EM

Tsun-Hsu Chang
Chapter 11: Radiation
11.1 Dipole Radiation 11.1.1 What is Radiation?
A charge at rest does not generate electromagnetic wave; nor
does a steady current. It takes accelerating charges, and/or
changing currents.
The purpose of this chapter is to show you how such
configurations produce electromagnetic wave.

How charges radiate? Consider Jefimenko’s equations.

1 ρ rˆ ρ rˆ J
E=
4πε 0 r [ 2
+ −
cr c r 2
]dτ ′
We won’t use these two equations.
Instead, we start from finding the
μ0 J 1 
B=  [
4π r 2 cr
+ J ] × ˆ
r d τ ′ vector and scalar potentials first.

ρ and J are responsible for electromagnetic radiation

(i.e., EM field at large distance).
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 11.1.2 Electric Dipole Radiation
Picture two tiny metal spheres separated by
a distance d and connected by a fine wire.
At time t the charge on the upper sphere is
+q(t), and the charge on the lower sphere is
−q(t). Suppose that q (t ) = q0 cos(ωt )

The result is an oscillating electric dipole:

p(t ) = q(t )dzˆ = q0 d cos(ωt )zˆ = p0 cos(ωt )zˆ , where p0 ≡ q0 d .

The retarded potential is:

1 ρ (r′, tr )
V (r, t ) =
4πε 0  r
dτ ′

1  q0 cos[ω (t − r+ / c)] q0 cos[ω (t − r− / c)] 

=  − 
4πε 0  r+ r− 
2
 Electric Dipole Radiation: Approximations
Approximation #1: Make this physical dipole into a perfect
dipole. d  r

Estimate the spearation distances by the law of cosines.

d
r± = r  rd cos θ + (d 2) ≅ r (1  cos θ )
2 2

2r
1 1 d
≅ (1 ± cos θ )
r± r 2r
r ωd
cos[ω (t − r± / c )] ≅ cos[ω (t − ) ± cos θ ]
c 2c
r ωd r ωd
= cos[ω (t − )]cos( cos θ )  sin[ω (t − )]sin( cos θ )
c 2c c 2c

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 The Retarded Scalar Potential
Approximation #2: The wavelength is much longer than the
dipole size. c λ
d = ω d
≈ cosθ
ω 2π ≈
1  2 c
 
r ωd r ωd
cos[ω (t − r± / c)] ≅ cos[ω (t − )]cos( cos θ )  sin[ω (t − )]sin( cos θ )
c 2c c 2c
r r ωd
= cos[ω (t − )]  sin[ω (t − )] cos θ
c c 2c
The retarded scalar potential is:
 r r ωd 1 d 
  cos[ ω (t − )] − sin[ ω (t − )] cos θ  (1 + cos θ ) 
q  c c 2c  r 2r 
V (r, t ) =  
4πε 0   r r ωd 1 d
− cos[ω (t − )] + sin[ω (t − )] cos θ  (1 − cos θ ) 
  c c 2c r 2r 
p0 cos θ  ω r 1 r 
≅  − sin[ ω (t − )] + cos[ω ( t − )] 
4πε 0 r  c c r c 
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 The Retarded Scalar Potential
1 ω
Approximation #3: at the radiation zone.  or r  λ
c r

The retarded scalar potential is:

p0 cos θ  ω r 
V (r, t ) ≅ −
 c sin[ω (t − ) 
4πε 0 r c 

Three approximations

λc ω 1
d r d  (= ) 
ω 2π c r

d λ r
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 The Retarded Vector Potential
The retarded vector potential is
determined by the current density.
dq
I (t ) = zˆ = −q0ω sin ωtzˆ
dt
μ0 J (r′, tr ) μ0 d /2 −qω sin[ω (t − r / c)]zˆ
A(r, t ) =
4π  r
dτ ′ = 
4π − d /2 r
dz
μ0 p0ω r @d  λ  r
≅− sin[ω (t − )]zˆ
4π r c
Retarded potentials:
p0ω cos θ r ∂A
V (r, t ) = − sin[ω (t − )] E = −∇V −
4πε 0c r c ∂t
μ0 p0ω r B = ∇× A
A(r, t ) = − sin[ω (t − )]zˆ
4π r c 6
 The Electromagnetic Fields and Poynting
Vector
2
∂A μ0 p0ω sin θ r ˆ
E = −∇V − =− ( ) cos[ω (t − )]θ
∂t 4πε 0c r c
2
μ0 p0ω sin θ r ˆ
B = ∇× A = − ( ) cos[ω (t − )]φ
4π c r c
2
1  2
μ0  p0ω sin θ r 
S= (E × B ) =  ( ) cos[ω (t − )] rˆ
μ0 c  4π r c 
The total power radiated is
2 4
μ0 p0 ω sin θ 2 2
< P >=  S ⋅ da = 
2
( ) r sin θ dθ d φ
32π c r
2 4
μ0 p0 ω
=
12π c
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 EM
11.1.3 Magnetic Dipole Radiation Tsun-Hsu Chang

Suppose we have a loop of radius b,

around which we drive an alternating
current.
I (t ) = I 0 cos ωt
This is a model for an oscillating
magnetic dipole,
2
m(t ) = π b I (t )zˆ = m0 cos ωtzˆ

The loop is uncharged, so the retarded scalar potential is

zero. V = 0
The retarded vector potential
μ0 J (r′, tr ) μ0 I 0 cos[ω (t − r / c)]
A(r, t ) =
4π  r
dτ ′ =
4π  r
dl ′
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 Retarded Vector Potential
with Three Approximations
μ0 J (r′, tr ) μ0 I 0 cos[ω (t − r / c)]
A(r, t ) =
4π  r
dτ ′ =
4π  r
dl ′

Approximation #1: Make this physical dipole into a perfect

dipole. br
Estimate the spearation distances by the law of cosines.
r = r + b − 2rb cosψ ,
2 2

where ψ is the angle between the vectors r and b:

rb cosψ = r ⋅ b = rb sin θ cos φ ′
b
r = r + b − 2rb sin θ cos φ ′ ≅ r (1 − sin θ cos φ ′)
2 2

r
1 1 b
≅ (1 + sin θ cos φ ′)
r r r
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 Retarded Vector Potential
with Three Approximations
r ωb
cos[ω (t − r / c )] = cos[ω (t − ) + sin θ cos φ ′]
c c
r ωb
= cos[ω (t − )]cos[ sin θ cos φ ′]
c c
r ωb
− sin[ω (t − )]sin[ sin θ cos φ ′]
c c

Approximation #2: The size of the dipole is small compared to

the wavelength radiated.
λ
c
b  (= )
ω 2π

r  ωb  r
cos[ω (t − r / c)] ≅ cos[ω (t − )] −  sin θ cos φ ′  sin[ω (t − )]
c  c  c

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 The Retarded Vector Potential
μ0 I 0b 2π
A(r, t ) = yˆ  {} cos φ ′dφ ′
4π r 0
r 1 r ω r 
{} = cos[ω (t − )] + b sin θ cos φ ′  cos[ω (t − )] − sin[ω (t − )] 
c r c c c 
The second-order term is dropped.

2π
The first term integrates to zero:  0
cos φ ′dφ ′ = 0
The second term involves the 2π
 cos φ ′dφ ′ = π
2
integral of cosine squared. 0

Putting this in, and noting that A points in the φ − direction.

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 The Retarded Vector Potential
The vector potential of an oscillating perfect magnetic dipole
is: μ0 m0 sin θ  1 r ω r ˆ
A(r, t ) =  cos[ω (t − )] − sin[ω (t − )] φ
4π r r c c c 
c
Approximation #3: at the radiation zone. r
ω
μ0 m0ω sin θ r ˆ
A(r, t ) = − sin[ω (t − )]φ
4π c r c

2
∂A μ0 m0ω sin θ r ˆ
E=− =− cos[ω (t − )]φ
∂t 4π c r c
2
μ0 m0ω sin θ r ˆ
B = ∇× A = − 2
cos[ω (t − )]θ
4π c r c

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 The Electromagnetic Fields and Poynting
Vector
2
∂A μ0 m0ω sin θ r ˆ
E=− =− cos[ω (t − )]φ
∂t 4π c r c
2
μ0 m0ω sin θ r ˆ
B = ∇× A = − 2
cos[ω (t − )]θ
4π c r c
2
1  2
μ0  m0ω sin θ r 
S= (E × B ) =  ( ) cos[ω (t − )] rˆ
μ0 c  4π c r c 
2 4
μ0 m0 ω
The total power radiated is: < P >=  S ⋅ da = 3
12π c
Pmagnetic 2
m0
= 2 2
 1 (Electric dipole radiation dominates)
Pelectric p0 c
Only when the system is carefully contrived to exclude any electric
contribution will the magnetic dipole radiation reveal itself.
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 Homework of Chap.11
Problem 11.1 Check that the retarded potentials of an oscillating dipole (Eqs. 11.12
and 11.17) satisfy the Lorenz gauge condition. Do not use approximation 3.

Problem 11.2 Equation 11.14 can be expressed in "coordinate-free" form by writing

p0cos θ = p0 ⋅ rˆ . Do so, and likewise for Eqs. 11.17, 11.18. 11.19, and 11.21.

Problem 11.5 Calculate the electric and magnetic fields of an oscillating magnetic
dipole without using approximation 3. [Do they look familiar? Compare Prob. 9.35.]
Find the Poynting vector, and show that the intensity of the radiation is exactly the
same as we got using approximation 3.

Problem 11.6 Find the radiation resistance (Prob. 11.3) for the oscillating magnetic
dipole in Fig. 11.8. Express your answer in terms of λ and b, and compare the
5 4
radiation resistance of the electric dipole. [Answer: 3 × 10 (b / λ ) Ω]

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