce over 1
million cells in just five hours under ideal conditions. It is very important not to
give bacteria an opportunity to multiply. Proper storage and handling of foods
help prevent bacteria from multiplying.
➢ Oxygen
Oxygen is used by aerobic bacteria during the process of cellular respiration as a
final electron acceptor. For aerobic organisms, oxygen is an absolute requirement
for their energy-yielding properties. Certain microorganisms grow in oxygen-free
environments and are described as anaerobic. Organisms such as these produce
odoriferous gases in their metabolism, including hydrogen sulfide gas and
methane. Certain pathogenic species, such as Clostridium species, are anaerobic.
➢ Moisture
All bacteria need moisture, or water, in a "useable" or "available" form to grow and
reproduce. Bacteria use the water to take in food and to remove unwanted waste
products. Water activity (aw) is one measure of the available water in a food. The
water activity scale runs from 0 to 1.0. The lower the water activity, the less water
is available in a form that can be used by bacteria. The water activity of pure water
is 1.0 - thus the water activity of all foods falls below this number. However, many
food products, particularly meat, poultry, seafood and dairy products, have a

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water activity of 0.95-0.99. Unfortunately, this is the optimum range for many of
the spoilage and disease-causing bacteria. Most fresh seafood products have a
water activity above 0.98 - perfect for bacterial growth!!! Pathogenic bacteria do
not grow well or produce toxin below 0.85 and most require 0.92 or above.
Freezing, drying, or salting are ways to reduce available water to bacteria, and
slow down their growth.

Bacterial, Viral, and Parasitic Foodborne Hazards

Biological hazards are of the greatest concern to food service and food retail
operators. They have been classified as spore-forming bacteria, nonspore-forming
bacteria, viruses, and parasites.

Foodborne Illnesses caused by Bacteria

➢ Spore-Forming Foodborne Bacteria

The following group of bacteria can produce structure that allows a cell to withstand
environmental stress such as cooking, freezing, salting, drying, and pickling. Generally,
bacterial spores are not harmful if ingested. However, if conditions of the food are
changed, permitting the spore to turn into a vegetative cell, the vegetative cell can grow
in the food and cause illness if eaten.

Spore-forming bacteria are generally found in ingredients grown near the soil like
vegetables and spices. They can be particularly troublesome in food retail-type
environments because they can survive on foods. When conditions are improved, for
instance, adding dried spices to a beef stew mixture, spores can become vegetative cells.

Spores are most likely to turn vegetative when:

• Heat-shocked (heating causes spores to change)

• Optimum conditions exist for growth (high protein and high moisture).
• Temperatures are in the food temperature danger zone or between 5°C to
60°C
• The amount of time in the food is in the danger zone (4 hours or more)

To keep spore-forming bacteria from changing to the dangerous vegetative state,

it is critical that hot foods be maintained at 60°C or higher and cold foods be kept at less
than 5°C. Cooking, reheating, and cooling of foods should also be done as quickly as
possible to limit bacterial growth.

• Bacillus cereus
A facultative anaerobic, spore-forming bacterium that has been associated with
two very different types of illnesses.
Types of Illness: bacterial intoxication or toxin-mediated infection

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• Clostridium perfringens
An anaerobic, spore-forming bacterium that is one of the most commonly
reported causes of foodborne illnesses, especially for food that have been
temperature abused. It causes illness due to a toxico-infection where the
ingested cells produce a toxin in the human intestinal tract
Types of Illness: Bacterial toxin-mediated infection
• Clostridium botulinum
An anaerobic, spore-forming bacterium that causes foodborne intoxication due
to improperly heat processed foods, especially home canning ones. The
microorganisms produces a neurotoxin which is one of the most toxic biological
substances known to humans. This toxin can be destroyed if the food is boiled
for about 20 minutes. However, botulism still occurs because people do not
want to boil food that has already been cooked.
Types of Illness: Bacterial intoxication

➢ Nonspore-Forming Foodborne Bacteria

The following groups of bacteria are not capable of producing a spore structure;
they are always in the vegetative state. Compared to spore-forming bacteria that are in
the spore state, vegetative cells are easily destroyed by proper cooking. There are
numerous examples of nonspore-forming foodborne bacteria that are important in the
food retail industry.

• Campylobacter jejuni
Campylobacter jejuni is considered by many food scientists as the number one
agent that causes foodborne illnesses. This microaerophile infection-causing
microorganism is unique compared to most other foodborne pathogens
because it can only tolerate 3 to 6% oxygen for growth.
Types of Illness: Bacterial infection
• Escherichia coli
The Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli group of bacteria includes any E. coli
capable of producing shiga toxin. These bacteria include four strains of
foodborne pathogens; enterotoxigenic E. coli, enteropathogenic E. coli,
enterohemorrhagic E. coli, and enteroinvasive E. coli.
Types of Illness: Bacterial infection or toxin-mediated infection
• Listeria monocytogenes
Listeria monocytogenes is a facultative anaerobic bacterium that causes
foodborne infection. It can survive under many conditions, even in high-salt
food. Unlike other foodborne pathogens, it can grow at refrigerated
temperatures below 5°C. Listeriosis, the illness caused by Listeria
monocytogenes, usually causes gastrointestinal symptoms in a healthy adult.
However, disease complications, such as septicaemia, meningitis, and
encephalitis can be life threatening for people with weakened immune systems.
Types of Illness: Bacterial infection

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• Salmonella spp
Salmonella is a facultative anaerobic bacterium that frequently causes a
foodborne infection. Like E. coli, Salmonella can be found in the intestinal tracts
of warm-blooded animals.
Types of Illness: Bacterial infection
• Shigella spp
Shigella is a facultative anaerobic bacterium that causes about 10% of
foodborne illnesses in the U.S. It is frequently found in the intestines of humans
and warm-blooded animals and can cause an infection or toxico-infection. A
common illness caused by Shigella is bacillary dysentery.
Types of Illness: Bacterial infection
• Staphylococcus aureus
Staphylococcus aureus is a facultative anaerobic bacterium that produces a very
heat-stable toxin as it grows on food, an example of an intoxication. This
bacterium can grow on cooked foods that are re-contaminated by food workers
through mishandling them. Staphylococcus aureus bacterium does not compete
well when other types of microorganisms are present. However, it grows well
without competition from other microbes. The microorganism is normally
present on human skin, hands and in nasal passages, and can be transferred to
foods easily. It may also be found in burns, infected cuts and wounds, pimples,
and boils. It can survive in high salt and sugar conditions and lower water
activity.
Types of Illness: Bacterial intoxication
• Vibrio spp
There are three species within the Vibrio group of bacteria that have been
implicated in foodborne infections. They include Vibrio cholera, vibrio
parahaemolyticus, and Vibrio vulnificus, all of which are resistant to salt and are
common in seafood.
Types of Illness: Bacterial infection

Foodborne Illnesses caused by Viruses

Foodborne viruses differ from foodborne bacteria. Viruses require a living host
(animal, plant, or human) to grow and reproduce. Unlike bacteria, they do not reproduce
or grow in foods. However, the consumption of even a few particles is enough for a person
to experience an infection.

Viruses are usually transferred from one food to another, e.g., from a food handler
to a food, or from a water supply to a food. A PHF is not needed by a virus to survive.
There are three viruses common in food retail preparation: Hepatitis A, Norwalk virus
and rotavirus.

• Hepatitis A
Hepatitis A is a foodborne virus associated with many foodborne infections. It
causes a liver disease infectious hepatitis. It has an incubation period of 10 to

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45 days. This means that a food worker can harbour the microorganism for up
to six weeks and not show any symptoms of illness. However, during this time,
the food worker can contaminate foods and other workers in the food retail
establishment. The hepatitis A virus is very resilient and can live for several
hours in a suitable environment.
Types of Illness: Viral infection
• Norwalk Virus group
The Norwalk is a common foodborne virus associated with many foodborne
infections, even some outbreaks involving up to 3000 people.
Types of Illness: Viral infection
• Rotavirus
Group A rotaviruses cause several diseases known as rotavirus gastroenteritis.
These viruses are the leading causes of severe diarrhea among infants and
children. Over three million cases of rotavirus gastroenteritis occur annually in
the U.S.
Types of Illness: Viral infection

Foodborne Illnesses caused by Parasites

Foodborne parasites are among the common foodborne biological hazards.

Parasites are microscopic creatures that need to live on or inside a host to survive.
Parasites can be found in irrigation water, animal feces, and muscle tissues of improperly
fed cattle and swine, and fish muscles. Humans can become infected when undercooked
meat and fish are consumed.

There several examples of parasites that can come in contact with food and cause
foodborne illnesses. Parasitic infection is far less common than bacterial or viral
foodborne illnesses.

• Anisakis spp
Anisakis spp. are nematodes (roundworms) that have been associated with
foodborne infection from fish. The worms are about 1 to ½ inches long and have
a diameter similar to human hair. They can be beige, ivory white, gray, brown,
or pink. Other names of this parasite are cod worm and herring worm.
Types of Illness: Parasitic infection
• Cryptosporidium parvum
Cryptosporidium parvum is a single-celled microorganism called protozoa.
They can cause foodborne infections and can be found in water that has been
contaminated with cow feces. Drinking water contaminated with high levels of
runoff from farms or slaughterhouses have been implicated in outbreaks
caused by this parasite.
Types of Illness: Parasitic infection

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• Giardia lablia
Giardia lamblia is found in the feces of wild animals, domestic pets, and infected
persons.
Types of Illness: Parasitic infection
• Trichinella spiralis
Trichinella spiralis is a foodborne roundworm that can cause parasitic
infection. It can be found in an infected fleshy muscle and is eaten by certain
meat-eating animals; these animals then transmit it to a new host.
Types of Illness: Parasitic infection
• Toxoplasma gondii
Toxoplasmosis is a parasitic infection caused by Toxoplasma gondii. This
parasite is common in warm-blooded animals including cats, rats, pigs, cows,
sheep, chicken, and birds.
Types of Illness: Parasitic infection
• Entamoeba histolytica
This is a single-celled parasitic animal that predominantly infects humans and
other primates. Diverse mammals, such as dogs and cats, can become infected
but they usually do not shed cysts (environmental survival form of the
organism) with their feces, thus they do not contribute significantly to
transmission. The active (trophozoite) stage exists only in the host and in fresh
feces; cysts survive outside the host in water, soil and foods, especially under
moist conditions in the latter. When swallowed, they can cause infections by
excysting (to the trophozoite stage) in the digestive tract.
Amoebas remain in the gastrointestinal tract of its host. Severe ulceration
of the gastrointestinal mucosal surfaces occurs in less than 16% of cases. In
fewer cases, the parasite invades the soft tissues, most commonly the liver.
Masses formed that lead to intestinal obstruction are rare and fatalities are
infrequent.
Types of Illness: Parasitic infection
• Ascaris lumbricoides
Ascaris lumbricoides infections in humans occur when an ingested infective
eggs releases a larval worm that penetrates the wall of the duodenum and
enters the bloodstream. It is carried to the liver and heart, enters the pulmonary
circulation, and breaks free in the alveoli, where it grows and molts.
Types of Illness: Parasitic infection
• Taenia saginata and Taenia solium
Taenia saginata (beef tapeworm) and Taenia solium (pork tapeworm) are
parasitic worms (helminths). Taeniasis is the intestinal infection caused by
adult-stage tapeworms. Cysticercosis, on the other hand, is the tissue infection
caused by the larval-stage of the pork tapeworm.
Types of Illness: Parasitic infection

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• Diphyllobothrium latum
Diphyllobothrium latum and other members of the genus are broad fish
tapeworms. Humans acquire these parasitic flatworms primarily through the
consumption of raw or insufficiently cooked fish.
Types of Illness: Parasitic infection

Foodborne Illnesses caused by Fungi

A fungus is a eukaryotic organism that is a member of the kingdom of Fungi. Fungi

are heterotrophic organisms that possess a chitinous cell wall. The majority of its species
grow as multicellular filaments called hyphae forming a mycelium; some fungal species
also grow as single cells. Sexual and asexual reproduction occur commonly through
spores which are often produced on specialized structures or in fruiting bodies. Yeasts,
molds, and mushrooms are all examples of fungi.

Occurring worldwide, most fungi are largely invisible to the naked eye, living for
the most part in soil, dead matter, and as symbionts of plants, animals, or other fungi.
They perform as essential role in all ecosystems in decomposing organic matter and are
indispensable in nutrient cycling and exchange. Some fungi become noticeable when
fruiting, either as mushrooms or molds.

Many fungal species have long been used as a direct source of food, such as
mushrooms and truffles, and in the fermentation of various food products, such as wine,
beer, and soy sauce. More recently, fungi are being used as sources for antibiotics used in
medicine and various enzymes, including cellulases, pectinases, and proteases, which are
important for industrial use or as active ingredients of detergents.

However, many fungi produce bioactive compounds called mycotoxins that are
toxic to animals and humans. Several species of fungi are significant pathogens of humans
and other animals. They are also the causes of diseases of crops and food spoilage,
thereby proving that they have a large impact on human food supply and local economies.

Types of Fungi Hazardous for Consumption

• Molds

Molds are microscopic fungi that live on plant or animal matter. No one knows how
many species of fungi exist, but estimates range from tens of thousands to perhaps
300,000 or more. Most are filamentous (threadlike) organisms and can reproduce
through spores. These spores can be transported by air, water, or insects.

Molds are a large and taxonomically diverse number of fungal species in which the
growth of hyphae results in discoloration and a fuzzy appearance, especially on food. The
network of these tubular branching hyphae, called a mycelium, is considered a single
organism. The hyphae are generally transparent, so the mycelium appears like very fine,
fluffy white threads over the surface. Cross-walls (septa) may delimit connected
compartments along the hyphae, each containing one or multiple, genetically identical

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nuclei. The dusty texture of many molds is caused by profuse production of asexual
spores (conidia) formed by differentiation at the ends of hyphae. The mode of formation
and shape of these spores is traditionally used to classify molds. Many of these spores are
colored, making the fungus much more obvious to the human eye at this stage in its life-
cycle.

Molds are considered to be microbes and do not form a specific taxonomic or

phylogenetic grouping, but can be found in the divisions Zygomycota and Ascomycota. In
the past, most molds were classified within the Deuteromycota. Mold had been used as a
common name for now non-fungal groups such as water molds or slime molds that were
previously classified as fungi.

Molds cause biodegradation of natural materials, which can be unwanted when it

becomes food spoilage or damage to property. They also play important roles in
biotechnology and food science in the production of various foods, beverages, antibiotics,
pharmaceuticals and enzymes. Some diseases of animals and humans can be caused by
certain molds: disease may result from allergic sensitivity to mold spores, from growth
of pathogenic molds within the body, or from the effects of ingested or inhaled toxic
compounds (mycotoxins) produced by molds.

Common Foodborne Molds

Molds most often found on meat and poultry are Alternaria, Aspergillus, Botrytis,
Cladosporium, Fusarium, Geotrichum, Monilia, Manoscus, Mortierella, Mucor, Neurospora,
Oidium, Oosproa, Penicillum, Rhizopus, and Thamnidium. These molds can also be found
on many other foods.

How to minimize Mold Growth

Cleanliness is vital in controlling mold. Mold spores from affected food can build up
in refrigerators, dishcloths, and other cleaning utensils.

o Clean the inside of the refrigerator every few months with one tablespoon
of baking soda dissolved in a quart of water. Rinse with clean water and
dry. Scrub visible mold, usually black, on rubber casings using three
teaspoons of bleach in a quart of water.
o Keep dishcloths, towels, sponges, and mops clean and fresh. A musty smell
means they are spreading mold around. Discard items you can’t clean or
launder anymore.
o Keep the humidity level in the house below 40%.

Don’t Buy Moldy Foods

o Examine food well before buying it. Check food in glass jars, look at the
stem areas on fresh produce, and avoid bruised produced. Notify the store
manager about mold on their items.

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o Fresh meat and poultry are usually mold free, but cured and cooked meat
may not be. Examine them carefully. Dry-cured country hams normally
have surface mold that must be scrubbed off before cooking.

How to protect Food from Mold

o When serving food, keep it covered to prevent exposure to mold spores in

the air. Use a plastic wrap to cover foods that should stay moist such as fresh
or cut fruits and vegetables, and green and mixed salads.
o Transfer opened cans of perishable foods into clean containers and
refrigerate them promptly.
o Don’t leave any perishables out of the refrigerator for more than two hours.
o Use leftovers within three to four days so mold doesn’t have a chance to
grow.

How to handle Food with Mold

Buying small amounts and using food quickly can help prevent mold growth. The
following should be done when mold is seen on food.
o Don’t sniff the moldy items. This can cause respiratory problems.
o If food is covered with mold, discard it. Put it into a small paper bag or wrap
it in plastic and dispose in a covered trash can that children and animals can’t
get into.
o Clean the refrigerator or pantry spot where the food was stored.
o Check nearby items the moldy food might have touched. Mold spreads
quickly in fruits and vegetables.

• Yeast

Yeasts are single-celled fungi, in contrast to molds which are multicellular. They
differ from bacteria by their larger cell size and shape, which may be oval, elongated,
elliptical, or spherical. The average cell size of yeast is from five to eight micrometers in
diameter. They grow in numbers by dividing (budding or fission).

Most yeast are not pathogenic. In fact, yeast is used as an ingredient in bread
making and is responsible for alcoholic fermentation needed for alcoholic beverages.
However, the yeast Candida albicans causes thrush in infants and the undesirable growth
of yeast in some food products can cause food spoilage. The quality of fruit juice
concentrates also depends on the absence of yeast cells.

Yeast can grow over wide ranges of acid pH solutions and in ethanol solutions as
high as 18%. Many can grow in sugar solutions that are between 50-60%. Some can be
recognized by the colors they produce (cream, pink, orange, red). Their spores are quite
heat-resistant and some can grow at very low temperatures (-20 to 30°C).

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There are many genera of yeast and some are useful for the food imdustry. The
harmful ones can cause food spoilage and undesirable taste.

Most Common Yeast in Foods

o Candida (beef, grain, beer, and fruit juices)

o Rhodotorula (fresh poultry, shrimps, fish, beef, and surface of butter)
o Saccharomycetes (baker’s and brewer’s yeast, and wine and champagne
yeasts)
o Zygosaccharomyces (useful in shoyu and miso fermentation, but spoils
mayonnaise and salad dressings)
o Genus Torula causes black discoloration of butter.

• Mushrooms

Mushrooms are actually the fruits of fungus. The fungus itself is simply a net of
threadlike fibers called mycelium. They grow in soil, wood or decaying matter.

The function of a mushroom is to produce spores which are the seeds of the fungus.
Some kinds of mushrooms produce their spores on gills (gilled fungi), in pores (pore
fungi); on teeth (tooth fungi); inside a leathery pouch (puffballs); on the inside of shallow
cups (cup fungi, morels); and on the surface of the mushroom (coral fungi and others).
Spores form on these various structures, then fall off to be blown away by the wind or be
carried by animals, water or insects. If a spore lands on a suitable pot, it germinates and
grows into a new mycelium.

The mushrooms most people recognize are the gilled fungi. These typical parasol-
shaped mushrooms have caps with bladelike gills on the underside and stems with or
without rings. The pore fungi are similar in appearance but have a spongy layer of tubes
of pores on the underside of the cap instead of gills.

Edible Mushrooms

Edible mushrooms are used extensively in cooking in many cuisines, notably

Chinese, European, and Japanese. Though mushrooms are commonly thought to have a
little nutritional value, many species are high in fiber and provide vitamins such as
thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, biotin, cobalamins, and ascorbic acid. Though not normally a
significant source of vitamin D, some mushrooms can become such after exposure to
ultraviolet light, although this also darkens their skin. Mushrooms are also sources of
some minerals, including iron, selenium, potassium and phosphorus.

o Puffballs (Lycoperdon spp. and Calvatia spp.)

o Shaggy Mane (Coprinus comatus)
o Coral fungi (Clavariaceae)
o Morels
o Bearded Tooth (Hericium erinaceus)
o Oyster Mushroom (Pleurotus ostreatus)

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o Chanterelles (Cantharellaceae)
o Boletes (Boletaceae)
o Sulfur Shelf (Laetiporus sulphurous)
o Hen-of-the-Woods (Grifola frondosa)

Poisonous Mushrooms

Poisonous mushrooms are hard to distinguish from edible ones. The toxins
involved in mushroom poisoning are produce naturally by the toxic species of this fungus.
Most of them cannot be made nontoxic even with cooking, canning, freezing, or any other
means of processing.

Mushroom poisoning, also known as mycetism, refers to the deleterious effects

caused by the ingestion of toxic substances present in a mushroom. These symptoms can
vary from slight gastrointestinal discomfort to death. The toxins present are secondary
metabolites produced in specific biochemical pathways in the fungal cells.

Mushroom poisoning is usually acute and the severity of symptoms depends on

how much and the kind of species eaten. There are three categories of mushroom
poisoning:

1. Protoplasmic – The results in the generalized destruction of cells followed by

organ failure
2. Neurologic – This causes hallucinations, depression, coma and convulsion.
3. Gastrointestinal – This includes spastic colon, rapid nausea and vomiting,
abdominal cramps, and diarrhea.

There is quick and easy test that will separate edible mushrooms from poisonous
ones, even with peeling the cap, testing with a silver spoon, checking for insect damage
or any other folk method. To avoid mushroom poisoning, follow these five rules:

1. Identify each and every mushroom you collect, and only eat those whose
identification you are sure of. When in doubt, throw it out.
2. Strictly avoid any mushroom that looks like amanita (parasol-shaped
mushrooms with white gills), little brown mushrooms, and false morels.
3. Some people are allergic to even the safest mushrooms. The first time you try
a wild new mushroom, eat only a small amount and wait for 24 hours before
eating more.
4. As with other foods, rotting mushrooms can make you ill. Eat only firm, fresh,
undecayed mushrooms.
5. Most wild mushrooms should not be eaten raw or in large quantities, since
they are difficult to digest.
Poisonous Mushrooms:
o Amanitas
o False Morels (Helvella and Gyromitra spp.)
o Little Brown Mushrooms

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o Jack O’ Lantern (Omphalotus olearius)

o Green-Spored Lepiota (Chlorophyllum molybdites

Foodborne Illnesses caused by Prions

Prions refer to proteinaceous infectious particles (PrP). They are small

glycosylated protein molecules found in brain cell membranes. Prion disease, also called
transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs), create spongiform pathological
changes in the brain, resulting in encephalopathy or brain damage. Prion diseases are
fatal neuro-degenerative disorders in humans and other animals.

Mad Cow disease is the best known bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE). An
infected cow is observed to be disoriented, irritable, and unable to stand or walk properly.
BSE is a chronic, degenerative disease that affects the central nervous system of cattle.

Creutzfeldt-Jacob Disease (CJD) is a rare and fatal neurodegenerative disease in

humans.

How to Control Microbial Growth

Any method to slow down the pathogenic organism, or totally kill them, based on
the application of the principles of FATTOM will prevent/reduce the incidence of
foodborne illnesses. Food preservation technique, whatever traditional or newer ones,
are effective means of prolonging the shelf life of foods, and improving palatability
qualities in some cases because of their effects on microbial life and growth.

Methods on How to Control Microbial Growth

1. Application of Heat
2. Application of Low Temperatures
3. Controlling of pH conditions
4. Reduction of Free Oxygen
5. Reduction of Available Water
6. Role of other Chemicals
7. Safe and Sanitary Food Handling

Prevention of Foodborne Illnesses

Most cases of foodborne illnesses can be prevented through proper cooking or
processing of the food. In addition, because bacteria multiply rapidly between 40°F and
140°F, food must be kept out of this temperature range. Follow these tips to prevent
harmful bacteria from growing in food:

Food Preparation Stage

o Refrigerate food promptly. If prepared food stands at room temperature

for more than two hours, it may not be safe to eat anymore. Set your
refrigerator at 40°F or lower and your freezer at 0°F.

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o Prevent cross-contamination. Bacteria can spread from one food product

to another throughout the kitchen and can get onto cutting boards, knives,
sponges, and counter tops. Keep raw meat, poultry, seafood, and their
juices away from ready-to-eat foods.
o Handle food properly. Always wash your hands for at least 20 seconds with
warm, soapy water before and after handling raw meat, poultry, fish,
shellfish, produce, or eggs. Wash your hands after using the bathroom,
changing diapers, or touching animals.
o Wash utensils and surfaces before and after use with hot, soapy water.
Better still, sanitize them with diluted bleach – one teaspoon of bleach to
one quart of hot water.
o Wash sponges and dish towels weekly in hot water in the washing machine.

Food Processing Stage (Cooking)

Cook food with the appropriate internal temperature: 145°F for roasts, steaks,
and chops of beef, veal, and lamb; 160°F for pork, ground veal, and ground beef; 165°F
for ground poultry; and 180°F for whole poultry. Use a meat thermometer to be sure.
Foods are properly cooked only when they are heated long enough and at a high enough
temperature to kill the harmful bacteria that cause illnesses.

Food Storage Stage

o Keep cold food cold and hot food hot.

o Maintain hot, cooked food at 140°F or higher
o Reheat cooked food at least 165°F.
o Refrigerate or freeze perishables, produce, prepared food, and leftovers
within two hours.
o Never defrost food on the kitchen counter. Use the refrigerator; cold,
running water; or the microwave oven.
o Never let food marinate at room temperature – refrigerate it.
o Divide large amounts of leftovers into small, shallow containers for quick
cooling in the refrigerator.
o Remove the stuffing from poultry and other meat immediately and
refrigerate in a separate container.
o Wash all unpackaged, and packaged and not marked ‘pre-washed”, fruits
and vegetables, under running water just before eating, cutting or cooking.
Scrub firm produce, such as melons and cucumbers, with a clean produce
brush. Dry all produce with a paper towel to further reduce any possible
bacterial growth.
o Do not overcrowd the refrigerator. Cool air must circulate to keep food safe.

CHEMICAL HAZARDS
The contamination of food by chemical hazards is a worldwide public health
concern and is a leading cause of trade problems internationally. Contamination may

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occur through environmental pollution of the air, water, and soil, such as the case with
toxic metals, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and dioxins, or through the intentional
use of various chemicals, such as pesticides, animal drugs, and other agrochemicals.

Chemical hazards in food include chemical compounds that, when a sufficient

amount is consumed, can inhibit absorption and/or destroy nutrients. These hazards are
carcinogenic, mutagenic, and teratogenic. Their toxicity can cause severe illnesses and
possibly death because of their toxological effect on the human body.

All chemicals are poisonous, especially when ingested at toxic levels, with toxicity
defined at many levels depending on the substances dealt with. Even nutrients essential
to life such as sodium, iron, copper, and iodine can be poisonous. Table salt (sodium
chloride) becomes a poison, even lethal in a healthy person, when 12 ounces are
consumed at one time. Although some chemical preservatives and other food additives
are beneficial, they can also be toxic in excessive amounts.

Naturally Occurring Chemicals

• Ciguatoxin
Ciguatoxin is an example of a fish-poisoning intoxication from the consumption
of tropical fish. The origin of the toxin is from minute sea creatures called algae.
The toxin is heat stable and cannot be destroyed by cooking. Different marine
fish ingest algae containing toxin, which accumulates in the fish over time.
Symptoms of ciguatoxin poisoning include common foodborne illness
symptoms and unique symptoms including weakness and slight paralysis of the
mouth, tongue, throat, hands, and feet.
• Scombrotoxin
Scombrotoxin, also called histamine poisoning, is caused by eating foods high
in chemical compound called histamine. Histamine is usually produced by
bacteria when they decompose foods. It is not destroyed by cooking. Unique
symptoms of illness include dizziness, a burning sensation, facial rash or hives,
and a peppery taste in the mouth.
• Shellfish Toxins
There are numerous examples of shellfish toxins. The most common include
paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP), diarrheic shellfish poisoning (DSP),
amnesic shellfish poisoning (ASP), and neurotoxic shellfish poisoning
(NSP). All involve an accumulation of toxins produced in shellfish.
• Mycotoxins
Foodborne molds can produce chemical compounds called mycotoxins.
Mycotoxins have been linked to cancer.
There are several molds that produce mycotoxins. A common mycotoxin called
aflatoxin is produced by the Aspergillus spp. Mycotoxins are commonly found
in dry and/or acidic foods. Common foods containing mycotoxins include corn,
nuts, and grains. Several mycotoxins cannot be destroyed even after the food is
cooked.

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Added Chemicals
There is a long list of chemicals added to foods which can pose health risks.
Intentionally added chemicals may include food activities, food preservatives, and
pesticides. Pesticides leave residues on fruits and vegetables, and can usually be removed
by a vigorous washing procedure or by peeling off the produce skin. Use of intended food
activities is regulated by the Food and Drug Administration and Environmental
Protection Agency to assure that they are safe.

Chemical hazards can be divided into three general categories: poisonous

substances, adverse food reactions (food allergy food sensitivity), and nutritious issues.

Poisonous Substances
Toxic plant material includes solanin in potatoes; hemagglutinnins and protease
inhibitors in raw beans and peas; cyanogens in fruit kernels; and phytoalexins in sweet
potatoes, celery, and parsnips. Several of these compounds can be eliminated by
preparation methods.
Intentional food additives include GRAS (generally recognized as safe) compounds
that may have inadvertently been added in excessive amounts. Examples include
excessive addition of nitrites and nitrates in processed meat, excessive use of
monosodium glutamate in prepared foods, and excessive use of sulphites in dried fruits
and wine.
Chemicals created by the process include those created when meat is broiled
excessively over hot charcoal and when fat or oil has been heated excessively or for a long
time. Some contaminants produced include polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons,
heterocyclic amines, nitropyrenes, nitrosamines, ethyl carbamate (urethane), and
chloropropanols.
Agricultural chemicals include pesticides and herbicides. With the increased
utilisation of chemicals in agriculture and animal husbandry, the chances of chemical food
contamination are growing throughout the world. Agricultural chemicals have a great
impact on water systems. When it rains, these toxic substances are carried into rivers and
lakes, affecting fish and aquatic plant life as well as water supplies.
Animal antibiotics and other drug residues are also a problem in terms of
foodborne illness hazards. Drug residues in food can cause violent allergic reactions in
sensitive people who consume these products.
Unintentional additives or accidental addition of toxic substances during food
handling in the food service and food production operations can also occur. This type of
hazard is often traced to storage of toxic cleaning and sanitizing chemicals in food storage
containers.
Equipment material, such as copper or lead from pipes or soldering material, can
likewise leach into food and water causing heavy metal poisoning.
Package material can leach as well. In the US, the past, there was a concern about
the leaching of lead from the solder of can seams and polychlorinated biphenyls from

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cardboard packages. Since then, these compounds have been almost completely
eliminated from packaging systems.
Heavy metals and radioactive isotopes from industries can also find their way into
food, usually through water sources. An example of this is the level of mercury in fish
taken from lakes and rivers.
Sometimes, a poisonous substance in food can be controlled (diminished to a minimal
risk) if the food is washed or heated (cooked) sufficiently. However, the best strategy is for the
food operator to keep harmful substances out of the food by purchasing supplies produced
under controlled growing, harvesting, processing, and storage conditions.

Adverse Food Reactions

About1%of the population is allergic to compounds (usually certain proteins)
found in food. Allergic reactions may be caused by many types of foods, including milk,
eggs, fish, seafood, legumes, tree nuts, and wheat. Other foods, including citrus fruits,
melons, bananas, tomatoes, corn, barley, rice, and celery, can cause allergic reactions in a
few sensitive individuals. In hospitals especially, medical personnel develop sensitivities
to latex in gloves; if a food worker prepares food using latex gloves; that can be enough
transfer of latex to cause a reaction in the consumer.
Allergic reactions vary with each individual’s sensitivity. Some allergic reactions
are mild. However, some people are very sensitive. If they consume an offending food,
life-threatening anaphylactic shock can occur within minutes after the food is ingested.
An emphasis must be put on training the staff to understand the serious nature of food
allergies. Food personnel must know, or be able to find, an accurate list of all the
ingredients in the food served to customers should they request for this information.
Even cross-contact of one food by another can pose a problem for highly sensitive
individuals.

Chemical Detection and Monitoring

Food establishments must know the regulations and get professional help in
detecting/identifying and monitoring chemical hazards.

Food handlers and consumers should strive to obtain as much information about
these factors as possible. The more information known about chemical contamination,
the better prepared health officials will be in treating the victims, minimizing long-term
effects to human health and environment, and prevent future incidents.

In the Philippines, guidelines for the safe use of pest control chemicals are within
the jurisdiction of the Fertilizer and Pesticide Authority. Appropriate permits are needed
for such chemicals.

Prompt Documentation and Reporting of Chemical Contamination and

Poisoning

Effective control of chemical hazard depends on the prompt detection and

reporting made to local health authorities. Food service personnel will typically be the
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first responders in cases of poisoning emergencies, which is why they should be aware of
chemical contamination to protect themselves as well as the consumers.

Guidelines in Preventing Chemical Hazards in Food Establishments

Fish Toxins

• Buy from reliable sources. Do not buy fish caught from sports fishing or
polluted rivers and lakes.
• Do not accept deliveries of fish and shellfish that have been thawed and
refrozen. The common signs are freezer burns, excessive frost, and dehydrated
edible portions.
• Reliable suppliers describe the acceptable fish as fresh or fresh frozen. For
fresh fish, the temperature must not be higher than 5°C upon receipt.
• Store frozen fish promptly. Thaw properly and quickly below 5°C.
• Cook food thoroughly.

Plant Toxin

• Examine for mycotoxins. Purchase products that are visibly free from molds,
yeast, or any signs of deterioration. Grains and nuts should be dry and fresh
looking.
• Store foods properly. Observe the right temperature and humidity conditions
and proper packaging. Avoid prolonged storage.
• Do not eat wild mushrooms or varieties unfamiliar to you. To be certain, buy
and serve only those traditionally used and tested to be fit for consumption.
• Cook thoroughly. Many plant toxins are destroyed by heat.
• Some beans, like fava beans and red kidney beans, are not safe to eat when
undercooked.
• Potatoes that have thick green layer underneath the skin should be rejected.
Do not serve them. However, if the layer is thin, it can be peeled off.

PHYSICAL HAZARDS
Physical hazards are either foreign materials unintentionally introduced to food
products or naturally occurring objects that pose threats to the consumer. A physical
hazard can become included in a food product at any stage of production.

In physical hazards, a foreign object that causes injury or harm is easily identified
and is the most frequent reason of consumer complaints. Statistically, physical hazards
may not be as important as other food hazards. However, they can be considered
obnoxious, irritating, unsightly, and inconvenient, and can cause the commercial food
establishment to lose its customers.

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Main Types of Physical Hazards in Food

• Food – common sources are egg shells, fruit and vegetable peels, inedible
seeds, and fish scales.
• Glass – common sources found in food processing facilities are light bulbs,
glass containers, and glass food containers.
• Metal – common sources of metal include metal equipment, such as splinters,
blades, broken needles, fragments from worn utensils, staples, etc.
• Plastic – common sources of soft and hard plastics include material used for
packaging, gloves worn by food handlers, utensils used for cleaning
equipment, and parts of tools use to remove processed food from equipment.
• Stone – Field crops, such as peas and beans, are most likely to contain small
stones that are picked up during harvesting. Concrete structures and floors in
food processing facilities can also be a source of small stones.
• Wood – common sources of wood come from wood structures and wooden
pallets used to store or transport ingredients or food products.
• Cloth – common sources are fragments of rags, hot pads, and sponges.
• Insects and rodents – common sources are fur, hair, fecal pellets, eggs, wings,
legs, nesting materials, and discarded seed shells.
• Personal effects – common sources are the food handlers themselves. This
would include their hair, nails, jewelry, bandages, and cigarette butts.

Examples of injuries as a result of physical hazards are cuts to the mouth or throat,
damage to teeth or gums, cuts in the hand, infection, burns, damage to the intestines, and
choking. The latter could be life threatening and is considered the most serious
consequence, even resulting in the filling of legal suits. In severe situations, physical
hazards can even cause death, in which financial obligations by the party involved would
be tremendous.

Choking and Preventive Measures

Choking occurs when food or small objects get caught in the throat or block the
airway, preventing oxygen from travelling to the lungs and brain. After more than four
minutes without oxygen, brain damage or death may occur.

Choking may be caused by the food itself, depending on the texture, size of the
bolus, and shape. Examples are sticky and gummy food, long cylindrical pieces, big
spherical objects, or big bolus of food. These items could block the air passage or go to
the windpipe, instead of passing to the esophagus.

Infants, young children, the elderly, or a person suffering from dysphagia

(impaired swallowing reflex) are vulnerable to choking or asphyxiation. Old age, poor
dentition, and alcohol consumption also contribute to choking on food. Large pieces of
food should not be given to children, the elderly, or to any individuals who are incapable
of chewing the food before swallowing it. It is also beneficial to be trained to perform the

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Heimlich maneuver and cardio pulmonary resuscitation, or to travel with those who are
trained in these procedures

The Consumer Product Safety Commission and the FDA established the following
guidelines to determine whether the foreign material present in the food consumed is
physically hazardous or not:

• A spherical object under 1.75 inches in diameter, is dangerous to children

below three years old.
• Bones over two centimeters are likely to cause injury. Less than one
centimeter is not considered a hazard.
• Any sharp, pointed object equal or greater than seven millimetres is
considered a physical hazard.

However, irrespective of the size and shape, safety issues are still considered on a
case-to-case basis because of other factors like age, ability to swallow, and condition of
the oral cavity. The texture and consistency of the food is also a determining factor.

Thermal hazard includes serving hot food that, when consumed or spilled on
people, can cause severe burns or tissue injury. When hot foods are served, people must
be warned to handle them properly. It is better for food to be served at temperatures that
will not cause injury or harm. Examples of food causing injury to consumers include pizza,
cream soups chocolate, and coffee served at 170°F (76.7°C) or above; jelly Bismarcks
overheated in a microwave; and baby food or baby formula overheated in a microwave
oven in temperatures exceeding 120°F (48.9°C).

Prevention of Common Physical Hazards

• Inspect raw materials and food ingredients for field contaminants that were
not found during the initial receiving process.
• Follow good storage practices and evaluate potential risks in storage areas.
• Develop specifications and controls for all ingredients and components,
including raw and packaging materials. Specifications should contain
standards for evaluating the acceptability of ingredients or packaging
materials.
• Set up an effective detection and elimination system for physical hazards in
your facility.
• Properly and regularly maintain the equipment in the facility to avoid sources
of physical hazards, such as foreign materials that can come from worn out
equipment.
• Maintain sufficient lighting in work areas and dining rooms to make it more
conducive for identifying any foreign object that may have been accidentally
added to the food. Light bulbs should be protected with an unbreakable shield.

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• Periodic employee training on shipping, receiving, storing, handling,

maintaining and calibrating of equipment will also help prevent physical
hazards from being introduced to food products.

Detection and Elimination of Physical Hazards

• Metal detectors are used to detect metal in food products.
• Magnets can be used with metal detectors on food production lines to attract
and remove metal from products.
• X-ray machines can be used on food production lines to identify hazards such
as stones, bones and hard plastics, as well as metal.
• Food radar systems transmit low-power microwaves through food products
to identify foreign bodies on production lines.

You have just finished reading the contents of this

chapter – Foodborne Illnesses and Potential
Hazards!
To assess your level of understanding and comprehension,
you may now proceed to your “Assessment of Learning
Tasks and Worksheets” and answer the exercises on pages
9-13.
Good Luck!

You are now ready to proceed to the next chapter.

God bless and have a nice day!

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Chapter
The Food Product Flow RISK MANAGEMENT
4 AS APPLIED TO SAFETY SECURITY AND SANITATION
Chapter 4

“To be interested in food but not in the food production

is clearly absurd.
– Wendell Berry

FOOD FLOW
At the end of this chapter, the The flow of food describes what happens to food
students are expected; from the time it enters the workplace until it is served to
the customers.
❖ Understand the correct ways in
purchasing and receiving foods; Food Product Flow to refers to a process of:
❖ Know the appropriate method of
storing food; • Receiving;
❖ Recognize the significance of • Storing;
time and temperature as factors
affecting food safety; and • Preparing;
❖ Demonstrate sanitation practices • Cooking;
in thawing, preparing, and • Holding;
cooking of food. • Serving;
• Cooling; and
• Reheating that the food goes through in a food
service facility.

Each step in the flow of food is a general food safety procedure that should be
followed to help reduce the risk of contamination and mishandling which could
consequently lead to foodborne illness outbreaks.

PURCHASING
Effective purchasing paves the way for a successful food service operations.
Purchasing is a highly skill-based activity that requires a wide-ranging knowledge of
products and market conditions.

Purchasing involves obtaining foods in the right quantity, of the best quality, at the
right time, in the right place, and for the most economical price. A quality-control program
in a foodservice establishment should ensure that only foods which meet written
specifications are purchased from reputable vendors. A good purchaser considers the
price, supply, and demand, transportation, and storage cost before placing an order. Food
can easily be contaminated during the various stages of the food flow, which is why time
and correct temperatures need to be monitored closely.

The main objectives of an effective purchasing program are to:

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• Buy the product that is best suited for the job;

• Buy the proper quantity;
• Pay the right price, and;
• Deal with only reputable, dependable suppliers.

Purchase specifications are important to both the buyer and the management. The
following are the guidelines that detail the characteristics of a product:

• Quality grade
• Weight
• Count
• Contents
• Packaging

Specifications make the task of comparison shopping easier, since the

characteristics of a product are expressed in a common language and can be used as a
basis for evaluation.

Guidelines to Purchasing Food

1. Understand regulations for specific Foods.
• Purchase packaged or processed foods only from suppliers who receive their
products from licensed, reputable purveyors and manufacturers who adhere
to good manufacturing practices.
• Fresh produce may be purchased directly from local growers as there is no
inspection process for these non-potentially hazardous foods (with the
exception of melons and fresh alfalfa sprouts). When making direct purchases,
buyers should ensure the packages are clean and will maintain the integrity of
the item, as communicated through product specifications.
• Meat and eggs may be purchased from local producers, but because these
foods are considered potentially hazardous, the products must be inspected
for safety. Beef or pork processed in a state-inspected locker may be purchased
by a food service operation. Poultry must also be processed in a state-
inspected locker or facility. These facilities are required to have HACCP plans
in place. State inspection is sufficient if the food is purchased by a food service
within the same state.
• Only pasteurized dairy products should be purchased for service in facilities
serving the elderly. Pasteurized shell or processed eggs should be purchased
for menu items not receiving heat treatment or not reaching 63°C. Pasteurized
apple juice and cider can also be purchased for service to elderly populations.
2. Visit approved vendors to ensure that they maintain clean warehouses.
3. Observe delivery vehicles to ensure that they are clean and that they practice
temperature control.
4. Use written product specifications to ensure that the vendors know what is to be
ordered.

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Responsibility of a Manager
1. Develop and implement written product specifications to ensure the products
purchased consistently meet department expectations.
2. Coordinate delivery times with vendors/suppliers to ensure that deliveries are
made at times when they can be stored immediately. Schedule receiving times
when product quantity and quality, including product temperatures, can be
checked.
3. Review orders and delivery information to ensure orders and product
specifications are met.
4. Request a written letter from all vendors indicating that they follow either a
HACCP program or good manufacturing practices.
5. Follow up as necessary.

RECEIVING
Strict procedures should be followed when foods are received. All food should be
checked for proper conditions once they are received by the facility. When a delivery is
made, it should be checked for both quality and quantity. Temperature and time are the
two most important factors control. The staff of a food service establishment should
check for temperatures and conditions of received foods at once, so they may be stored
as soon as possible.

All refrigerated foods should be put away quickly to prevent time and temperature
abuse. Frozen foods should not have large ice crystals, be discolored or dried out. Canned
goods should have labels, and no swelling, flawed seams, rust, or dents. Never accept
home-canned foods to prevent the risk of botulism.

General Principles when Receiving Food

1. Receive only one delivery at a time from approved suppliers.
2. Check to make sure frozen food is solid and does not show any evidence of thawing
and re-freezing.
3. Record the date received, and if applicable, an expiration date, on the outside of
each package.
4. Remove PHF from the temperature danger zone (5°C to 60°C) and place in storage
as quickly as possible.
5. Check to ensure that refrigerated foods are received below 5°C.
6. Accept only pasteurized dairy products.
7. Reject PHF that are not at acceptable temperature, and cans with swelled tops or
bottoms, leakage, flawed seals, rust, or dents.
8. Evaluate the quality products through their odor, look, and texture. Reject
unacceptable ones. Products must meet specifications and quality requirements.
If any foods are deemed unacceptable, they should be declined and put in a
designated area for credit.

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Receiving Frozen and Refrigerated Foods

1. Check the product’s temperature with a calibrated thermometer to assure that

cold foods, especially PHF, are below 5°C.
2. Reject, with the exemption of fresh shell eggs (7°C), all foods that are supposed to
be stored below 5 0 C and are delivered above 5°C.
3. Check at random and record the temperature of three different types of food items
immediately for each delivery. Record the date, employee initials, vendor, product
name, and temperature of these products in the receiving temperature log.
4. Place foods in the proper storage are (cooler or freezer) quickly to avoid potential
bacterial growth. Proper cool temperatures are 5°C or lower. Proper deep chill
storage temperatures are from -3°C to 0°C or below. Proper freezer temperatures
are -17°C. Proper dry storage temperatures are between 10°C to 21°C at 50% to
60% humidity.
5. Use the first in first out (FIFO) inventory rotation of products in all storage areas
to assure that the oldest products are used first. Products with the earliest use- by
or expiration dates should be stored in front of products with later dates.
6. Keep products in original packages until use.

Receiving Dry Goods

1. Check dry goods for leaks, flaws, or broken packages. Dry goods should be dry, and
free of mold and insects. If the packages are flawed, they should be rejected and
pull in a designated area for credit.
2. Inspect cans for leaks, incomplete labels, dents, bulges, and other visible signs of
damage. Notify the manager if a damaged can is found.
3. Date boxes and cans with their receiving dates.
4. Separate chemicals from foods.
5. Check delivery invoice against the items delivered and the purchase order.
6. When damaged items are found, the manager or designee should call the
distributor so the product can be picked up and returned and a credit issued.
Similar arrangements can also be made with the delivery personnel. Do not accept
the delivery.
7. Note on the invoice any items that were rejected.

STORING
All food, chemicals, and supplies should be stored in a manner that ensures quality
and maximizes the safety of the food served to the customers.

Cold holding is storing food at 5°C or below. Refrigeration prevents food from
becoming a hazard by slowing the growth of most microbes. Although some organisms,
like Listeria monocytogenes, are significantly slowed down, their growth cannot be
completely stopped by refrigeration.

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A walk-in refrigerator is the major storage area in a food service establishment. Its
temperature must be sufficient to adequately hold the food temperature at 5°C or below.
A walk-in refrigerator is usually colder than 5°C to compensate the opening and closing
of doors and demands of adding additional foods for storage and cooling.

Foods need to be stored to prevent contamination. All cooked food and those that
will receive no further cooking should be stored above other foods. Foods need to be
stored in a manner that allows space for air to circulate around them.

All canned foods and dry ingredients should be stored in a designated area. Foods
should not be stored in areas such as restrooms, furnace rooms, stairwells, or hallways.
They should be kept off the floor and in closed containers.

Storage areas should be well ventilated and pest free. Dry storage areas can
become a food source for rodents and insects. Keeping containers closed, in sound
condition, and off the floor help keep it pest free. Stock rotation is a good management
practice.

Foods and chemicals need to be stored separately. Chemicals should be stored

below and away from foods to prevent chemical contamination.

Storage upon receiving:

1. Place foods in proper storage area (refrigerator or freezer) quickly to avoid

bacterial growth.
• 5°C or lower – refrigerator temperatures.
• -3°C to 0°C or below – deep chill storage temperatures.
• -17° C or below – freezer temperatures.
• 10°C to 21°C at 50% to 60% humidity – dry storage temperatures.
2. Place foods in appropriate storage area immediately upon receipt in the following
order:
a) Refrigerated foods – store foods in designated refrigerators. If food products
are stored together in a refrigerator, they should be placed on shelves in the
following order:
• Prepared or ready-to-eat foods
• Fish and seafood items
• Whole cuts of raw beef
• Whole cuts of raw pork
• Ground or processed meat
• Raw poultry
b) Frozen foods
c) Dry goods
3. Keep all food items on shelves that are at least six inches above the floor to
facilitate air circulation and proper cleaning.\
4. Store food away from direct sunlight.

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5. Place chemicals and supplies in appropriate storage areas, away from food.
6. Rotate goods when placing them storage by placing the new items behind the old
ones to ensure that the older items are used first (FIFO inventory rotation).
7. Make sure all goods are dated with their receiving and expiration dates.
8. Store foods in their original container if the container is clean, dry and intact. If
necessary, repackage food in clean, well- labelled, airtight containers. This can also
be done after a package has been opened. Food should never be put in chemical
containers and chemicals should never be placed in food storage containers.
9. Store PHF no longer than seven days at 5°C from date of preparation.
10. Store pesticides and chemicals away from food handling and storage area. They
must be stored in their original, labelled containers.

Storeroom Sanitation:

1. Maintain clean and uncluttered storage area. Storage areas should be positioned
to prevent contamination from areas where garbage is stored.
2. Dispose items that are beyond their expiration dates.
3. Store all items on shelves that are at least six inches above the floor to facilitate air
circulation and proper cleaning.
4. Check for signs of rodents and insects. If there are signs of their presence, notify
the food service manager.

Temperature Control:

1. Check the temperature of all refrigerators, freezers and dry storerooms at the
beginning of each shift. This includes both internal and external thermometers
when appropriate.
• Refrigerator temperatures should be between 2°C and 5°C.
• Freezer temperatures should be between -23°C and -17°C.
• Storeroom (dry storage) temperatures should be between 10°C and 21°C.
2. Record temperatures, as well as the employee’s initials, on the appropriate
temperature log.
3. Take corrective actions if temperatures are out of the recommended range.
4. Do not overload refrigerated storage areas as this prevents air flow and makes the
unit work harder to stay cold.
5. Be cautious when cooling hot food in the refrigerator, as this warms the unit and
can put other foods into the temperature danger zone.
6. Keep units closed as much as possible to maintain proper temperatures.
7. Defrost units on a regular schedule to aid in proper maintenance and air
circulation.

Responsibilities of a Food Service Manager:

1. Check logs and temperatures of storage rooms, freezers, and refrigerators.

2. Review logs to make sure there are no temperatures deviations.
3. Document all corrective actions taken on the appropriate forms.

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4. File logs with HACCP records.

THAWING
All foods should be thawed using the appropriate practices to ensure food safety.
Thawing foods may take several hours or days depending on the size of the food item
being thawed. This must be done to reduce the risk of cross- contamination and lessen
the time that PHF is in the temperature danger zone (5°C to 60°C).

Steps for Thawing Food:

1. Use one of the three acceptable methods for thawing food:

a) Thaw food in the refrigerator at 5°C or below. Never thaw food at room
temperature.
b) Thaw food that is needed for immediate service under potable running
water at 21°C or lower. Prepare the product within hours of thawing.
c) Thaw the product in the microwave if it needs to be cooked immediately.
2. Use the lowest shelf in the cooler for thawing raw meat to prevent cross-
contamination and separate raw products from cooked and ready-to-eat
products.
3. Do not freeze thawed food, unless they are cooked or processed.

Responsibilities of a Food Service Manager:

1. Review procedures to assure they are done correctly.

2. Take corrective actions as necessary.
3. Follow up as necessary.

PREPARING
The preparation and service of foods can involve one or more steps. Regardless of
how many steps may be involved in food production and service, foodborne illness
prevention requires effective food safety measures to ensure good personal hygiene and
avoid cross-contamination and temperature abuse.

During preparation, an important technique that can be used to promote safety is

“small batch” preparation. Food preparation is usually done at room temperature. This is
several degrees into the temperature danger zone. The amount of time in the danger zone
should be limited by working with small, manageable amounts of potentially hazardous
ingredients.

Guidelines in Preparing Safe Food:

1. Start with clean, wholesome foods from reputable suppliers. Whenever applicable,
buy government-inspected meat, dairy and egg products.
2. Handle foods as little as possible. Use tongs, spatulas, or other utensils instead of
hands.

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3. Use clean, sanitized equipment and work tables. Clean and sanitize cutting
surfaces and equipment after handling raw poultry, meat, fish, or eggs and before
working to another food.
4. Clean as you go. Do not wait to clean the work place until the end of the workday.
5. Wash raw fruits and vegetables thoroughly.
6. When bringing foods out of refrigeration, do not bring out more than what can be
processed in an hour.
7. Keep foods covered whenever possible unless in immediate use.
8. Do not mix leftover with freshly prepared foods.
9. Chill all ingredients for protein and potato salads before combining.

Keeping Food out of the Temperature Danger Zone

Anytime the food is in the temperature danger zone, bacterial growth can occur.
The danger zone is between the ranges 5°C to 60°C.

1. Limit the time food is in the temperature danger zone. Remember from receiving
to service, food should not be in the zone for more than four hours total.
2. Use a food thermometer to take temperatures. Most menu items have specific time
and temperature requirements for cooking. Insert the thermometer in different
areas of the product, especially in the thickest part. Remember, the temperature
of the equipment (stove, oven, steam, table, etc.) is not the best temperature to
check.
3. Use batch cooking (preparing food in small amounts).
a) Thaw only what is needed, and keep the rest refrigerated.
b) Work only with an amount that can be prepared in less than four hours.
Return the food to the refrigerator if something else needs to be done.
c) Cook the food as close to serving time as possible.

Food Thermometers

Food thermometers should be used frequently to maintain food temperature

control. They can measure internal temperatures ranging from -18°C to 104°C. Food
temperatures should be checked with a thermometer regularly. Foods used in outdoors
service or in an excessively warm room will require more frequent checking. The food
service operator may also want to record the temperature readings in a log. This can be
very helpful should food temperature issue arise at a later time.

The following are the most commonly used thermometers:

1. Bimetal Instant Read (most common food thermometer)

2. Thermocouple
3. Bimetal-Oven Safe
4. Digital
5. Infrared
6. Oven Thermometer

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Preparing Cold Food:

Temperatures of all cold food should be taken during preparation to ensure the
safety of all food served. Food must be prepared using appropriate practices and
procedures to ensure safety and sanitation.

Employees preparing cold food should:

Take Temperatures:

1. Use a calibrated thermometer to take the temperatures of PHF products.

2. Wipe the thermometer stem with alcohol wipes prior to and after taking the
temperatures of food; or wash, rinse, and sanitize the stem.
3. Record temperatures in the Service Temperature Record.

Prepare Cold Foods:

1. Pre-chill ingredients for food that needs to be served cold (sandwiches and salads)
to below 5°C before combining them together.
2. Discard thawed PHF that has been above 5°C for more than four hours.
3. Discard cold PHF after four hours if they have not been properly held below 5° C.

Maintain food contact surfaces:

1. When possible, use color-coded cutting boards for all products – red for raw
meat, green for vegetables, or fruits, and yellow for raw poultry.
2. Food contact surfaces should be smooth, can be easily cleaned and sanitized,
and made of the appropriate material.
3. Clean and sanitize all food contact surfaces prior to and after use. Cleaning and
sanitizing steps need to be done separately for effectiveness.

Prepare foods:

1. Prepare food at room temperature in two hours or less. The food item should
be returned to the refrigerator in cases where it cannot be used at once. The
total time of food at room temperature should not exceed four hours.
2. Prepare raw products away from other products.
3. Clean and sanitize all surfaces, cutting boards, and utensils that have been used
in the preparation of raw meats, poultry, and fish prior to using them for fruits,
vegetables, and ready-to-eat food.

COOKING
All foods will be cooked using appropriate practices and procedures to ensure
safety. This includes properly cooking foods with the required internal temperature and
taking and recording temperatures.

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Cooking is the thermal heating of foods at sufficient temperature over time to kill
microorganisms in the food. Cooking requirements are based on the biology of pathogens
since different species of microorganisms have different susceptibility to heat.

To effectively eliminate pathogens, there are a number of factors to consider, such

as the of pathogens in the raw product, the initial temperature of the food, and the bulk
of the food. Another factor to consider, to kill the pathogenic organisms in food, is that
cooking must heat all parts of the food to their required temperatures.

Food characteristics also contribute to the lethality of cooking temperatures. Heat

penetrates different foods at different rates. While a high fat content reduces the lethality
of heat, high humidity in the cooking container or the moisture content of the food aids
the effectiveness of heat.

Employees involved in the production of food must complete the following steps:

Prepare hot foods.

1. Cook hot foods to these minimum end- point temperatures or higher. Avoid
overcooking. Use a calibrated thermometer to check the product’s temperature in
the thickest part of the item.
CRITICAL LIMITS OF FIRST FACILITY

Food Type Minimum Internal Temperature at

Minimum Time Before Serving
Poultry 74°C for 15 seconds
Stuffing, stuffed meat, casseroles, and other
74°C for 15 seconds
dishes combing raw and cooked foods
74°C;
Potentially hazardous foods cooked in
Let food stand for two minutes after cooking; stir
microwaves
during the cooking process
Ground or flaked meat 68°C for 15 seconds
Pork 63°C for 15 seconds
Beef and pork roasts 63°C for 4 minutes
Beef steaks, veal, and lamb 63°C for 15 seconds
Commercially raised game animals 63°C for 15 seconds
Fish, and foods containing fish 63°C for 15 seconds
Shell eggs (for immediate service)
Note: If it is not fully cooked, used 63°C for 15 seconds
pasteurized eggs.
Vegetables (canned, frozen, fresh) 57°C for 15 seconds (held above 57°C)
Ready-to-eat commercially processed and
57°C for 15 seconds (held above 57°C)
packages foods

2. Take end-point cooking temperatures.

3. Reduce the holding time of foods before serving by using batch cooling.
4. Allow the cooking equipment to return to their required temperatures between
batches.
5. Do not use hot holding equipment to cook or reheat foods.

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6. Expose food ingredients to room temperature for two hours or less. Food items
should be returned to refrigerator if not used at once. The total time that food can
be at room temperature shall not exceed four hours.
7. Prepare products that will not be cooked or heated away from other products.

Take temperatures.

1. Use a calibrated thermometer to take the temperatures of all PHF products by

batch.
2. Wipe the thermometer stem with alcohol wipes prior to and after taking the
temperatures of each food, or wash, rinse, and sanitize the stem. Open the sanitizer
package with clean hands.
3. Take temperatures in the thickest part of a food item (usually the center). Two
readings should be taken in different locations to assure thorough cooking on the
appropriate end-point temperature.
4. Record the end-point cooking temperature on the cooked food temperature log.

Responsibilities of a Food Service Manager:

1. Review logs daily to ensure that temperatures and corrective actions are being
met and to take corrective action as necessary.
2. Follow up as necessary and file logs with HACCP records.

HOLDING
Once a food is heated or cooked, the food must be maintained at a holding
temperature to limit the growth of bacteria. The correct hot holding temperature is 60 0
C.

Once food has been reheated, the potential for the growth of pathogenic bacteria
is greater than the potential in raw foods. The spoilage organisms that may be present in
the raw foods inhibit the growth of pathogenic organisms by competition. Once a food is
cooked, these spoilage organisms are reduced.

All hot food should be held hot, above 60°C, and cold food should be held cold,
below 5°C. Temperatures of food must be taken routinely to ensure that proper
temperatures are maintained through holding to ensure the safety of the food served,
especially to children. Any conflict between food quality and food safety must always be
decided in favor of food safety. When in doubt about the safety of food, throw it out.

Employees involved in the production or service of food must:

Hold hot food.

1. Prepare and cook only as much food as is needed i.e., use batch cooking.
2. Use hot-holding equipment that can keep hot food at 60°C or higher.
3. Follow the manufacturer’s instructions in using hot-holding equipment. (Note:
customize your SOP by including instructions. – For example, you may need to

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indicate that the steam table wells need to be filled with hot water and at what
level.)
4. Keep hot foods covered to retain heat and to keep contaminants from falling into
the food.
5. Measure internal food temperatures at least every two hours using a probe
thermometer. Record temperatures in a food temperature log. If temperatures are
below 60°C, reheat the food at 74°C.
6. Discard hot food after four hours if they have not been properly held at or above
60 0 C.
7. Do not mix freshly prepared food with food being held for service.
8. Do not add raw food to cooked food.
9. Stir food.

Hold cold food.

1. Use cold-holding equipment that can keep cold foods below 5°C.
2. Measure internal food temperatures at least every two hours using a probe
thermometer. Record temperatures in a food temperature log. If temperatures are
above 5°C refrigerate the food.
3. Protect cold food from contaminants by using covers or food shields.
4. Discard cold PHF after four hours if they have not been properly held below 5°C.
5. Place cold food in pans or on plates, never directly on ice. The only exceptions are
whole fruits and vegetables that need to be washed after holding.
6. Ice used on a display should be self- draining. Wash and sanitize drip pans after
every use.

Responsibilities of a Food Service Manager:

1. Review logs daily to ensure that temperatures and corrective actions are being
met.
2. Follow up as necessary.
3. File temporary logs with HACCP records.

SERVING
Once food has been prepared for serving, it will no longer undergo any heat
treatment. It is therefore important not to recontaminate food by practicing proper
serving methods that would assure the consumers of safe, hygienic food.

Employees involved in the service of food must observe the following procedures:

Cleaning and sanitation.

1. Clean the area on and around the service line using warm, soapy water and clean
cloths. Thoroughly rinse it after cleaning.
2. Sanitize the area on and around the service line, using an approved sanitizer.
3. Wipe down the area before service begins, and as needed throughout the service.

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4. Cloths used for cleaning food spills should not be used for anything else.

Service Utensils/Servicewares:

1. Store utensils properly with the handle extended above the container, or on a
clean, sanitized food-contact surface.
2. Use serving utensils with long handles to keep hands away from the food item.
3. Clean and sanitize utensils before using them. Use separate utensils for each food
item.
4. Handle glassware and dishes properly.
5. Hold flatware and utensils by their handles.

Good Personal Hygiene:

1. Wash hands before handling place setting or food.

2. Do not touch cooked or ready-to-eat foods with bare hands. Always use gloves or
utensils.
3. Wash hands after each task. For example, if an employee will take out clean dished
after loading the dirty ones, a thorough hand washing must be done between the
two tasks. Hand dips are not enough.

Service:

1. Take temperatures of foods at the beginning of each service period.

2. Record temperatures on the service temperature record.
3. Take temperatures of foods when changing their pans to assure that proper serving
temperatures are achieved.

Responsibilities of a Food Service Manager:

1. Supervise employees to ensure that proper service techniques are being followed.
2. Review logs daily to ensure temperatures and corrective actions are being met.
3. Follow up as necessary.
4. File logs with HACCP records.

Service Temperatures
Temperatures of all hot and cold foods are taken during service to ensure foods
are maintained at appropriate temperatures and that food is safe to be served.

Employees who will be setting up the service carts and serving food must follow
the procedures:

1. Use a calibrated thermometer to take temperatures of food products at time of

service.
2. Wipe clean thermometer stem with a new alcohol wipe prior to taking the
temperature of any food item.

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3. Take temperatures of all hot and cold PHF as soon as they are put on the service
cart or just before service. The temperature of milk should also be checked before
they are taken to rooms.
4. Record temperatures on the service temperature log.
5. Check to make sure that all temperatures are within the critical limits:
• Hot foods – above 60° C
• Cold foods – below 5°C
6. Take corrective action, if needed. If hot foods are below 60°C, they must be
reheated to above 74°C before putting on the service cart. If cold foods are 5°C or
above, they must be chilled to below 5°C.

Responsibilities of a Food Service Supervisor:

1. Check the logs on a daily basis to ensure that they are completed and that the
temperatures are appropriate.
2. Review the log to see if there were temperature deviations.
3. Check corrective action taken to determine if it was appropriate.
4. Follow up as necessary.
5. File the logs in the HACCP file located in the main office.

COOLING
Cooling is a process of removing heat from food quickly enough to prevent
microbial growth. One method is by placing foods in shallow containers no deeper than
two inches and leaving them uncovered until cold, 5°C or below.

When PHF is cooled for an extended period, the food is subject to the growth of
variety of pathogenic microorganisms. Bacteria grow ideally between 21°C – 49°C (the
human body temperature falls in this range.) The longer the time period to be held in this
range, the greater risk of microbial growth. Excessive time for cooling PHF has
consistently been identified as one of the leading contributing factors to foodborne
illnesses.
When cooked food will not be served right away (or has leftover and can be saved),
it must be cooled as quickly as possible to prevent microbial growth. Temperatures will
be taken during the cooling process to make sure that time and temperature standards
are met to ascertain the safety of food served to the customers.

There are two acceptable methods of cooling foods, employees involved in the
cooling process of food must observe the following procedures:

One-Stage (Four-Hour) Method

1. Cool hot, cooked food from 57°C within four hours using an appropriate
procedure.
2. Take the temperature after four hours to make sure that the appropriate
temperature was reached.

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3. Reheat food to above 74°C if it has not cooled to 5°C in four hours.

Two-Stage Method (FDA Food Code)

1. Using an appropriate procedure, cool hot, cooked food from 57°C to 21°C or lower
within two hours, and then cool down to 5°C or lower within an additional four
hours, for a total cooling time of six hours.
2. Take temperatures at the two – and six-hour intervals to make sure that the
appropriate temperatures were reached.
3. Reheat food to above 74 0 C if food has not cooled to 5°C in four hours.
Note: the reason that the two-stage method allows six-hours to cool is that in the
first two hours of cooling, the food is passed through the most dangerous part of
the temperature danger zone were the growth of microorganism is ideal.

Factors that Affect How Quickly Foods Cool Down:

1. Size of food – the thickness of the food or distance to its center plays the biggest
part in how fast a food cools.
2. Density of the food – the denser the food, the slower it will cool. Chili soup will
take longer than chicken noodle soup.
3. Container in which a food is stored – stainless steel transfers heat from food faster
than plastic. Initially, loosely wrap food items. Shallow pans allow the heat from
food to disperse faster than deeper pans.
4. Size of the container.

Food may not move through the temperature danger zone fast enough if it is still
hot when placed in the refrigerator or freezer or kept in bulk. The hot food may also raise
the temperature of the surrounding food items, placing them in the temperature danger
zone as well.

There are a few methods that can be used alone or in combination to cool foods
more quickly.

Methods for Cooling Foods:

1. Reduce the quantity of the food being cooled. Cut large food items into smaller pieces
or divide large containers of food into smaller containers.
2. Use blast chillers or tumble chillers to cool food before placing it into the refrigerated
storage.
3. Use ice baths. Divide cooked food into shallow pans or smaller pots, then place them
in ice water and stir food items frequently.
4. Add ice or water as an ingredient. This works for foods that contain water as an
ingredient, such as soup or stew. The recipe can initially be prepared with less water
than is required. Cold water or ice can be added after cooking to cool the product and
to provide the remaining water required in the recipe.
5. Use a steam-jacketed kettle as a cooler. Run cold water through the jacket to cool the
food in the kettle.

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6. Stir foods to cool them faster and more evenly. Ice paddles (Plastic paddles filled with
water and frozen) and chill sticks can be used to stir foods through the cooling
process. Stirring food with these cold paddles chills food very quickly.

Responsibilities of a Food Service Manager:

1. Review logs daily to ensure temperatures and corrective actions are being met.
2. Follow up as necessary.
3. File temperature logs with HACCP records.

REHEATING
Reheating is the thermal process to heat foods that have been previously cooked
and cooled in a food service establishment. Proper reheating can eliminate a major
portion of pathogens as long as the food is heated to 74°C within two hours.

The more a food is processed, the greater the risks are form contamination caused
by personnel, equipment, procedures, and other factors. When food is cooked and cooled,
the product goes through the temperature danger zone several times, thereby increasing
the risks for microbial growth.

Employees reheating food should:

1. Remove leftover food from the freezer/refrigerator.

2. Check the foods’ temperature using a calibrated thermometer to make sure it is
lower than 5°C.
3. Reheat food in an oven, stove, or steamer so that all its parts reach a temperature
reading of 74°C for 15 seconds. The goal is to remove the food from the
temperature danger zone (5°C – 60°C) as quickly as possible. Record the reheated
temperature. Discard food that is still in the temperature danger zone after two
hours.
4. Serve the food immediately, or place the food in a steam table or in a pre-heated
hot cart, and recheck the temperature to make sure it is at or above 60°C.
5. Check the temperature of the food before serving if the food has been held.
6. Discard any PHF held in the temperature danger zone (5°C-60°C) for more than
four hours.

Responsibilities of a Food Service Supervisor:

1. Check the temperature of randomly selected reheated items to be certain that a

74°C temperature was achieved and that the product is held at 60°C or higher.
2. Review temperature logs to assure proper reheating temperatures are achieved.
3. Follow up as necessary and document corrective actions.
4. File temperature logs wit HACCP records.

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TRANSPORTATION OF FOOD
The popularity of temporary and mobile facilities, such as street fairs, festivals,
catering, food sampling, and mobile carts, have increased rapidly during the past decade.
The public patronizes these events in increasing numbers. In addition to the opportunity
for community involvement, commercial and non-commercial organizations find it
profitable to sell food at temporary facilities.

All foods transported from central kitchen to satellite locations (temporary and
mobile food facilities) should be handled in a matter that ensures the quality and safety
of food. Protecting the food and food preparation equipment from contamination is the
function of the structure.

A temporary food stand should have:

1. An overhead covering.
2. An enclosed area, except for the serving windows and an entry door, and;
3. A source of hot and cold potable running water for handwashing, cleaning and
sanitizing.

Employees involved in the production and/or transportation of food from a

central or regional kitchen to a satellite location must be responsible for both the safety
and sanitation of handled food. Steps include:

1. Preheating of the holding equipment

2. Using calibrated thermometers to take temperatures of food
3. Calibrating thermometers weekly or immediately if dropped, and;
4. Recording temperature and time in temperature log.

Responsibilities of Employees at Central or Regional Kitchens:

1. Take temperature of food when it leaves the central kitchen. Hot foods should be
at or above 60°C and cold food should be below 5°C.
2. Record temperatures in the temperature log.
3. Take temperature of food when it is returned from a satellite location.
4. Discard cold foods that are above 5°C.
5. Discard hot foods that are not above 60°C.
6. Chill hot foods that are above 60°C. The product must be cooled to 21°C in two
hours from the last 60°C reading and to 5°C or below in four additional hours. If
that is not possible, dispose of food.
7. Record temperature in the temperature log.
8. Record the product name, date, temperature, and time.\
9. Place chilled food in freezer.

Responsibilities of Employees at Satellite Location:

1. Take temperature of food when it arrives at the satellite location and record.

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2. Check temperature of food on serving lines every two hours, or more often if
temperatures are near the temperature danger zone (5°C-60°C).

Responsibilities of a Food Service Manager:

1. Review logs daily to ensure the temperatures and corrective actions are met.
2. Follow up as necessary.
3. File temperature logs in HACCP file.

You have just finished reading the contents of this

chapter – The Food Product Flow!
To assess your level of understanding and comprehension,
you may now proceed to your “Assessment of Learning
Tasks and Worksheets” and answer the exercises on pages
14-16.

Good Luck!

You are now ready to proceed to the next chapter.

God bless and have a nice day!

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Chapter
Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point RISK MANAGEMENT
5 AS APPLIED TO SAFETY SECURITY AND SANITATION
Chapter 5

“The goal of the food safety professional should be to create a food

safety culture, not a food safety program.”
– Frank Yiannas

The challenge of reducing the number of cases of

foodborne illnesses has made it necessary to reevaluate
At the end of this chapter, the our nation’s food safety system. The food industry and
students are expected; food regulatory agencies are being confronted with a
❖ Understand the importance of the number of new challenges, including:
HACCP system as a food
protection tool; o New germs causing foodborne illnesses;
❖ Identify the types of potentially o The changing nature of our global food
hazardous foods that commonly supply;
require the HACCP system to o New techniques for processing and serving
ensure product safety; and
food;
❖ Comprehend the principles
involved in implementing an
o The changing eating habits of consumers; and
HACCP system. o A growing number of people who are at
increased risk of experiencing foodborne
illnesses.

Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) is a systematic, preventative

approach to food safety that addresses physical, chemical, and biological hazards. As a
means of prevention rather than finished product inspection, it is designed to prevent
problems before they occur and to correct deviations as soon as they are detected. HACCP
is used in the food industry to identify potential food safety hazards, so that key actions,
known as Critical Control Points (CCPs), can be taken to reduce or eliminate the risk of
the hazards. The system is used in all stages of food production and preparation. This
preventive control system, complete with documentation and verification, is widely
recognized by scientific authorities and international organizations as the most effective
approach available for producing safe food.

Today, HACCP is being applied to other industries aside from food, such as
cosmetics and pharmaceuticals. This method, which in effect seeks to eliminate unsafe
practices, differs from the traditional “produce and test” quality assurance methods that
are less successful and inappropriate for highly perishable foods. HACCP is a voluntary
process and helps food service operators or consumers to:

1. Identify foods and procedures most likely to cause illness.

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2. Establish procedures to reduce the risk of foodborne illness outbreaks.

3. Monitor handling practices to ensure food safety.

HACCP HIGHLIGHTS
• Needed for export from certain sectors of the food industry to some countries
• Assures safe production of foods with its pro-active system
• Emphasizes prevention rather than inspection
• Addresses all types of Hazards – microbiological, physical, and chemical
• Can be integrated into a more general quality assurance plan
• Can be implemented in tiny-, small-, medium-, and large-scale enterprises.

HACCP begins with a concept called the flow of food. This term means the process
called the flow of food. This term means the process or purchasing, receiving, storing,
preparing, cooking, holding, serving, cooling, and reheating the food in a food service
operation. Foods are at risk during these different phases.

In each procedure, food workers need to know what standards should be met,
what procedures should be followed to meet the standards, and what should be done if
they are not met. To reduce the chances of making mistakes, these standards and
procedures are written out. Whenever possible, they should be included in the
operation’s recipes.

Procedures must be rechecked when any of the following occurs:

• Recipe changes
• Cooking equipment changes
• Preparation changes for quantity

For HACCP plans to be effective, the unique features of a food operation must be
taken into account. This is because, while the process or steps in preparing foods are often
the same, every food service/catering business is different. There will be different food
safety hazards caused by factors such as:

1. Menus
2. Available working space
3. Type and condition of equipment used
4. Selection and supply of ingredients used
5. Process used for preparation, production, and service of foods
6. Standards of good hygiene practices employed in the operation.

BENEFITS OF AN HACCP-BASED FOOD SAFETY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

Food safety management systems built in accordance with the principles of
HACCP have a clearly defined structure.

Process Based System

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Business will benefit from a clear definition of processes and procedures. Effective
communication and continual process improvement are the cornerstones of a
functioning management system.

Customer Confidence

A controlled food operating environment with an effectively implemented and

applied food safety system will improve customer confidence in the safety of food.

Risk Management

It uses a systematic approach covering all aspects of food production, from raw
materials, processing, distribution, point of sale to consumption, and beyond. It moves a
company from a solely product testing and sampling approach toward a preventative
approach designed to reduce product losses and liabilities.

Management Responsibility

It enables the management to demonstrate their commitment to the production

and supply of safe products.

Relationship Improvement

This system enhances the relationship among organizations in the food chain,
customers, and enforcement agencies.

Records

Record-keeping enables a more efficient, more effective government and

customer oversight. It allows investigators to see how well a firm is complying with food
safety laws over a period of time rather than how well it is doing on any given day.
Documentation within a food safety system facilitates the inspection activities of food
inspectors.

Legal Protection

It has been widely accepted that HACCP-based systems present the food industry
with the most effective management tool to enable the production and supply of safe food.
As such, the adoption of this approach can offer a legal defence in the event of an outbreak
of foodborne diseases.

Trading Benefit

HACCP-based approaches are beneficial to companies seeking to meet customer

and legal requirements in domestic and export markets.

Alignment with Other Management Systems

HACCP-based food safety management systems can be combined with other

management systems such as ISO 9001:2000. This combination provides a hazard

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analysis approach with prerequisite programs along with a framework to manage a food
safety system.

PREREQUISITE PROGRAMS
The production of safe food products requires that the HACCP system be built
upon a solid foundation of prerequisite programs. Each segment of the food industry
must provide the condition necessary to protect food while it is under their control. This
has traditionally been accomplished through the application of current good
manufacturing practices (cGMPs). These conditions and practices are now considered to
be prerequisites in the development and implementation of effective HACCP plans.
Prerequisite programs provide the basic environmental and operating conditions
necessary for the production of safe, wholesome food. Common pre-requisite programs
may include, but are not limited to:

• Facilities
The establishment should be located, constructed, and maintained according
to sanitary design principles. There should be linear product flow and traffic
control to minimize cross-contamination from raw to cooked materials.
• Supplier Control
Each facility should assure that its suppliers have in place effective GMP and
food safety programs. These may be the subject of continuing supplier
guarantee and supplier HACCP system verification.
• Specifications
There should be written specifications for all ingredients, products, and
packaging materials.
• Production Equipment
All equipment should be constructed and installed according to sanitary
design principles. Preventive maintenance and calibration schedules should be
established and documented.
• Cleaning and Sanitation
All procedures for cleaning and sanitation of the equipment and the facility
should be written and followed. A master sanitation schedule should be in
place.
• Personal Hygiene
All employees and other persons who enter the manufacturing plant should
follow the requirements for personal hygiene.
• Training
All employees should receive documented training in personal hygiene, GMP,
cleaning and sanitation procedures, personal safety, and their role in the
HACCP program.

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• Chemical Control
Documented procedures must be in place to assure the segregation and proper
use of non-food chemicals in the plant. These include cleaning chemicals,
fumigants, and pesticides or baits used in or around the plant.
• Receiving, Storage, and Shipping
All raw materials and products should be stored under sanitary conditions and
the proper environmental conditions such as temperature and humidity to
assure their safety and wholesomeness.
• Traceability and Recall
All raw materials and products should be lot-coded and a recall system in place
so that rapid and complete traces and recalls can be done when a product
retrieval is necessary.
• Pest Control
Effective pest control programs should be in place.

Other examples of prerequisite programs might include quality assurance

procedures; standard operating procedures for sanitation, processes, product
formulations and recipes; glass control; procedures for receiving, storage, and shipping;
labelling; and employee food and ingredient handling practices.

DEVELOPING AN HACCP PLAN PRELIMINARY TASKS IN DEVELOPING AN

HACCP PLAN
The format of HACCP plans varies. In
many cases, the plans will be product and Assemble the HACCP Team
process specific. However, some plans may use
a unit operations approach. Generic HACCP Describe the Food and its Distribution
plans can serve as useful guides in the
development of process and product HACCP Describe the Intended Use and Target
plans; however, it is essential that the unique Consumers of the Food
conditions within each facility be considered
Develop a Flow Diagram which
during the development of all components of the
Describes the Process
plan.

In the development of HACCP plan, five Verify the Flow Diagram

preliminary tasks need to be accomplished
before the application of the HACCP principles
to a specific product and process.

Assemble the HACCP Team

The first taskin developing an HACCP plan is to assemble an HACCP team

consisting of individuals who have specific knowledge and expertise appropriate to the
product and process. It is the team’s responsibility to develop the HACCP plan. The team
should be multidisciplinary and include individuals from areas such as engineering,
production, sanitation, quality assurance, and food microbiology. It should also consist of

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local personnel who are involved in the operation as they are more familiar with its
variability and limitations. This fosters a sense of ownership among those who must
implement the plan. The HACCP team may need assistance from outside experts who are
knowledgeable in the potential biological, chemical, and/or physical hazards associated
with the product and the process. However, a plan which is completely developed by
outside sources may be erroneous, incomplete, and lacking in support from the local
level.

Due to the technical nature of the information required for hazard analysis, it is
recommended that experts who are knowledgeable in the food process should either
participate in or verify the completeness of the hazard analysis and the HACCP plan. Such
individuals should have the knowledge and experience to correctly conduct a hazard
analysis; identify potential hzards; identify hazards which must be controlled;
recommend controls, critical limits, and procedures for monitoring and verification;
recommend appropriate corrective actions
when a deviation occurs; recommend research FLOW DIAGARM FOR THE PRODUCTION
related to the HACCP plan if important OF FROZEN COOKED BEEF PATTIES
information is unkown; and validate the HACCP Receiving (Beef)
plan.
Grinding
Describe the Food and its Distribution
Mixing
The HACCP team should first describe
the food. This consists of a general description of Forming
the food, its ingredients, and processing
methods. The method of distribution should be Cooking
described along with information on whether
the food is to be distributed frozen, refrigerated, Freezing
or at an ambient temperature.
Boxing
Describe the Intended Use and target
Consumers of the Food
Distributing
Describe the normal expected use of the
food. The target consumers may be the general Reheating
public or a particular segment of the population.
Serving
Develop a Flow Diagram which
describes the Process

The purpose of a flow diagram is to provide a clear, simple outline of the steps
involved in the process. The scope of the flow diagram must cover all the steps in the
process which are directly under the control of the establishment. It can likewise include
steps in the food chain which occur before and after the processing of the food. The flow
diagram need to be as comples as engineering drawings. A block type flow of diagram is

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sufficiently descriptive. Also, a smple schematic of the facility is often useful in

understaning and evaluating the product and process flow.

Verify the Flow Diagram

The HACCP team should perform an on-site review of the operation to verify the
accuracy and completeness of the flow diagram. Modifications should be made to the flow
diagram as necessary and accordingly documented.

SEVEN PRINCIPLES IN AN HACCP SYSTEM

Conduct a Hazard Analysis (Principle 1)
After addressing the preliminary tasks discussed above, the HACCP team conducts
a hazard analysis and identifies appropriate control measures. The purpose of the hazard
analysis is to develop a list of hazards which are of such significance that they are
reasonably likely to cause injury or illness if not effectively controlled. Hazards that are
not reasonably likely to occur would not require further consideration within a HACCP
plan. It is important to consider in the hazard analysis the ingredients and raw materials,
each step in the process, product storage and distribution, and final preparation and use
by the consumer. When conducting a hazard analysis, safety concerns must be
differentiated from quality concerns. A hazard is defined as a biological, chemical or
physical agent that is reasonably likely to cause illness or injury in the absence of its
control. Thus, the word hazard as used in this document is limited to safety.

A thorough hazard analysis is the key to preparing an effective HACCP plan. If the
hazard analysis is not done correctly and the hazards warranting control within the
HACCP system are not identified, the plan will not be effective regardless of how well it is
followed.

The hazard analysis and identification of associated control measures accomplish

three objectives: Those hazards and associated control measures are identified. The
analysis may identify needed modifications to a process or product so that product safety
is further assured or improved. The analysis provides a basis for determining CCPs in
Principle 2.

The process of conducting a hazard analysis involves two stages. The first, hazard
identification, can be regarded as a brain storming session. During this stage, the HACCP
team reviews the ingredients used in the product, the activities conducted at each step in
the process and the equipment used, the final product and its method of storage and
distribution, and the intended use and consumers of the product. Based on this review,
the team develops a list of potential biological, chemical or physical hazards which may
be introduced, increased, or controlled at each step in the production process. Hazard
identification focuses on developing a list of potential hazards associated with each
process step under direct control of the food operation. A knowledge of any adverse

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health-related events historically associated with the product will be of value in this
exercise.

After the list of potential hazards is assembled, stage two, the hazard evaluation,
is conducted. In stage two of the hazard analysis, the HACCP team decides which potential
hazards must be addressed in the HACCP plan. During this stage, each potential hazard is
evaluated based on the severity of the potential hazard and its likely occurrence. Severity
is the seriousness of the consequences of exposure to the hazard. Considerations of
severity (e.g., impact of sequelae, and magnitude and duration of illness or injury) can be
helpful in understanding the public health impact of the hazard. Consideration of the
likely occurrence is usually based upon a combination of experience, epidemiological
data, and information in the technical literature. When conducting the hazard evaluation,
it is helpful to consider the likelihood of exposure and severity of the potential
consequences if the hazard is not properly controlled. In addition, consideration should
be given to the effects of short term as well as long term exposure to the potential hazard.
Such considerations do not include common dietary choices which lie outside of HACCP.
During the evaluation of each potential hazard, the food, its method of preparation,
transportation, storage and persons likely to consume the product should be considered
to determine how each of these factors may influence the likely occurrence and severity
of the hazard being controlled. The team must consider the influence of likely procedures
for food preparation and storage and whether the intended consumers are susceptible to
a potential hazard. However, there may be differences of opinion, even among experts, as
to the likely occurrence and severity of a hazard. The HACCP team may have to rely upon
the opinion of experts who assist in the development of the HACCP plan.

Hazards identified in one operation or facility may not be significant in another

operation producing the same or a similar product. For example, due to differences in
equipment and/or an effective maintenance program, the probability of metal
contamination may be significant in one facility but not in another. A summary of the
HACCP team deliberations and the rationale developed during the hazard analysis should
be kept for future reference. This information will be useful during future reviews and
updates of the hazard analysis and the HACCP plan.

Upon completion of the hazard analysis, the hazards associated with each step in
the production of the food should be listed along with any measure(s) that are used to
control the hazard(s). The term control measure is used because not all hazards can be
prevented, but virtually all can be controlled. More than one control measure may be
required for a specific hazard. On the other hand, more than one hazard may be addressed
by a specific control measure (e.g. pasteurization of milk).

For example, if a HACCP team were to conduct a hazard analysis for the production
of frozen cooked beef patties (Appendices B and D), enteric pathogens (e.g., Salmonella
and verotoxin-producing Escherichia coli) in the raw meat would be identified as
hazards. Cooking is a control measure which can be used to eliminate these hazards. The
following is an excerpt from a hazard analysis summary table for this product.

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The hazard analysis summary could be presented in several different ways. One
format is a table such as the one given above. Another could be a narrative summary of
the HACCP team's hazard analysis considerations and a summary table listing only the
hazards and associated control measures.
EXAMPLES OF QUESTIONS TO BE CONSIDERED WHEN CONDUCTING A HAZARD ANALYSIS
The hazard analysis consists of asking a series of questions which are appropriate to the process under consideration. The
purpose of the questions is to assist in identifying potential hazards.
A. Ingredients
1. Does the food contain any sensitive ingredients that may present microbiological hazards (e.g., Salmonella,
Staphylococcus aureus); chemical hazards (e.g., aflatoxin, antibiotic or pesticide residues); or physical hazards
(stones, glass, metal)?
2. Are potable water, ice and steam used in formulating or in handling the food?
3. What are the sources (e.g., geographical region, specific supplier)

B. Intrinsic Factors - Physical characteristics and composition (e.g., pH, type of acidulants, fermentable carbohydrate,
water activity, preservatives) of the food during and after processing.
1. What hazards may result if the food composition is not controlled?
2. Does the food permit survival or multiplication of pathogens and/or toxin formation in the food during processing?
3. Will the food permit survival or multiplication of pathogens and/or toxin formation during subsequent steps in the
food chain?
4. Are there other similar products in the market place? What has been the safety record for these products? What hazards
have been associated with the products?

C. Procedures used for processing

1. Does the process include a controllable processing step that destroys pathogens? If so, which pathogens? Consider
both vegetative cells and spores.
2. If the product is subject to recontamination between processing (e.g., cooking, pasteurizing) and packaging which
biological, chemical or physical hazards are likely to occur?

D. Microbial content of the food

1. What is the normal microbial content of the food?
2. Does the microbial population change during the normal time the food is stored prior to consumption?
3. Does the subsequent change in microbial population alter the safety of the food?
4. Do the answers to the above questions indicate a high likelihood of certain biological hazards?

E. Facility design
1. Does the layout of the facility provide an adequate separation of raw materials from ready-to-eat (RTE) foods if this
is important to food safety? If not, what hazards should be considered as possible contaminants of the RTE products?
2. Is positive air pressure maintained in product packaging areas? Is this essential for product safety?
3. Is the traffic pattern for people and moving equipment a significant source of contamination?

sifters
filters
screens
thermometers
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dud detectors
To what degree will normal equipment wear affect the likely occurrence of a physical hazard (e.g., metal) in the product?
Chapter
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EXAMPLES OF QUESTIONS TO BE CONSIDERED WHEN CONDUCTING A HAZARD ANALYSIS

F. Equipment design and use
1. Will the equipment provide the time-temperature control that is necessary for safe food?
2. Is the equipment properly sized for the volume of food that will be processed?
3. Can the equipment be sufficiently controlled so that the variation in performance will be within the tolerances required
to produce a safe food?
4. Is the equipment reliable or is it prone to frequent breakdowns?
5. Is the equipment designed so that it can be easily cleaned and sanitized?
6. Is there a chance for product contamination with hazardous substances; e.g., glass?
7. What product safety devices are used to enhance consumer safety?
• metal detectors
• magnets
• sifters
• filters
• screens
• thermometers
• bone removal devices
• dud detectors
8. To what degree will normal equipment wear affect the likely occurrence of a physical hazard (e.g., metal) in the
product?
9. Are allergen protocols needed in using equipment for different products?

G. Packaging
1. Does the method of packaging affect the multiplication of microbial pathogens and/or the formation of toxins?
2. Is the package clearly labelled "Keep Refrigerated" if this is required for safety?
3. Does the package include instructions for the safe handling and preparation of the food by the end user?
4. Is the packaging material resistant to damage thereby preventing the entrance of microbial contamination?
5. Are tamper-evident packaging features used?
6. Is each package and case legibly and accurately coded?
7. Does each package contain the proper label?
8. Are potential allergens in the ingredients included in the list of ingredients on the label?

H. Sanitation
1. Can sanitation have an impact upon the safety of the food that is being processed?
2. Can the facility and equipment be easily cleaned and sanitized to permit the safe handling of food?
3. Is it possible to provide sanitary conditions consistently and adequately to assure safe foods?

I. Employee health, hygiene and education

1. Can employee health or personal hygiene practices impact upon the safety of the food being processed?
2. Do the employees understand the process and the factors they must control to assure the preparation of safe foods?
3. Will the employees inform management of a problem which could impact upon safety of food?

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EXAMPLES OF QUESTIONS TO BE CONSIDERED WHEN CONDUCTING A HAZARD ANALYSIS

J. Conditions of storage between packaging and the end user
1. What is the likelihood that the food will be improperly stored at the wrong temperature?
2. Would an error in improper storage lead to a microbiologically unsafe food?

K. Intended use
1. Will the food be heated by the consumer?
2. Will there likely be leftovers?

L. Intended consumer
1. Is the food intended for the general public?
2. Is the food intended for consumption by a population with increased susceptibility to illness (e.g., infants, the aged,
the infirmed, immunocompromised individuals)?
3. Is the food to be used for institutional feeding or the home?

Determine Critical Control Points (Principle 2)

A critical control point is defined as a step at which control can be applied and is
essential to prevent or eliminate a food safety hazard or reduce it to an acceptable level.
The potential hazards that are reasonably likely to cause illness or injury in the absence
of their control must be addressed in determining CCPs.

Complete and accurate identification of CCPs is fundamental to controlling food

safety hazards. The information developed during the hazard analysis is essential for the
HACCP team in identifying which steps in the process are CCPs. One strategy to facilitate
the identification of each CCP is the use of a CCP decision tree. Although application of the
CCP decision tree can be useful in determining if a particular step is a CCP for a previously
identified hazard, it is merely a tool and not a mandatory element of HACCP. A CCP
decision tree is not a substitute for expert knowledge.

Critical control points are located at any step where hazards can be either
prevented, eliminated, or reduced to acceptable levels. Examples of CCPs may include:
thermal processing, chilling, testing ingredients for chemical residues, product
formulation control, and testing product for metal contaminants. CCPs must be carefully
developed and documented. In addition, they must be used only for purposes of product
safety. For example, a specified heat process, at a given time and temperature designed
to destroy a specific microbiological pathogen, could be a CCP. Likewise, refrigeration of
a precooked food to prevent hazardous microorganisms from multiplying, or the
adjustment of a food to a pH necessary to prevent toxin formation could also be CCPs.
Different facilities preparing similar food items can differ in the hazards identified and
the steps which are CCPs. This can be due to differences in each facility's layout,
equipment, selection of ingredients, processes employed, etc.

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EXAMPLE OF A CCP DECISION TREE

Important considerations when using the decision tree:
• The decision tree is used after the hazard analysis.
• The decision tree then is used at the steps where a hazard that must be addressed in the HACCP plan has been
identified.
• A subsequent step in the process may be more effective for controlling a hazard and may be the preferred CCP.
• More than one step in a process may be involved in controlling a hazard.
• More than one hazard may be controlled by a specific control measure.

*Proceed to next step in the process.

Establish Critical Limits (Principle 3)

A critical limit is a maximum and/or minimum value to which a biological,
chemical or physical parameter must be controlled at a CCP to prevent, eliminate or
reduce to an acceptable level the occurrence of a food safety hazard. A critical limit is used
to distinguish between safe and unsafe operating conditions at a CCP. Critical limits
should not be confused with operational limits which are established for reasons other
than food safety.

Each CCP will have one or more control measures to assure that the identified
hazards are prevented, eliminated or reduced to acceptable levels. Each control measure

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has one or more associated critical limits. Critical limits may be based upon factors such
as: temperature, time, physical dimensions, humidity, moisture level, water activity (aw),
pH, titratable acidity, salt concentration, available chlorine, viscosity, preservatives, or
sensory information such as aroma and visual appearance. Critical limits must be
scientifically based. For each CCP, there is at least one criterion for food safety that is to
be met. An example of a criterion is a specific lethality of a cooking process such as a 5D
reduction in Salmonella. The critical limits and criteria for food safety may be derived
from sources such as regulatory standards and guidelines, literature surveys,
experimental results, and experts.

An example is the cooking of beef patties. The process should be designed to

ensure the production of a safe product. The hazard analysis for cooked meat patties
identified enteric pathogens (e.g., verotoxigenic E. coli such as E. coli O157:H7, and
salmonellae) as significant biological hazards. Furthermore, cooking is the step in the
process at which control can be applied to reduce the enteric pathogens to an acceptable
level. To ensure that an acceptable level is consistently achieved, accurate information is
needed on the probable number of the pathogens in the raw patties, their heat resistance,
the factors that influence the heating of the patties, and the area of the patty which heats
the slowest.

Collectively, this information forms the scientific basis for the critical limits that
are established. Some of the factors that may affect the thermal destruction of enteric
pathogens are listed in the following table. In this example, the HACCP team concluded
that a thermal process equivalent to 155° F for 16 seconds would be necessary to assure
the safety of this product. To ensure that this time and temperature are attained, the
HACCP team for one facility determined that it would be necessary to establish critical
limits for the oven temperature and humidity, belt speed (time in oven), patty thickness
and composition (e.g., all beef, beef and other ingredients). Control of these factors
enables the facility to produce a wide variety of cooked patties, all of which will be
processed to a minimum internal temperature of 155° F for 16 seconds. In another
facility, the HACCP team may conclude that the best approach is to use the internal patty
temperature of 155° F and hold for 16 seconds as critical limits. In this second facility the
internal temperature and hold time of the patties are monitored at a frequency to ensure
that the critical limits are constantly met as they exit the oven. The example given below
applies to the first facility.

CRITICAL LIMITS OF FIRST FACILITY

Process Step CCP Critical Limits
Time; rate of heating and cooling: ______/min
Patty thickness: ______in.
Cooking Yes
Patty composition: (e.g., all beef)
Oven humidity:_______% RH

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Establish Monitoring Procedures (Principle 4)

Monitoring is a planned sequence of observations or measurements to assess
whether a CCP is under control and to produce an accurate record for future use in
verification. Monitoring serves three main purposes. First, monitoring is essential to food
safety management in that it facilitates tracking of the operation. If monitoring indicates
that there is a trend towards loss of control, then action can be taken to bring the process
back into control before a deviation from a critical limit occurs. Second, monitoring is
used to determine when there is loss of control and a deviation occurs at a CCP, i.e.,
exceeding or not meeting a critical limit. When a deviation occurs, an appropriate
corrective action must be taken. Third, it provides written documentation for use in
verification.
An unsafe food may result if a process is not properly controlled and a deviation
occurs. Because of the potentially serious consequences of a critical limit deviation,
monitoring procedures must be effective. Ideally, monitoring should be continuous,
which is possible with many types of physical and chemical methods. For example, the
temperature and time for the scheduled thermal process of low-acid canned foods is
recorded continuously on temperature recording charts. If the temperature falls below
the scheduled temperature or the time is insufficient, as recorded on the chart, the
product from the retort is retained and the disposition determined as in Principle 5.
Likewise, pH measurement may be performed continually in fluids or by testing each
batch before processing. There are many ways to monitor critical limits on a continuous
or batch basis and record the data on charts. Continuous monitoring is always preferred
when feasible. Monitoring equipment must be carefully calibrated for accuracy.
Assignment of the responsibility for monitoring is an important consideration for
each CCP. Specific assignments will depend on the number of CCPs and control measures
and the complexity of monitoring. Personnel who monitor CCPs are often associated with
production (e.g., line supervisors, selected line workers and maintenance personnel) and,
as required, quality control personnel. Those individuals must be trained in the
monitoring technique for which they are responsible, fully understand the purpose and
importance of monitoring, be unbiased in monitoring and reporting, and accurately
report the results of monitoring. In addition, employees should be trained in procedures
to follow when there is a trend towards loss of control so that adjustments can be made
in a timely manner to assure that the process remains under control. The person
responsible for monitoring must also immediately report a process or product that does
not meet critical limits.
All records and documents associated with CCP monitoring should be dated and
signed or initialed by the person doing the monitoring.
When it is not possible to monitor a CCP on a continuous basis, it is necessary to
establish a monitoring frequency and procedure that will be reliable enough to indicate
that the CCP is under control. Statistically designed data collection or sampling systems
lend themselves to this purpose.

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Most monitoring procedures need to be rapid because they relate to on-line, "real-
time" processes and there will not be time for lengthy analytical testing. Examples of
monitoring activities include: visual observations and measurement of temperature,
time, pH, and moisture level.
Microbiological tests are seldom effective for monitoring due to their time-
consuming nature and problems with assuring detection of contaminants. Physical and
chemical measurements are often preferred because they are rapid and usually more
effective for assuring control of microbiological hazards. For example, the safety of
pasteurized milk is based upon measurements of time and temperature of heating rather
than testing the heated milk to assure the absence of surviving pathogens.
With certain foods, processes, ingredients, or imports, there may be no alternative
to microbiological testing. However, it is important to recognize that a sampling protocol
that is adequate to reliably detect low levels of pathogens is seldom possible because of
the large number of samples needed. This sampling limitation could result in a false sense
of security by those who use an inadequate sampling protocol. In addition, there are
technical limitations in many laboratory procedures for detecting and quantitating
pathogens and/or their toxins.

Establish Corrective Actions (Principle 5)

The HACCP system for food safety management is designed to identify health
hazards and to establish strategies to prevent, eliminate, or reduce their occurrence.
However, ideal circumstances do not always prevail and deviations from established
processes may occur. An important purpose of corrective actions is to prevent foods
which may be hazardous from reaching consumers. Where there is a deviation from
established critical limits, corrective actions are necessary. Therefore, corrective actions
should include the following elements: (a) determine and correct the cause of non-
compliance; (b) determine the disposition of non-compliant product and (c) record the
corrective actions that have been taken. Specific corrective actions should be developed
in advance for each CCP and included in the HACCP plan. As a minimum, the HACCP plan
should specify what is done when a deviation occurs, who is responsible for
implementing the corrective actions, and that a record will be developed and maintained
of the actions taken. Individuals who have a thorough understanding of the process,
product and HACCP plan should be assigned the responsibility for oversight of corrective
actions. As appropriate, experts may be consulted to review the information available and
to assist in determining disposition of non-compliant product.

Establish Verification Procedures (Principle 6)

Verification is defined as those activities, other than monitoring, that determine
the validity of the HACCP plan and that the system is operating according to the plan. The
NAS (1985) pointed out that the major infusion of science in a HACCP system centers on
proper identification of the hazards, critical control points, critical limits, and instituting
proper verification procedures. These processes should take place during the
development and implementation of the HACCP plans and maintenance of the HACCP
system.

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One aspect of verification is evaluating whether the facility's HACCP system is

functioning according to the HACCP plan. An effective HACCP system requires little end-
product testing, since sufficient validated safeguards are built in early in the process.
Therefore, rather than relying on end-product testing, firms should rely on frequent
reviews of their HACCP plan, verification that the HACCP plan is being correctly followed,
and review of CCP monitoring and corrective action records.
Another important aspect of verification is the initial validation of the HACCP plan
to determine that the plan is scientifically and technically sound, that all hazards have
been identified and that if the HACCP plan is properly implemented these hazards will be
effectively controlled. Information needed to validate the HACCP plan often include (1)
expert advice and scientific studies and (2) in-plant observations, measurements, and
evaluations. For example, validation of the cooking process for beef patties should include
the scientific justification of the heating times and temperatures needed to obtain an
appropriate destruction of pathogenic microorganisms (i.e., enteric pathogens) and
studies to confirm that the conditions of cooking will deliver the required time and
temperature to each beef patty.
Subsequent validations are performed and documented by a HACCP team or an
independent expert as needed. For example, validations are conducted when there is an
unexplained system failure; a significant product, process or packaging change occurs; or
new hazards are recognized.
In addition, a periodic comprehensive verification of the HACCP system should be
conducted by an unbiased, independent authority. Such authorities can be internal or
external to the food operation. This should include a technical evaluation of the hazard

COMPANY-ESTABLISHED HACCP VERIFICATION SCHEDULE SAMPLE

Activity Frequency Responsibility Reviewer
Verification activities Yearly or upon HACCP HACCP Coordinator Plant manager
scheduling system change
Initial validation of Prior to and during initial Independent expert/s HACCP team
HACCP plan implementation of plan
Subsequent validation of Change in critical limits, Independent expert/s HACCP team
HACCP plan significant changes in
process, change in
equipment, after system
failure, etc.
Verification of CCP According to HACCP plan According to HACCP plan According to HACCP
monitoring described in (e.g., once per shift) (e.g., line supervisor) plan (e.g., quality
the plan (e.g., control)
monitoring of patty
cooking temperature)
Review of monitoring Monthly Quality Assurance GACCP team
and corrective action
records to show
compliance with the
plan
Comprehensive HACCP Yearly Independent expert/s Plant manager
system verification

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analysis and each element of the HACCP plan as well as on-site review of all flow diagrams
and appropriate records from operation of the plan. A comprehensive verification is
independent of other verification procedures and must be performed to ensure that the
HACCP plan is resulting in the control of the hazards. If the results of the comprehensive
verification identifies deficiencies, the HACCP team modifies the HACCP plan as
necessary.
Verification activities are carried out by individuals within a company, third party
experts, and regulatory agencies. It is important that individuals doing verification have
appropriate technical expertise to perform this function. The role of regulatory and industry in
HACCP was further described by the NACMCF (1994).

Establish Record-Keeping and Documentation Procedures (Principle 7)

Generally, the records maintained for the HACCP System should include the
following:
A. A summary of the hazard analysis, including the rationale for determining hazards
and control measures.
B. The HACCP Plan
1) Listing of the HACCP team and assigned responsibilities.
2) Description of the food, its distribution, intended use, and consumer.
3) Verified flow diagram.
4) HACCP Plan Summary Table that includes information for:
a) Steps in the process that are CCPs
b) The hazard(s) of concern.
c) Critical limits
d) Monitoring*
e) Corrective actions*
f) Verification procedures and schedule*
g) Record-keeping procedures*
* A brief summary of position responsible for performing the activity and
the procedures and frequency should be provided
EXAMPLE HACCP PLAN SUMMARY
CCP Hazards Critical Monitoring Corrective Verification Records
Limit(s) Actions

IMPLEMENTATION AND MAINTENANCE OF THE HACCP PLAN

The successful implementation of a HACCP plan is facilitated by commitment from
top management. The next step is to establish a plan that describes the individuals
responsible for developing, implementing and maintaining the HACCP system. Initially,
the HACCP coordinator and team are selected and trained as necessary. The team is then
responsible for developing the initial plan and coordinating its implementation. Product
teams can be appointed to develop HACCP plans for specific products. An important
aspect in developing these teams is to assure that they have appropriate training. The
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workers who will be responsible for monitoring need to be adequately trained. Upon
completion of the HACCP plan, operator procedures, forms and procedures for
monitoring and corrective action are developed. Often it is a good idea to develop a
timeline for the activities involved in the initial implementation of the HACCP plan.
Implementation of the HACCP system involves the continual application of the
monitoring, record-keeping, corrective action procedures and other activities as
described in the HACCP plan.
Maintaining an effective HACCP system depends largely on regularly scheduled
verification activities. The HACCP plan should be updated and revised as needed. An
important aspect of maintaining the HACCP system is to assure that all individuals
involved are properly trained so they understand their role and can effectively fulfill their
responsibilities.

You have just finished reading the contents of this

chapter – Hazard Analysis and Critical Control
Point!
To assess your level of understanding and comprehension,
you may now proceed to your “Assessment of Learning
Tasks and Worksheets” and answer the exercises on pages
17-18.
Good Luck!

You are now ready to proceed to the next chapter.

God bless and have a nice day!

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Cleaning and Sanitizing Operations RISK MANAGEMENT
6 AS APPLIED TO SAFETY SECURITY AND SANITATION
Chapter 6

“To be interested in food but not in the food production

is clearly absurd.
– Wendell Berry

CLEANING AND SANITATION

At the end of this chapter, the The GMP requires that you keep your facility and
students are expected; all equipment, utensils and food contact surfaces clean
and sanitary.
❖ Define cleaning, sanitizing and
food contact surfaces; It is important to understand the definitions of
❖ Know the purpose of cleaning
cleaning, sanitizing, and food contact surfaces.
and sanitizing;
❖ Delineate the steps adopted in
proper cleaning process; and Cleaning
❖ Identify the cleaning chemicals
Cleaning means the removal of dirt, food residue,
and different cleaners to be used
during a cleaning and sanitizing and any other materials from a surface, utensil, or
operations. equipment using detergents or other cleaning aids and
either mechanical or detergent scrubbing actions,
followed by rinsing.

Sanitizing
Sanitize means to adequately treat food-contact surfaces by a process that is
effective in destroying vegetative cells of microorganisms of public health significance,
and in substantially reducing numbers of other undesirable microorganisms, but without
adversely affecting the product or its safety for the consumer.

Food Contact Surfaces

Food contact surfaces are defined in the GMP as those surfaces that contact human
food and those surfaces from which drainage onto the food or onto surfaces that contact
the food ordinarily occurs during the normal course of operations.

Food-contact surfaces include utensils and food-contact surfaces of equipment.

What is the Purpose of Cleaning?

The purpose of cleaning is to remove solids, juice, and any other debris (soil) from
equipment, utensils and environment.

The soil is a source of nutrients for bacteria (fats, carbohydrates, proteins, and
minerals that can build-up on food-contact surfaces).

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This debris can be a source of microorganisms that may contaminate subsequent

batches.

Contaminating microbes may decrease shelf-life and spoil the product and, if
pathogenic microbes are present, may cause illness. Even the best cleaned surfaces will
probably still have a few microorganisms present. If the cleaned surface is a wall, floor,
or door, this is OK. However, this is not acceptable for food contact surfaces such as bins,
the grater, beverage container, meat slicer or Ice cream holding container.

Sanitation Standard Operating Procedures (SSOP's):

• Good cleaning requires discipline.
• Employees should be trained thoroughly.
• Emphasize on why cleaning is necessary, the procedures involved, and how to
monitor their work.
• Having written Sanitation Standard Operating Procedures (SSOP's) will make
training more consistent and is especially important for new entrants.
• The SSOP for cleaning a particular piece of equipment can be laminated and
posted near the equipment so that employees can check on the correct
procedure.
• The SSOP should also tell employees how to monitor the job they do, what
corrective actions to take if monitoring indicates a problem, and what records
to keep.
• Employees do a better job when given specific responsibilities. This
responsibility may be cleaning a particular piece of equipment or inspecting
another employee's work.
• Employees should be encouraged to speak up if they notice problems with
current procedures or pieces of equipment.

GENERAL CLEANING SEQUENCE

Preparing the Area, Equipment and Personnel for Cleaning
• Proper preparation is necessary to ensure the safety of your employees and
the effectiveness of the cleaning.
• To ensure safety, all electric equipment to be manually cleaned should be
disconnected from the power source.
• In many food processing plants / kitchens, circuit breakers can be tripped and
the power supply effectively "locked out."
• Some equipment may be rinsed and spray-cleaned when it is running. In this
case, workers should be trained to keep their hands away from moving parts
that may cause injury.
• Motors, switches, and other electrical components may require covering;
consult the equipment manual or manufacturer if unsure.

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• A piece of equipment may require disassembly for safety reasons before

cleaning. Disassembly also enables cleaning to be more effective by improving
accessibility and the employee's ability to see the surface to be cleaned. It is a
common practice to put disassembled equipment parts on a table or rack, or
in a tub, for cleaning.\
• The plant environment during cleaning can be hazardous to employees unless
proper precautions are taken.
• Slippery floors, high pressure hot water hoses, and cleaning chemicals can all
be dangerous. Workers should dress appropriately for the task of cleaning.
• Boots with non-skid soles, waterproof aprons and gloves are commonly worn.
• Ideally, pants should not be tucked into boots because doing so makes it much
easier to accidentally pour hot water or a chemical solution into the boot.
• The label on each container of cleaning chemical should list any special
precautions that should be taken when using that chemical.

Material Safety Data Sheet

In addition, there should be a Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) available for each
chemical in use. By law, signs must be posted that inform employees of the MSDS location

The key to good cleaning and sanitation practices is to provide training to a wide
base of plant employees, which may include personnel outside of the sanitation
department. It is important for supporting functions to understand how they enable
effective sanitation for example, timely disassembly of equipment by maintenance staff,
end of production housekeeping, and quality inspections all impact cleaning & sanitation
effectiveness

Step 1. Pre-cleaning or "Physical Cleaning”

The purpose of this step is to remove large pieces of debris so that later use of
water and chemicals is more efficient. Pre-cleaning may involve picking up packaging
debris, scraping equipment surfaces, and sweeping the floor.

The importance of this step is sometimes overlooked. If done properly, it will save
you money by reducing water and chemical costs. Some processors combine pre-cleaning
with the next step, pre- rinsing

Step 2. Pre-rinsing:
In this step, the surfaces to be cleaned are rinsed with water. Just as in physical
cleaning, pre-rinsing removes some debris and reduces the need for chemicals. Generally
speaking, the pre-rinse will be more effective if warm or hot water is used because the
solubility of many components of the debris is greater at higher temperatures. If
excessively hot water is used, there is a risk of "cooking on" the small amounts of protein
present in residue.

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Experience and monitoring will guide your choice of water temperature. Once the
best temperature is determined, monitoring should be done to ensure that this
temperature is actually used.

Pre-rinse may remove virtually all debris. However, microbial biofilms and/or
mineral deposits may remain on equipment. The later step of chemical cleaning should
not be skipped without conclusive supporting evidence that it is unnecessary. Pre-rinsing
should be done from the top to the bottom of a piece of equipment.

Step 3. Chemical Cleaning:

Cleaning chemicals are intended to lift debris from the equipment surface and
keep it suspended in water so that it can be rinsed away. No single cleaning chemical does
this effectively under all conditions. Instead, we use mixtures that may contain several
different chemicals to ensure that the job is done well under normal conditions

Step 4. Post-Rinse
Again, it is recommended that only the lowest effective pressure and volume of
water is used during the post-rinse step to avoid risks associated with aerosols and
overspray. As indicated, sanitation personnel should work from walls and floor to
equipment, in sequence, to avoid the potential risk of overspray or splashing on
equipment that no longer has detergent on it and is considered clean. Similarly, personnel
should minimize spraying the floor once rinsing of the equipment begins.

RINSING
An important part of the cleaning process is the water rinse. As the substrate
leaves the cleaner stage it carries spent cleaner, emulsified soils and other contaminants.
The rinse must remove these unwanted materials and not interfere with the subsequent
operations.

Therefore, the choice of cleaner is also governed by its rinsability.

• Caustic and silicate, two major ingredients of cleaners, are poor rinsers.
• Phosphate, on the other hand, is relatively easy to rinse.
• Hot water can assist in rinsing.

Care must be exercised so that drying does not occur just before the rinse tank.
Also, blends of caustic, silicate and phosphates rinse more freely.

Double rinsing is utilized quite often. With the final rinse being deionized water
for spot free parts or with a corrosion inhibitor if rusting is a problem.

Step 5: Remove and Assemble

At this point, the equipment is clean and GMPs are employed as required.

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Sanitation personnel will ensure that condensate and standing moisture are
removed, as well as any tools utilized during the cleaning process. The crew will conduct
pre-operational procedures and sanitize any equipment components that are not
accessible once reassembled.

Step 6: Inspect
Pre-operational inspection provides added assurance that sanitation goals have
been achieved in Steps 1 through 5. If deficiencies are found at this point, they can be
corrected; i.e., recleaned by a detergent, rinsed and reinspected.

CLEANING CHEMICALS
The cornerstone of chemical cleaning is water. Water used in cleaning should be
potable, and low in suspended matter and impurities that might affect odor and taste.
Ideally, the water should be low in hardness minerals.

Hard water inhibits the ability of some cleaning compounds to suspend debris and
can result in mineral deposits on equipment surfaces.

Surface Active Agent (Surfactant)

The major ingredient in most mixtures is a surfactant. Its’ function is to suspend

debris components that normally do not stay suspended in water. Of the three types of
surfactants, anionic, nonionic, and cationic, the anionic surfactants are most commonly
used.

Acid or Alkali

One or more compounds will be included to adjust the pH (degree of acidity or

alkalinity) of the cleaning solution. Alkaline cleaners are recommended for high- fat
debris, particularly when this debris has been heated. Chlorinated alkaline cleaners are
used for removing many different types of debris and work especially well against high-
protein debris. A chlorinated alkaline cleaner is commonly used in most kitchens /
processing plants.

Acidic cleaners are very useful for removing mineral deposits Acidic cleaners are
very useful for removing mineral deposits. Debris from the food and soil can support
microbial growth over time, An acidic cleaner may be periodically useful if mineral
deposits develop. Phosphoric acid and gluconic acid are two acids commonly used for this
purpose.

Chlorine Compounds

Chlorine-containing compounds are sometimes included in an alkaline cleaning

mixture. In this application, the chlorine is intended to react with protein in the residue,
with little chlorine remaining to kill microorganisms.

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Water Softeners

Some cleaning mixtures will contain components, called either water softeners or
chelators that chemically bind water hardness minerals. Examples of chelators include
certain polyphosphates, gluconates, and EDTA (ethylenediamine tetra- acetic acid).

Sequestering or Chelating materials have two (02) functions.

• To condition water, which permits better rinsing and cleaning.

• To hold iron or other metals in solution to prevent this keeps them from
redeposition on the part. Some chelators such as EDTA hold heavy metals
very tightly, hence could be a problem in waste treatment. Gluconates are
more desirable in these cases.

Alkaline Cleaners:

• Alkaline salts, usually caustic, silicates and phosphates, together with a balanced
amount of surface-active agents, constitute a very effective blend for metal
cleaning.
• For dissolving in hot water and spraying on the dirty ware, this kind of cleaner
generally removes most soils.
• This is the cheapest and best method of automated cleaning.

Acid Cleaners:

• Materials used here are usually mineral acids, although organic acids can be used.
• By the addition of wetting agents to the acid-water solution, cleaning as well as
metal rust and scale removal can be accomplished.
• Since soils and oils are best removed on the alkaline side, the use of acid materials
is somewhat limited.

Synthetic detergents

• Possess the desirable properties of ordinary soaps and can be used with hard
water and in acidic solutions as well.
• These are sodium salts of a long chain benzene sulphonic acids or sodium salts of
long chain alkyl hydrogen sulphates.
• CH3(CH2)10CH2OSO3-Na+ [Link] sulph
• Alkyl Benzene sulphonate
• Their calcium or magnesium salts are soluble in water.

The hydrophobic part is the hydrocarbon chain and the water-soluble part can be

• An anionic group like sulphate or sulphonate

• A cationic group like amine salt or QAC
• A non-ionic group like alcohol or ether

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Some of these have very low biodegradability Therefore they cause water
pollution when they are discharged to surface waters.

Soaps

• Anionic surfactant used in conjunction with water for washing and cleaning.
• Can be solid or viscous liquid.
• They consists of sodium or potassium salts of fatty acids.
• Applied to a soiled surface, soapy water effectively holds particles in colloidal
suspension so it can be easily rinsed with clean water.

Solvent cleaners

• Petroleum or Chlorinated solvent applied by some absorbent material usually a

rag.
• Oil is removed by the action of the solvent while the soils are removed / reduced
by the rubbing action.
• The rag and solvent quickly become dirty and must be replaced frequently.
Disadvantages:
• Expensive.
• Cannot be automated
• Hazardous -Fire, health and environmental

Mechanical Cleaning:

The materials used here include some type of an abrasive-steel brush, sandpaper,
or nylon rolls impregnated with abrasive. The cleaning is accomplished by metal removal
from the surface.

Selecting a cleaner
• Determine the types of metal surface to be cleaned.
• Ensure the alkaline cleaner will not attack the metal (important with aluminium,
zinc and some exotic metals)
• Be sure the cleaner is formulated to effectively remove the soils you encounter.
• Some compounds require heat and in many cases higher alkalinity to saponify
animal fats if present.

Choose a cleaner suitable for the mechanics of your system. Immersion cleaners
normally require different surfactant systems than spray cleaners. Remember
conditioners in the cleaning product are critical to counteract the undesirable effects of
hard water salts on cleaning solutions.

Consider whether a liquid or powdered product would favor your operation.

o Liquid are easily automated and

o Available in bulk or bins hence eliminating drums.

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o Powders are normally manually added but more economical in smaller

operations.

Morning Clean Up
Before processing starts for the day all work surface should be cleaned with water
containing ppm residual free chlorine. Freezer storage should be free from odours &
should be cleaned to ensure good hygienic environment.

Effective measures should be taken to protect against entrance of insects, rodents,

birds or other vermin.

During Working Hours

The surface which come into contact with food should be wiped / hosed down
with clean water as frequently as necessary to ensure cleanliness.

Clean In Place (CIP)

Multi – use CIP Systems:

Multi – use CIP systems offer a remarkable range of programmable thermal and
sequencing combinations and the overall dexterity of these systems can be shown in the
following examples ;

CIP cleaning:

• Utilized to clean the interior surfaces of pipelines and tanks of liquid and semi-
liquid food and beverage processing equipment.
• This type of cleaning is generally done with large tanks, kettles or piping systems
where there are smooth surfaces.
• CIP involves circulation of detergent through equipment by use of a spray ball or
spray to create turbulence and thus remove soil
• Pre-Rinse Operation:
o Either from water recovery (usual) or mains supply.
o Variable periods available at various temperatures.
o Pre-rinse can be either directed to drain or diverted via re-circulatory loop for
a timed period and then sent to drain. In some cases product recovery is
feasible.
o If required, chemical injection can be initiated to aid pre-rinsing efficiency.
• Detergent Recirculation:
o Recirculation can be established either via the detergent vessel or the
recirculatory loop.
o Recirculation times are variable and chemical injection can either boost the
strength or utilize any combination of chemicals as required.
o Recirculation can either be via the plate heat exchanger or the plate heat
exchanger by-pass loop. Variable temperature programming allows for total

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detergent tank heating or this can be limited to the recirculatory loop and the
main detergent vessel maintained at ambient or differing temperature.
o Chemicals can be either recovered or sent to drain.

Intermediate Rinse:

This is variable but similar in principle to the pre-rinse except that chemicals
would not normally be required at this stage.

• Acid Recirculation if required:

o The recirculatory loop is established on mains water either through the plate
heat exchanger or via the plate exchanger by-pass loop.
o Acid is injected to pre-set strength based on timing for a specific circuit
volume.
o Recirculation time and temperature are both variable.

Sterilant Recirculation:

This is similar to the acid injection sequence except that heating would not be
required under normal circumstances.

Hot Water Sterilization:

o Recirculation loop established on mains water via the plate heat exchanger.
o Variable time and temperature available.
o Contents can be sent either to drain or water recovery.

Final Water Rinse:

• Mains water can be pumped through the CIP route and directed to water recovery.
• Both times and temperatures are variable.

Programs of the above type can be used for either vessels, lines or specific items
of process plant. The duration of each function would be entirely dependent on the circuit
and associated soil load.

Clean Out of Place Operation

In food plants, a common use of the COP cleaning method involves pieces of
equipment that are small, complex and otherwise hard to clean. They are dissembled,
rinsed and then cleaned and sanitized. COP may occur in a sink with a worker scrubbing
to clean, or in tanks specially designed for COP.

In these tanks, detergent and agitation are used to clean the equipment in
question. Sanitizing may be done using hot water or chemical sanitizers. Small items, such
as valves, sanitary fittings and such, can be placed in cages and cleaned with larger items.

Options include doing a rinse, hot water wash with detergent, rinse and soak in
sanitizer. Operators can also sanitize COP items by raising the second rinse temperature
and holding for 15 minutes at >180F.

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Steps in a COP
1. Dry cleaning to remove dust, soil and other debris from the equipment to be
cleaned and the area in which COP tasks will take place.
2. A pre-rinse of the equipment and area on racks or in COP tanks.
3. Soap and scrub the equipment and equipment components in COP tanks or
vessels.
4. Post-rinse parts to remove residual detergent or cleaning chemicals.
5. Conduct pre-operational procedures and sanitize any equipment components that
are not accessible once reassembled.
6. Reassemble the equipment.
7. Sanitize the reassembled equipment with a sanitizing agent or heat treatment.

You have just finished reading the contents of this

chapter – Cleaning and Sanitizing Operations!
To assess your level of understanding and comprehension,
you may now proceed to your “Assessment of Learning
Tasks and Worksheets” and answer the exercises on pages
19-20.
Good Luck!

You are now ready to proceed to the next chapter.

God bless and have a nice day!

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Chapter First Aid Training Tips and Procedures for RISK MANAGEMENT
7 AS APPLIED TO SAFETY SECURITY AND SANITATION
Any Emergency: The Basics
Chapter 7

“Every single person in the world has the capacity to save a life – it is
an essential gesture of solidarity. First Aid education should be
accessible to all without discrimination.” – Grace Lo

Injuries are practically inevitable in emergency

situations. There’s a chance you get hurt by whatever’s
At the end of this chapter, the causing the emergency; for instance, you could get
students are expected; burned in a fire, or you could get struck by toppling
❖ Define and describe the debris during an earthquake. But injuries are also
importance of first aid training to sustained during the panic that ensues in an emergency.
food service workers; In the rush to get away from danger, you could sprain
❖ Demonstrate ways on how to your ankle or suffer an open wound.
respond during emergency
situations; Here are 10 first aid “must-knows” that you can
❖ Perform the basic first aid use to treat a broad array of injuries:
procedures; and
❖ Delineate and list the important 1. Remember the “Three P’s.”
contents of the first aid kit in the 2. Check the scene for danger before you provide help.
food service industry. 3. To treat cuts and scrapes, apply gentle pressure,
disinfectant, and bandages.
4. To treat sprains, apply ice and compression at
intervals and keep the limb elevated.
5. To treat heat exhaustion, use cool fluids, cool cloths,
and shade.
6. To treat hypothermia; use warm fluids and warm
covering.
7. To treat burns, determine the burn type and
severity. Cover the wound with loose cloth to
prevent infection.
8. Use an EpiPen to treat allergic reactions.
9. To treat fractures, keep the fractured area stable and
immobilized, and apply a cold pack.
10. Perform CPR if an injured person stops breathing.

It’s important that you commit these 10 golden rules to memory. Even if you’re
not injured, you might encounter someone who is, and who needs treatment.

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Always attempt to seek professional medical help for injured persons. First
responders are not always readily available during emergency situations, and if that’s the
case, do your best to provide what treatment you can until help arrives. But never forget
that serious injuries always require more advanced treatment, and you should do your
best to get the injured person to professional caregivers.

Nonetheless, these simple first aid procedures can go a long way in helping
someone who’s injured, and all you need to do is use a few materials in your survival kit
and apply them in right manner. Read through these detailed guides on all 10 items.

➢ The Three P’s

The “Three P’s” are the primary goals of first aid. They are:

• Preserve life
• Prevent further injury
• Promote recovery

These goals might seem overly simple, but they’re simple on purpose. When
someone is injured, it’s all-too-easy to panic and forget what you need to do to provide
assistance. The Three P’s remind you of the very basics: do what you can to save the
person’s life; do what you can to keep them from sustaining further injuries; do what you
can to help them heal.

➢ Check the Scene for Danger

Before you provide help to an injured person, it’s important that you check the
scene for danger. You don’t want to get yourself injured, too. This isn’t a cowardly
precaution. The fact of the matter is this: if you get injured, you won’t be able to help
someone else who’s injured. So, before you rush to help someone, take a moment to
analyze the area and spot anything that could injure you.

For example, there might be a terrible storm outdoors, and you spot someone
outside who’s injured and who can’t make it to shelter. Before you go running outside to
help them, look for hazards. Are strong winds hurling debris? Are there any trees or
structures that look as if they’re about to fall? Are there downed power lines? Is there
floodwater?

Once you’ve assessed these dangers, you can better strategize how to reach and
rescue the injured person.

➢ Treating Cuts and Scrapes

Blood is a vital component of our bodies. When someone is bleeding, you want to
prevent as much blood from leaving their body as possible. Try and find a clean cloth or
bandage. Then:

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• Apply gentle pressure for 20 to 30 minutes.
• Clean the wound by gently running clean water over it. Avoid using soap
on an open wound.
• Apply antibiotic to the wound, like Neosporin.
• Cover the wound with a bandage.

If someone has a nosebleed, have the person lean forward. Press a cloth against
the nostrils until the blood flow stops.

• The body is usually very quick at patching up small cuts and scrapes. But
deeper wounds may require medical attention. With deep wounds:
• Apply pressure.
• Don’t apply ointments. Cover the area with loose cloth to prevent
contaminants from infecting the wound.
• Seek medical attention as soon as possible.

➢ Treating Sprains

Sprains are usually an unalarming injury, and most of the time they’ll heal on their
own. But there are steps you can take to ease the swelling. Swelling is caused by blood
flow to an injured area. You can reduce swelling by applying ice. Ice restricts the blood
vessels, which reduces blood flow.

• Keep the injured limb elevated.

• Apply ice to the injured area. Don’t apply ice directly to the skin. Wrap it in
a cloth or put ice in a plastic bag.
• Keep the injured area compressed. Put it in a brace or tightly wrap it. Don’t
wrap it so tight that it’ll cut off circulation.
• Ice for a while. Then compress. Repeat at intervals.

Make sure the injured person avoids putting weight on the injured limb.

➢ Treating Heat Exhaustion

Heat exhaustion occurs due to prolonged exposure to high temperatures,

especially when the person is doing strenuous activities or hasn’t had enough water.
Symptoms of heat exhaustion include:

• Cool, moist skin

• Heavy sweating
• Dizziness
• Weak pulse
• Muscle cramps
• Nausea
• Headaches

To treat someone with heat exhaustion:

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• Get the person to a shaded area that’s out of the sun.
• If there are no shaded areas available, keep the person covered by any
available materials that can block sunlight.
• Give the person water and keep them hydrated.
• Place a cool cloth on their forehead to lower their body temperature.

➢ Treating Hypothermia

Hypothermia is caused by prolonged exposure to cold temperatures. It begins to

occur when your body temperature drops below 95 degrees Fahrenheit.

Symptoms of hypothermia include:

• Shivering
• Slurred speech or mumbling
• Week pulse
• Weak coordination
• Confusion
• Red, cold skin
• Loss of consciousness

To treat hypothermia:

• Be gentle with the afflicted person. Don’t rub their body and don’t move
their body in too jarring of a way; this could trigger cardiac arrest.
• Move the person out of the cold, and remove any wet clothing.
• Cover the person with blankets and use heat packs. Don’t apply heat
directly to the skin because this could cause major skin damage.
• Give the person warm fluids.

If you set the person on the ground, be aware that the ground may also be a cold
source. Place warm materials on the ground that the person is going to lay on.

➢ Treating Burns

Before you apply treatment to burns, you need to identify the burn type and the
severity of the burn. There are four kinds of burns:
• First-degree burn: Only the outer layers of skin are burnt. The skin is red and
swollen, and looks similar to a sunburn.
• Second-degree burn: Some of the inner layer of skin is burnt. Look for blistering
skin and swelling. This is usually a very painful type of burn.
• Third-degree burn: All of the inner layer of skin is burnt. The wound has a
whitish or blackened color. Some third-degree burns are so deep, there might
not be any pain because the nerve endings are destroyed.
• Fourth-degree burn: A burn that has penetrated all tissues up to the tendons
and bones.

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Chapter First Aid Training Tips and Procedures for
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Additionally, there are two kinds of burn severities: a minor burn and a major burn.
• Minor burn: First-degree burns and mild second-degree burns.
• Major burn: Moderate second-degree burns to fourth-degree burns.
Minor burns don’t usually need extensive treatment, but you could:
• Run cool water over the afflicted area (avoid icy or very cold water).
• Don’t break any blisters.
• Apply moisturizer over the area, like aloe vera.
• Keep the burned person out of sunlight.
• Have the burned person take ibuprofen or acetaminophen for pain relief.
Major burns are very serious injuries that require medical assistance. To help
someone who has suffered from a major burn:
• Do not apply ointments.
• Cover wound with loose materials to prevent contaminants from infecting it.

➢ Allergic Reactions

Allergic reactions occur when your body is hypersensitive to a foreign substance.

Bee stings, certain foods, or drug ingredients can cause allergic reactions. Anaphylaxis is
a life-threatening allergic reaction that can be caused by all of those mention allergens.
The best way to treat an allergic reaction is to use an EpiPen. EpiPen, or
“epinephrine autoinjector,” is a small and ergonomic needle that’s used to inject
epinephrine (adrenaline) into someone suffering greatly from an allergic reaction. The
epinephrine usually subdues the effects of the allergic reaction.
If someone is suffering from an allergic reaction:
• Keep the person calm. Ask if they use an EpiPen and have one with them.
• Have the person lie on their back. Keep their feet elevated 12 inches.
• Make sure the person’s clothing is loose so they’re able to breathe.
• Avoid giving them food, drink, or medicine.
• If appropriate, use an EpiPen. Learn how to inject an EpiPen in someone
having a reaction.
• Wait 5-15 minutes after using an EpiPen. If the allergic reaction isn’t
subdued, a second dose may be required.

➢ Treating Fractures

Sometimes it’s very easy to tell if someone has suffered a fractured bone. But
sometimes it’s not. If you suspect someone of having a fracture:
• Don’t try to straighten a fractured limb.
• Use a splint or padding to stabilize the area and keep it from moving.
• Apply a cold pack to the area. Don’t apply it directly to the skin. Wrap it in a
cloth or put it in a plastic bag.
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• Keep the area elevated, if possible.
• Give the person an anti-inflammatory drug, like ibuprofen.

➢ Performing CPR

CPR stands for cardiopulmonary resuscitation. CPR is used to restore breathing

and blood circulation to an unresponsive person. CPR is an incredibly important
procedure that can save lives. But learning CPR is an intensive procedure that requires
some training, which is usually in the form of a day-long class. The American Red Cross
offers CPR certification classes across the nation.

FIRST AID KIT

A properly stocked first aid kit and safety training will mitigate the occurrence and
severity of most accidents that take place in commercial kitchens. Knowing what should
be in a restaurant first aid kit, how many kits you need, and where and how to properly
administer first aid is essential for any food operator.
First Aid Kid Contents
A well-stocked first aid kit will contain an adequate supply of items required by a
specific industry. All items should be clean and up-to-date (non-expired). While OSHA
doesn’t specify the required elements to be placed in a first aid kit, they do state that
“adequate first aid supplies shall be readily available.”
First aid kit supplies should cover the five areas of injuries:
➢ Major injuries or trauma
• Scissors
• Forceps
• (10) Gauze pads
• Adhesive tape
• Tourniquet
• Mouth barrier for CPR
• First aid guide
➢ Minor injuries (small cuts and scrapes)
• (50-100) Blue bandages
• (50-100) Blue finger cots
• Cold packs
• (20) Antiseptic wipes
• (10) Hand sanitizer
• Bodily fluid clean-up kit
➢ Eyecare
• Eye wash station with solution refills
• Eye pads
➢ Burn care
• Burn spray
• Burn cream
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• Burn dressing
➢ Employee comfort/convenience
• Cold/allergy treatments
• Pain relievers
• Antacids
It's recommended to have a first aid kit readily available in all common areas of
your food service establishment. This often includes one in the kitchen, one in the
staff/break room, and one in the front of house. If you offer food delivery, it's
recommended to have a first responder kit available in the truck as well so first aid can
be administered on the go as well. First aid kits should be easily accessible and all
employees should know where kits are kept. Kits should be checked on a periodic basis,
i.e. monthly, to ensure supplies are fully stocked and not expired. The ‘patron-centric’
emergency supplies, i.e. adrenaline pens and mouth barriers for CPR may be kept front of
house to be on hand quickly.
Assembling your first aid kit and training your employees will leave you in
excellent condition should an accident happen. Inevitably, one will, but with the
preparation you’ve accomplished, you’ll be able to handle it like a pro!

You have just finished reading the contents of this

chapter – First Aid Training Tips and Procedures:
The Basics!
To assess your level of understanding and comprehension,
you may now proceed to your “Assessment of Learning
Tasks and Worksheets” and answer the exercises on pages
21-22.
Good Luck!

Congratulations! You have just finished reading all

the contents of this module.
God bless and have a nice day!

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 Don Jose Ecleo Memorial Foundation College of
Science and Technology
Justiniana Edera, San Jose, Dinagat Province

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