Module 3
UNIT 1: INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE
I.C. (Internal Combustion) Engine: It is a heat engine which converts the heat energy released by combustion
of fuel, which is taking place inside the engine cylinder into the mechanical work.
Classification of I.C Engine:
1. According to Thermodynamic Cycle:
• Otto Cycle Engine
• Diesel Cycle Engine
• Dual Combustion Cycle Engine
2. According to Type of Fuel:
• Petrol Engine
• Diesel Engine
• Gas Engine
• Biofuel Engine
3. According to Number of Strokes:
• Four Stroke Engine
• Two Stroke Engine
4. According to Method of Ignition:
• Spark Ignition Engine
• Compression Ignition Engine
5. According to Number of Cylinders:
• Single Cylinder Engine
• Multi Cylinder Engine
6. According to Position of Cylinder:
• Horizontal Engine
• Vertical Engine
• Vee Engine
• Opposed Cylinder Engine
• Radial Engine.
Petrol Engine
7. According to Method of Cooling:
• Air Cooled Engine
• Water Cooled Engine.
Components of I. C. Engine:
Diesel Engine
1. Cylinder: It is the heart of an engine. In cylinder the fuel is burnt and the power is developed. Inside
diameter of cylinder is called bore. Sleeve is fitted tightly in the cylinder to avoid wearing of cylinder block
because piston is reciprocating inside the cylinder.
2. Piston: It is a close fitting hollow cylinder plunger, which is moving To and FRO (reciprocating) in the
cylinder. The power developed by the combustion of fuel is transmitted by the piston to the crank-shaft
through connecting rod.
3. Piston Rings: These are the metallic rings inserted into the circumferential grooves provided at the top end
of the piston. These rings maintain a gas tight joint between the piston and the cylinder, while piston is
reciprocating with in the cylinder. They also help in conducting the heat from the piston to the cylinder.
4. Connecting Rod: It is a link which connects the piston and crankshaft by means of pin joints. It converts
rectilinear motion of piston into rotary motion of the crankshaft.
5. Crank & Crankshaft: Crank is a lever (rod) that is connected to the end of connecting rod by a pin joint
and its other end connected rigidly to a shaft and it is called crankshaft. Crank rotates about the axis of
crankshaft and causes the connecting rod to oscillate.
6. Valves: These are the devices which controls the flow of intake fuel to the cylinder and the exhaust
gases from the cylinder. These are also called as poppet valves. These valves are operated by means of
cams driven by the crankshaft through a timing gear or chain.
7. Flywheel: It is a heavy wheel mounted on the crankshaft of the engine to maintain uniform rotation of
the crankshaft.
8. Crankcase: It is the lower part of the engine serving as an enclosure for the crankshaft and also as a
sump for the lubricating oil.
I.C Engine Terminologies:
1. Stroke Length: It is the linear distance travelled by the piston, when it moves from one end of the
cylinder to the other end.
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑘𝑒 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝐿 = 2 × 𝐶𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘 𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 (𝑅)
2. Top Dead Centre (TDC): It is the extreme position of the piston near to the cylinder head.
3. Bottom Dead Centre (BDC): It is the extreme position of the piston near to crank.
Working Principle of Four Stroke Petrol (Spark Ignition) Engine:
1. Suction Stroke:
• During this stroke, the inlet valve is open and exhaust valve is closed.
• Piston moves from TDC to BDC and during this travel of piston, the crankshaft revolves by half
rotation.
• Energy required to perform this stroke is supplied by cranking for first cycle only, that is at the time
of starting.
• During running condition, the flywheel supplies the mechanical energy which it had absorbed
during the power stroke of the previous cycle.
• At the beginning of the suction stroke, the pressure in the cylinder head is atmospheric.
• The inlet valve opens, and simultaneously the piston moves from top dead centre to bottom dead
centre, this will result in decrease in pressure.
• Because of this difference in pressure, the air fuel mixture is drawn into the cylinder.
• At the end of the stroke, the cylinder is completely fill with air fuel mixture and inlet valve closes.
2. Compression Stroke:
• During compression stroke, both inlet and outlet valves are closed, and piston moves from bottom
dead centre to the top dead centre, Simultaneously the crankshaft revolves by half rotation.
• The energy required to perform this stroke is supplied by cranking at the time of starting only.
• During running of the engine the flywheel will supply the required mechanical energy.
• During performance of this stroke, the air fuel mixture is compressed and the compression ratio
ranges from 1:7 to 1:11.
• This compression is theoretically represented by isentropic compression process or adiabatic
compression process.
• At the end of this stroke, the air fuel mixture is ignited by the electric spark which is given out by
the spark plug, that is why the petrol engine is called as spark ignition engine.
• The combustion of fuel releases heat which will increase the pressure in the cylinder at constant
volume therefore theoretically it is called as constant volume heat edition process.
3. Power Stroke (Working Stroke):
• During power stroke, the inlet and outlet valves are closed, and piston moves from top dead
centre to the bottom dead centre, Simultaneously the crankshaft revolves by half a rotation.
• High pressure force generated during burning of fuel, pushes the piston from TDC to BDC,
Hence it is called as expansion or power stroke.
• Linear motion of the piston produces the mechanical work which will be transmitted to the
crankshaft through connecting rod and crank.
• As the piston moves towards the BDC, the pressure of the hot gas decreases hence it is called
as isentropic expansion or adiabatic expansion process.
• At the end of this stroke, the exhaust valve opens up and the exhaust gases goes out of the
cylinder, which will bring down the pressure in the cylinder to the atmospheric pressure.
• This drop in pressure happens at constant volume, hence it is called as constant volume heat
rejection process.
4. Exhaust Stroke:
• During exhaust stroke the outlet valve is open and the inlet valve is closed, and piston moves from
bottom dead centre to the top dead centre, simultaneously the crankshaft will revolve by half a rotation.
• Energy required to perform this stroke is supplied by the flywheel from the energy stored during the
previous power stroke.
• During the performance of this stroke, the exhaust gases are expelled out of the cylinder at atmospheric
pressure.
Working Principle of Diesel (Compression Ignition) Engine:
1. Suction Stroke:
• During suction stroke, the inlet valve is open and exhaust valve is closed, and piston moves
from TDC to BDC simultaneously the crank shaft is revolve by half rotation.
• Energy required to perform this stroke is supplied by cranking at the time of starting only.
• During running of the engine the flywheel will supply the required mechanical energy, which
it had absorbed during previous power stroke.
• At the beginning of the suction stroke, the pressure in the cylinder head is atmospheric.
• The inlet valve opens, and simultaneously the piston moves from top dead centre to bottom
dead centre, this will result in decrease in pressure.
• Because of this difference in pressure, the atmospheric air is drawn into the cylinder through
air filter and inlet valve.
• At the end of the stroke, the cylinder is completely fill with air fuel mixture and inlet valve
closes.
2. Compression Stroke:
• During compression stroke, both inlet and outlet valves are closed, and piston moves from bottom dead
centre to the top dead centre, Simultaneously the crankshaft revolves by half rotation.
• The energy required to perform this stroke is supplied by cranking at the time of starting only.
• During running of the engine the flywheel will supply the required mechanical energy, which it had
absorbed during previous power stroke.
• During performance of this stroke, the air is compressed and the compression ratio ranges from 1:20 to
1:22.
• This compression is theoretically represented by isentropic compression process or adiabatic
compression process.
• Compression of air molecules, gets heated up and its temperature increases.
• At the end of this stroke, precise quantity of diesel oil (fuel) is injected (sprayed) into the cylinder by fuel
injector.
• High temperature compressed air molecules, ignites the diesel oil, as soon as it is sprayed. Therefore it is
called auto ignition or self ignition or compression ignition.
3. Power Stroke:
• During power stroke, the inlet and outlet valves are closed, and piston moves from top dead centre to the
bottom dead centre, Simultaneously the crankshaft revolves by half a rotation.
• High pressure force generated during burning of fuel (Diesel Oil) which is auto ignited as it is released
by fuel injector, pushes the piston from TDC to BDC, Hence it is called as expansion or power stroke.
• Till the injection of fuel completes, the process follows at constant pressure.
• Linear motion of the piston produces the mechanical work which will be transmitted to the crankshaft
through connecting rod and crank.
• As the piston moves towards the BDC, the pressure of the hot gas decreases hence it is called as
isentropic expansion or adiabatic expansion process.
• At the end of this stroke, the exhaust valve opens up and the exhaust gases goes out of the cylinder,
which will bring down the pressure in the cylinder to the atmospheric pressure.
• This drop in pressure happens at constant volume, hence it is called as constant volume heat rejection
process.
4. Exhaust Stroke:
• During exhaust stroke the outlet valve is open and the inlet valve is closed, and piston moves from
bottom dead centre to the top dead centre, simultaneously the crankshaft will revolve by half a rotation.
• Energy required to perform this stroke is supplied by the flywheel from the energy stored during the
previous power stroke.
• During the performance of this stroke, the exhaust gases are expelled out of the cylinder at atmospheric
pressure.
Applications of IC Engines:
1. Automobiles: IC engines are the most common source for driving automobiles. Cars, bikes are propelled by
spark ignition IC engine, and it makes use of petrol as fuel. Heavy duty vehicles like trucks, buses and some
types of cars are propelled by compression ignition engine, and it makes use of diesel as fuel.
2. Power Generation: IC engines can be used to generate power in small capacities in stand-by power stations.
Four stroke diesel engines are used as the prime mover for the generation of electrical energy. Diesel power
engines are beneficial at places where demand of power is less or unavailable. Small capacity diesel power
generation sets finds applications in hospitals, business complexes, construction sites etc.
3. Agriculture: Diesel engines produce more torque (high power output) at low speeds, therefore they are
preferred for various agricultural applications. Diesel engine powered tractors helps in faster
ploughing/tilling, planting, and harvesting etc.
4. Marine and Aircraft Propulsion: Robustness, operating simplicity and fuel economy of diesel engines,
they are used to drive the ship’s propellers and move the ship through water. Small general aviation aircrafts
like sea plane, flight trainers, sports planes etc.
Comparison Between Petrol and Diesel Engine:
SL Petrol Engine Diesel Engine
No. (Spark Ignition Engine) (Compression Ignition Engine)
1 It works on otto cycle, which is also called as It works on diesel cycle, which is also called as
constant volume cycle. constant pressure cycle.
2 Petrol is used as fuel. Diesel is used as fuel.
3 Air and petrol (fuel) mixture is drawn during Only air is drawn during suction stroke.
suction stroke.
4 Low compression ratio, ranging from 1:7 to 1:11. High compression ratio, ranging from 1:20 to 1:22
5 Compressed air and petrol is ignited by spark Ignition of diesel is accomplished by compressed
plug. This type of ignition is called spark ignition. air which will be heated due to high compression, to
the temperature higher than ignition temperature of
diesel. This type of ignition is called as compression
ignition.
6 High engine speeds and low torque can be Low engine speed and high torque can be achieved.
achieved.
Performance of IC Engine:
1. Indicated Power: It is the power produced inside the cylinder.
For Four Stroke Engine:
𝑷𝒎 𝑳𝑨𝑵
𝑰𝑷 = …….in Watts. 𝑷𝒎 = 𝑴𝒆𝒂𝒏 𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆,
𝟐×𝟔𝟎
L = Stroke Length, A = Area of Cylinder,
N = Revolutions of Crankshaft per unit time.
For Two Stroke Engine:
𝑷𝒎 𝑳𝑨𝑵
𝑰𝑷 = ………in Watts.
𝟔𝟎
2. Brake Power: It is the net power available at the crankshaft and is measured by applying the brake and therefore
called brake power.
𝟐𝝅𝑵𝑻
𝑩𝑷 = ………..in Watts T = Torque, W = Load applied on Brake drum
𝟔𝟎
𝑻=𝑾×𝑹 ………..in N-m R = Radius of Brake Drum
3. Frictional Power: It is the difference between indicated power and brake power.
𝑭𝑷 = 𝑰𝑷 − 𝑩𝑷 ……..in Watts.
4. Mechanical Efficiency: It is the ratio of brake power to the indicated power.
𝑩𝑷
η𝒎𝒆𝒄𝒉 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑰𝑷
5. Brake Thermal Efficiency: It is the ratio of brake power to the heat supplied by the fuel.
𝑩𝑷
η𝑩𝑷 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒍 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎 CV = Calorific Value,
𝑪𝑽×𝒎
m = mass flow rate of fuel in Kg/s
6. Indicated Thermal Efficiency: It is the ratio of indicated power to the heat supplied by the fuel.
𝑰𝑷
η𝑰𝑷 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒍 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑪𝑽×𝒎
Module 3
UNIT 2: REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING
Refrigeration: It is a method of reducing the temperature of a system below that of the surroundings and maintains it
at the lower temperature by continuously abstracting the heat from it.
Principle of Refrigeration:
• In refrigeration, the heat is removed continuously from a system at lower temperature and transfer it to the
surroundings at higher temperature.
• This operation can only be performed by the aid of some external work and it is according to 2nd law of
thermodynamics as shown in figure.
• Hence in refrigerator system, power is to be supplied continuously from the refrigerator cabinet to keep
it cool at a temperature less than the atmospheric temperature.
Commonly Used Refrigerants and Their Properties:
1. Ammonia: Ammonia is used as a refrigerant in vapour absorption refrigeration systems.
Properties of Ammonia:
• It has high latent heat (1300 KJ/Kg at -15 C) and low specific volume (0.509 𝑚3 /Kg at -15 C).
• It produces high refrigeration effects even in small refrigerators.
• Since ammonia will not harm ozone, it is environment friendly.
• It is widely used in cold storage, ice making plants etc.
• It is toxic, flammable, irritating and food destroying properties makes it unsuitable for domestic refrigerators.
2. Carbon Dioxide: It is used as a refrigerant in marine refrigerators.
Properties of Carbon Dioxide:
• Efficiency of a refrigerator is low, when carbon dioxide is used as a refrigerator. Therefore it is rarely used in
domestic refrigerators.
• It is colourless, odourless, non-toxic, non-inflammable, and non-corrosive.
• It is used in dry ice making plants.
3. Sulphur Dioxide: It is used as a refrigerant in domestic refrigerator.
Properties of Sulphur Dioxide:
• It has better thermodynamic properties.
• It has a low refrigerating effect and high specific volume.
• Since it combines with water to form sulfhurous and sulfhuric acid, which are corrosive to the
metals.
4. Methyl Chloride: It is used as a refrigerant in domestic and small scale refrigerator earlier.
Properties of Sulphur Dioxide:
• It will burn under some conditions and slightly toxic.
5. Freon: It is used universally as a refrigerant in domestic refrigerator.
Properties of Freon:
• It is colourless, odourless, non toxic, non inflammable, non explosive and non corrosive.
• It will destruct the environment (Ozone depletion).
Working Principle of Vapour Compression Refrigeration (VCR) System:
• Refrigerant at low pressure and low temperature passing in the evaporator coiled tubes absorbs the heat from the
contents in the freezing compartments and evaporates. This in turn lowers the temperature in the freezing
compartments.
• This evaporated refrigerant at low pressure is drawn by the compressor, which compresses the refrigerant to high
pressure, so that saturation temperature of the refrigerant corresponding to the high pressure is higher than the
temperature of the atmospheric air in the condenser, so that the high pressure and temperature vapours can reject
heat in the condenser and be ready to expand in the throttle valve to evaporator pressure again.
• The high pressure and temperature refrigerant flows from compressor to the condenser, where it gives off its latent
heat in the condenser and the refrigerant condenses.
• The high pressure condensed liquid refrigerant at room temperature now flows to the throttle valve and expands to
lower pressure and then passes to the evaporator coils for recirculation once again.
Air Conditioning: It is the process of providing cool indoor atmosphere at all times regardless of weather
conditions needed either for human comfort or industrial purposes by artificially cooling, humidifying, de-
humidifying, cleaning and recirculating the surrounding air.
Working Principle of Room Air Conditioner:
• The high pressure, low temperature liquid refrigerant
from the condenser is passed to the evaporator coils
through the capillary tube where it undergoes expansion.
• The low pressure, low temperature liquid refrigerant
passes through the evaporator coils.
• The evaporator fan continuously draws the air from interior space within the room through an air filter by forcing
it pass over the evaporator coils.
• The air from interior space passing over the evaporator coils is cooled by the refrigerant which consequently
evaporates by absorbing the heat from air.
• The high temperature evaporated refrigerant from evaporator is drawn by the suction of the compressor, which
compresses it and delivers it to the condenser coils.
• The high pressure and temperature refrigerant vapour now flows through the condenser coils.
• The condenser fan draws atmospheric air from the exposed portion of the air conditioner which is projecting
outside the building into the space behind it and discharges to pass through the center section of the condenser
unit over the condenser coils.
• The high pressure, high temperature refrigerant passing inside the condenser coils, condenses by giving off the
heat to the atmospheric air.
• The cooled high pressure refrigerant from the condenser passes through the capillary tube where it expands and
recirculated again to repeat the cycle.